Lecture 5: Singapore Soils and Soil Erosion

Topics covered in Lecture 5

What is natural soil? What is urban soil?

Soil formation
Factors determining its formation
Characteristics of soil
Soil classification
Soils and soil erosion in Singapore

Basic concepts What is soil?

Bedrock: the unaltered
rock below the regolith
Regolith: the loose unconsolidated rock.
Soil: The loose surface layer
of earth that supports the
growth of vegetation.

(after Strahler and Strahler, 1992)

Basic concepts What is soil?

Soil profiles: a vertical cross section through the

soil. Sequence of layers of soils.
Horizons: distinctive layers of soil, approximately
parallel to the surface of the ground that has its
own distinctive characteristics due to soil-forming
processes.

Typical soil profile

O: Fresh to partly decomposed

organic matter
A: Mineral soil mixed with humus;
dark colored.
E: Zone of leaching of clay, iron, and
aluminum, leaving residual minerals
such as quartz in sand and silt.
Lighter color than A.
B: Zone of accumulation of clay,
iron, and aluminum. Colors more
intense than overlying and
underlying layers.
C: Relatively unweathered
unconsolidated minerals. Much less
biological activity. May be stained
by oxides.

(after Srahler and Strahler, 1992)

Learn this

Examples of soils from Singapore

Ultisol

Oxysol

Inceptisol

Source: http://courses.soil.ncsu.edu/ssc570/student_projects/571_web_page/profiles.htm
http://www.uwsp.edu/geo/faculty/ritter/geog101/textbook/soil_systems/Soil_orders_p2.html

Soil formation - Weathering

Physical (disintegration of original rock)

Chemical (decomposition of original rock)

Biological (decomposition of original rock)

Soil formation Physical (or mechanical) weathering

Disintegration caused by imposed stresses on rock.
Alternate temperatures (heating and cooling)
Alternate wetting and drying
Plant roots

Plant roots
Exfoliated granite
boulder, P. Tioman

Weathering on top of Bukit Timah

A combination of physical, chemical and biological weathering on a

core boulder of Bukit Timah Granite

Soil formation Chemical weathering

The alteration of the chemical and mineralogical
composition of the weathered material.

Solution, Hydration, Hydrolysis

Oxidation/reduction
Carbonation
Role of temperature (reaction rate) and water
(catalyst).

Chemical weathering of Bukit Timah Granite

Core boulders

Chemically weathered granite

Dairy Farm Quarry: granite outcrop
Relict granite
boulders

Disintegrated granite debris,

Mainly resistant quartz after
feldspars and biotite have
decomposed and the resultant
clays have been washed away

Granite boulder excavated from acid soil

Non-porous
fresh granite

Hard

Progressive chemical weathering of Bukit Temah Granite (Wallace Env Centre)

Feldspars
weathered out

Crumbly

Transition

Hard

Permeable
granite

Chemical weathering of Bukit Timah granite

Acid rain + granite = clay
Potassium feldspar (in
granite)
During hydrolysis hydrogen
ions react with and replace
positive ions in potassium
feldspar
The result is clay minerals and
substances in solution such as
potassium and silica.
Clays are transported away &
deposited as mud
Resistant quartz transported
away and deposited as sand

Soil formation Biological weathering

Biological agents are organisms like bacteria, plants and
animals;
Breaking of particles and mixing of materials by animals;

Chemical processes like solution can be enhanced by the

carbon dioxide produced by respiration;
Organisms can influence the pH of the soil solution;
Chelation : a biological process where organism produce
organic substances that have the ability to decompose
minerals and rocks: e.g. humic and fulvic acids

Biological weathering in soils

Much more potent than acid rain

From decomposed plants

From decomposed animals

Biological activity in soil

Root hair

An illustration of soil biology. A=Amoeba consuming bacteria; BL=Energy

limited bacteria; BU=Non-energy limited bacteria; RC=Root derived carbon; SR=Sloughed
root hair cells; F=Fungal hyphae; N=Nematode worm

Giri, B.; Giang, P. H.; Kumari, R.; Prasad, R.; Varma, A. (2005). "Microbial Diversity in
Soils". Microorganisms in Soils: Roles in Genesis and Functions. Soil Biology.

What is soil made up of?

Solid: inorganic (mineral)
and organic materials.
Liquid: water but with
various ions (soil
solution).
Gases: atmospheric gases
and the gases liberated by
biological activity and
chemical reactions within
soil.

What is soil made up of ?

