Running head: STRESS

Stress: What Causes the Memories to Stick?

Kelsey Dysinger
Ferris State University

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Table of Contents
Abstract3
Introduction..4
Stress Basics.4
Fight or flight Response...4
Stressors...6
Factors affecting Stress6
Time Stress Occurs..6
Stress and Memory..7
Conclusion...9
References......10

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Abstract
The stress response of the body has many factors involved. Some of the most influential may be
the time in which the stressor occurred and the emotion of the memories involved. The stress
response can be trigged by any perceived stressor as well as happy stressors in life. This paper
presents some basics of the stress response as well as how and why other factors are involved.

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Stress: What Causes the Memories to Stick?

Stress is something that everyone experiences. Stress is defined as a state of mental or

emotional strain or tension resulting from adverse or very demanding circumstances (Oxford
Dictionaries, 2013). It causes both a physical and emotional response of the body. How stress is
managed, how a person reacts to the stressor, when the stressor occurs, as well as memories
involved can all affect the response of the body and what stress can do.
The body has a complex reaction to stressors in life affecting almost all of the body systems.
Small things like a startling noise or bigger situations like exams or getting married are things
that can cause the stress response in the body.
Research has shown that the memories involved with the stress as well as the time in life in
which that stress occurs can make a difference in future reactions and how stressors are handled.
The basics of the stress reactions are presented along with reasoning why people have such
different experiences with stress and the bodys stress response.
Stress Basics
When the body reacts to a stressor, the central nervous system (CNS) kicks in. The
central nervous system can be broken down into two different systems as shown in figure 1. One
is the sympathetic nervous system (SNS) and the other is parasympathetic nervous system
(PNS). The sympathetic nervous system is triggered when there is a stressor. This response is
also known as the fight or flight response and is triggered automatically. Along with the physical
reactions that take place in the body, there are also a series of chemical reactions, as shown in
figure 2, that effect how the stress is later perceived. The chemical response is quite complex but
presented at a basic level.
Fight or flight Response
The fight or flight response is often explained by how the body reacts in a life or death
situation. The example often provided is how the body reacts when it is faced with a bear. The
body goes through a series of chemical reactions that allows it to survive the situation. The
bodys reactions lead to a faster heart rate, more blood flow to the cardiac and respiratory
systems, and keen senses such as eye sight and hearing. Other body systems involved that might
not be so obvious are the immune system, metabolism, the skin, and fluid shifting throughout the
body. Areas that wont be needed such as the digestive system become less active as blood shifts

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reactions

Figure 1. Image displaying body

of the sympathetic and
parasympathetic nervous systems.
Adapted from Sympathetic vs.
Parasympathetic organ effects, by
Otto, B. 2011, EMS Basics. Retrieved
from
http://emsbasics.com/2011/03/31/drugfamilies-stimulants-anddepressants/sympatheticparasympathetic/

Figure 2. Basic picture of chemicals released during

stress. Adapted from Effects of stress throughout the
lifespan on the brain, behaviour and cognition by
Sonia J. Lupien, Bruce S. McEwen, Megan R.
Gunnar and Chistine Heim, 2009, Nature Reviews
Neuroscience, 10, p. 435. Copyright 2009 by
Macmillan Publishers Limited.

to the more needed areas such as the muscles for speed

and endurance. These reactions are preparing the
body to defeat the bear and are embedded responses in the body.

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Stressors
Situations that cause the stress response are known as stressors. Stressors can be
physical, psychological, external, or internal (University of Maryland Medical Center, 2013).
Physical stressors can be both external and internal. An example of a physical external stressor
is something such as a pain coming from touching something hot; whereas an internal example
of a physical stressor would be an illness such as the flu. Psychological stressors can also be
both external and internal. An internal psychological stressor would be worrying about
something, and an external psychological example would be a physical abuse (University of
Maryland Medical Center, 2013). Although the stress isnt always a life or death situation, the
body still reacts the same way. The reaction, if prolonged, is where chronic stress takes a toll on
the body and can have negative side effects.
Stress is often thought of as a negative, but stressors can be positive as well. Major life
events such as having a baby, getting married or even having a party can cause the body to go
through to same reactions as it does with negative stress.
Factors Affecting Stress
As mentioned earlier, many factors affect how the body reacts to stress. The time in life
at which the stress occurs and memory are two factors that will be discussed in greater detail.
Other factors, including how the stress is managed, genders and sex, and the outcome of that
stress all take part in how the body reacts as well as recovers from the stressor.
Time Stress Occurs
A series of chemical reactions in the body take place and lead to the release of
glucocorticoids. Cortisol is the most common glucocorticoid and is known widely because it is a
steroid. These chemicals released in the body are related to more than just weight gain the
steroids are known to cause.
The review, Effects of stress throughout the lifespan on the brain, behavior and cognition
states that, Receptors for these steroids are expressed throughout the brain; they can act as
transcription factors and so regulate gene expression. Thus, glucocorticoids can have potentially
long-lasting effects on the functioning of the brain regions that regulate their release (Gunnar,
Heim Lupien, & McEwen, 2009).