Let us look in closer :
Primary minerals: the original silicate minerals of igneous
rock (quartz, feldspar, mica, hornblende, pyroxene).
Secondary minerals: mainly clay minerals (vermiculite,
illite, kaolinite, limonite, hematite, gibbsite Al(OH)3
boehmite -AlO(OH), and diaspore -AlO(OH))
The relative mobility of the major constitutes released
during weathering:
Ca2+ > Mg2+ > Na+ > K+ > Fe2+ > Si4+ > Fe3+ > Al3+

Soil gases
Nitrogen (N2): 79%
Oxygen (O2): 20%
Carbon dioxide
(CO2): 0.25% (much
higher than in air)
Other gases:
methane, ethane,
hydrogen sulfide
and nitrous oxide.

Carbon dioxide has direct

reactions affecting clay
minerals and carbonate
minerals in soil because of
(Carbonic acid)

H2O + CO2 H2CO3

H- + HCO3-

Soil properties
Physical properties: soil color, bulk density, soil
texture, soil structure, soil water, aeration,
compaction, soil drainage etc.
Chemical properties: soil nutrients, cation exchange,
soil pH etc.
Biological properties: soil organisms, carbon cycle,
nitrogen cycle, rhizosphere (the biologically active
layer).

Source: http://www.cspoutdoors.com/munsoilcolch.html

Soil properties physical properties

Soil color: determined by standard color chart (Munsell).
Bulk density: mass of a unit volume of dry soil.
Soil texture: determined by % of sand, silt and clay.
Soil structure: presence of aggregations (lumps or
clusters) of soil particles.

Soil properties chemical properties

Soil colloids: very fine clay (<0.01 microns or 0.0001 mm).
Colloids are chemically active because of their great
surface area.
Cation exchange: the substitution of one cation for another
of a different element in a mineral structure.
CEC (Cation Exchange Capacity): the capacity of a given
quantity of soil to hold and exchange cations.

These surfaces characteristically carry negative and/or positive charges that influence
the attraction and repulsion of the particles toward each other and that attract (adsorb)
swarms of ions of the opposite charge along with numerous water molecules.
The adsorbed ions are subject to exchange with plant roots thereby providing plants
with most of their essential mineral elements.

Kaolinite clay plates

Cations important
to plant nutrients:
Calcium Ca2+
Magnesium Mg2+
Potassium K+
Sodium Na+
(Source:
http://faculty.yc.edu/ycfaculty/ags105/week08/soil_colloids/soil_colloids_print.html)

Soil classification systems

FAO/UNESCO (1974): The Soil Map of the World
US Dept of Agric Soil Survey Staff (1975): Soil Taxonomy

Soil orders in the second Soil Taxonomy (1999)

Gelisols: soils with permafrost within 2 m of the surface

Histosols: thick layer of organic matters
Spodosols: cold, moist climates
Andisols: soils formed in volcanic cash
Oxisols: (sub)tropical, highly weathered
Vertisols: (sub)tropical with very high clay
Aridisols: dry climates
Ultisols: (sub)tropical
Mollisols: semiarid and subhumid
Alfisols: humid and subhumid climates
Inceptisols: weakly developed horizons
Entisols: soil lacking horizons

http://www.uwsp.edu/geo/faculty/ritter/geog101/textbook/soil_systems/soil_orders_p1.html

Utisol: Most common natural soil in Singapore

Ultisols (from Latin ultimus, "last") are strongly leached, acid forest soils with relatively low
native fertility. They are found primarily in humid temperate and tropical areas, typically on
older, stable landscapes. Intense weathering of primary minerals has occurred, and much Ca,
Mg, and K has been leached from these soils. Ultisols have a subsurface horizon in which clays
have accumulated, often with strong yellowish or reddish colors resulting from the presence of
Fe oxides. (On Bukit Timah Granite and Gombak Gabbro)

Minerals + humus

Oxidation
Accumulation of clay,
Fe and Al

http://soils.cals.uidaho.edu/soilorders/i/worldorders.jpg

Oxisol
Oxisols (from French oxide, "oxide") are very highly weathered soils that are found
primarily in the inter-tropical regions of the world. These soils contain few weatherable
minerals and are often rich in Fe and Al oxide minerals. Note the organic layer.

http://soils.cals.uidaho.edu/soilorders/i/worldorders.jpg

Organic-rich

Mins + organics

Clay + Fe + Al
accumulation

Inceptisol
Inceptisols (from Latin inceptum, "beginning") are soils that exhibit minimal horizon
development. They lack the features that are characteristic of other soil orders. They are found
on steep slopes, young geomorphic surfaces, and on resistant parent materials (eg. Jurong Fm,
sandstone ridges).

http://soils.cals.uidaho.edu/soilorders/i/worldorders.jpg

Entisols formed on Pulau Tekong landfill

Pioneer grasses have

taken root in the
loose sand. There
has not been enough
time for soil horizons
to form yet

Soils and Singapore

What is the role of soil in Singapore?
To support vegetation growth, though less
agriculture.
Horticulture
(landscape gardening, re-vegetation, Singapore Garden City)
Catchment protection/water retension
Soils on reclaimed land