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The glucocorticoids play a very important role in the maturation of the brain. both
suppressed and elevated glucocorticoid levels impair brain development and functioning
(Gunnar, Heim Lupien, & McEwen, 2009). This information can help explain why the body
remembers stressful events, both good and bad, and further explains how the time in life in
which it happens can be crucial. Gunnar, Heim Lupien, & McEwen (2009) found that:
Studies in animals and humans have shown that during both early childhood and old age
the brain is particularly sensitive to stress, probably because it undergoes such important
changes during these periods. Furthermore, research now relates exposure to early-life
stress with increased reactivity to stress and cognitive deficits in adulthood, indication
that the effects of stress at different periods of life interact. (p. 434)
The exact reasoning for these findings is unknown, but the findings can help explain why
everyone has different reactions to stress, how they handle it, and what it can do to the body.
The relationship between the time in life and stress helps us understand why kids,
especially at certain ages, are prone to developing issues later in life. If the children are
experiencing stressful situations such as a parental divorce or death of someone close to them,
they are at an increased risk to have later life issues or current behaviors.
Stress and Memory
The level of glucocorticoids also has a strong relationship with memory. Stress can either
impair or heighten ones of memory of a situation. Studies are showing that different memories
are remembered differently depending on the emotion involved. Areas of the brain and certain
chemical interactions are responsible for this and the way things are remembered.
Some people can recall what they were doing on September, 11th with vivid detail.
Others may have vivid memory about a day when their sports team had an amazing comeback.
Oftentimes people are able to remember minute details of when something significant has
happened in their world.
This is discussed at length in the article Stress, memory and the amygdala. The authors
discuss how Findings indicate that stress hormones and stress activated neurotransmitters
enhance the consolidation of memory for emotionally arousing experiences through actions
involving the amygdala (Chattarji, McEwen, & Roozendaal, 2009). The key to that previous
statement is emotionally arousing. If a person is not emotionally interested in the experience
that is happening they will not have the same reaction. This can be proven in with the previous
sport team example. Someone who is not a sport fan could have a much different memory than
the one who is emotionally invested.

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The amygdala also affects a persons memory with long-term exposure to certain events.
This is evident in people who suffer from post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). This is most
prevalent among soldiers. During tours of duty they are chronically exposed to stressful
experiences. Chattarji, McEwen, & Roozendaal (2009) found that:
Animal models indicate that acute and chronic stress induce long-term functional and
morphological alterations in specific amygdala nuclei, together with associated changes
in other brain regions such as the hippocampus and the prefrontal cortex, which might
underlie the cognitive changes, increases in anxiety-like behavior and mood alterations
that are found in these conditions. (p. 422)

Picture sitting in a college lecture hall taking the final exam in a difficult class when the
teacher says, annoyed with the amount of people that are still taking the exam, 30 minutes left.
Looking down, the realization that only 25 out of the 75 total questions have been answered sets
in. Not only is the amount of stress already high from the exam it is now heightened again.
Looking back down the exam now looks to be written in a foreign language. Forgetting
everything that has been studied, it is necessary to finish the exam in a panic. This is stress has
affects memory in a negative way. The brain not functioning properly is also explained by
Chattarji, McEwen, & Roozendaal (2009):
stress exposure can induce amygdala activation, in concert with excitatory and
inhibitory effects on other brain regions, to create a brain state that on the one hand
promotes the long-term storage of memories of these emotionally arousing events and
thus preserves significant information, but on the other hand impairs memory retrieval
and working memory. (p. 427)
In a study looking at how cortisol affects long-term memory after psychosocial stress, it
was found that increased cortisol can impact memory retrieval in a negative way. Elzinga,
Everaerd, Spinhoven, & Tollenaar, (2008) wrote that:
During the stress task, when sympathetic activity was enhanced, impaired retrieval of
both neutral and emotional words was significantly related to enhanced cortisol response.
In contrast, after the stress task, when cortisol levels were still increased but sympathetic
activity was low again, no association was found between cortisol increase and retrieval
of either neutral or emotional material. (p. 542)
In contrast, Wolf (2008) wrote that glucocorticoid levels can enhance memory retrieval
for days or weeks. It was found more likely to be remembered if it was emotionally arousing. In
summary, Wolf found that glucocorticoids impair, Declarative long-term memory acquisition
and immediate recall, Declarative long-term memory retrieval, and Working (short-term)
memory, but Enhance Declarative long term memory consolidation (2008). Therefore, stress
can either impair or enhance memory depending of the type that it is and the emotions involved.
Conclusion

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In conclusion, there are so many factors that contribute the bodys reaction to stress.
Among the most interesting factors, the time in which the stressor occurs in life and how the
body was emotionally attached can play a major role in the response of the brain. More research
needs to be done to uncover the exact mechanisms that cause some reactions, but here it is found
that structural changes can actually occur in the brain is exposed to prolonged stress. It was also
found that stress can either impair or enhance memory. What the stress means, if it was
emotionally arousing or not, can also affect how the body responds the stressor.

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References
Chattarji, S., McEwen, B. S., & Roozendaal, B. (2009). Stress, memory and the amygdala.
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80aeeb5bda638482c11e
Discovery of two opposite ways humans voluntarily forget unwanted memories. (2012, October
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836fcdaebd1e7faa2c
Elzinga, B. M., Everaerd, W. A. M., Spinhoven, P. & Tollenaar, M. S. (2008). The effects of
cortisol increase on long-term memory retrieval during and after acute psychosocial
stress. Acta Psychologica. 127, 542-552. doi: 10.1016/j.actpsy.2007.10.007 The effects
Gunnar, M. R., Heim, C., Lupien, S. J., & McEwen, B. S. (2009). Effects of stress throughout
the lifespan on the brain, behaviour and cognition. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 10(6),
434+. Retrieved from http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?id=GALE
%7CA201086872&v=2.1&u=lom_ferrissu&it=r&p=AONE&sw=w&asid=7df3cc51a97b
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Herman, J. P., & Ulrich-Lai, Y. M. (2009). Neural regulation of endocrine and autonomic stress
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9419211e80b7a9cdaba2

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