Slope protection

Bukit Timah Granite: Dairy Farm Quarry

10 m

Soil
Rock

Oxisols formed on Bukit Timah Granite

Soil-forming conditions in Singapore

Humid tropical climate (hot and wet)
Deeply weathered mantle down to 50m
Rapid decomposition of organic matter
Intense biological activity

Litter layer

Oxisol

Ultisol
Deep Fe-Al weathering of Bukit Temah
Granite with
the formation of core-stones
granite

Soils in Singapore natural soils

Sedimentary rocks (e.g. Jurong Formation)
Fined grained sedimentary mudstones contain a lot of
weatherable clay minerals.
End up as oxisols or ultisols.
Coarse grained sedimentary sandstone and conglomerate rocks
with siliceous cement and quartzite will have slow weathering
rates.
Inceptisols form on steep slopes along the flanks of ridges.
Soils formed on the sides of Jurong Formation sandstone ridges
are very prone to slope failure.
Heavily leached soils with very low cation exchange capacity .

Soils in Singapore natural soils

Alluvial material (e.g. Old and New Alluvium)
Old Alluvium is the second youngest geological formation in
Singapore (1-2 Ma).
Semi-lithified sedimentary material.
Dominated by quartz, low intensity of weathering.
High sand content on the surface (coarse texture) with increasing
amounts of clays as you go deeper.
Generally, thicker soil profile compared to other major soil series.
Oxysols & utisols

Oxisols: Chemical weathering

down to ~20 m

(Cai, 2012)

(Hougang)

Soil Map 1975

Soil Map of Singapore, Ives (1977)

Geology Map of Singapore

Punggol Point
Pulau Tekong
s

P. Ubin
s

Murai
Slate

KEY
Recent alluvium
and land-fill

Kent Ridge
Sentosa
North

Old Alluvium
St Johns Is

10 km scale

Jurong Formation

Andesitic volcanics (v)

+ Sajahat Fm sediments (s)
Granite

Geology after Lee and Zhou (2009)

Gabbro

(Granite)

(In between)
(Gabbro)

(Mudstone)

(Sandstone)

(Mixed)

(Old
Alluvium)

In the Central Library

(Young
Alluvium)

Soils in Singapore characteristics of natural soils

Mineralogy: mainly quartz (Wells, 1977), very little feldspar

Particle size distribution: mostly sand and clay-sized particles

Soil structure: best aggregation is with igneous rocks.

Hydrological properties: generally quite high permeability 1-16x10-5 cm/hr

Moisture retention: generally dont stay saturated.

Soil chemistry: oxidised, acidic soils, lowest pH is at the surface horizon, pH

increases with depth.
Cation Exchange Capacity is very low. Youngest soils have lowest CEC.
Poor nutrient content. Heavily leached, low organic matter, compacted.
Fertility quickly exhausted by agriculture.

Soils in Singapore reality

Our soils are highly modified.
Usually consists of B or C horizon soil mixed
with construction debris + imported soil
(imported soil which is from some
subsurface horizon or mixed with sludge,
organic debris)

Clayey soils are common in Singapore

Water logged when wet, hard when dry.

Reworked urban soils

Organic Litter
Clay

Trench in front of NUS Geography Department:

Anthrosols: reworked natural soils

Landuse

Readings
Basic reading:
Chapter 3 Thomas, GSP (1991) Geology and Geomorphology, The Biophysical
Environment of Singapore. Pg 74-83.

--*Ch. 4. Rahman (1991). Soils, The Biophysical Environment of Singapore.

Read entire chapter. Quite technical in parts.
--Jim CY. 1998.Urban soil characteristics and limitations for landscape planting
in Hong Kong. Landscape and Urban Planning.
In-depth reading:
--Ch. 5. Rahman. Soils of Singapore. In Gupta and Pitts. 1992. Physical
adjustments in a Changing Landscape.
--Craul PJ. 1992. Urban Soil in Landscape Design. John Wiley & Sons.

Slope hydrological processes

Interception
Through fall
Stem flow
Infiltration
Evapotranspiration
Depression storage
Overland flow
(surface runoff)
Subsurface flow

Soil erosion on slopes

Normal slope erosion: the slow
removal of soil (part of the natural
geologic process of landmass
denudation)
erosion rates < soil formation rates
(geological norm)
Accelerated slope erosion: speed up
by human activities or by rare natural
events (forest fire, landslide)

When erosion rates > soil

formation rates = soil erosion

Rainsplash
Slope wash
(sheet flow)
Rills
Gullies

Rain splash
Raindrops possess kinetic energy
by virtue of their mass and
velocity;
Both slope gradient and surface
characteristics influence the
effectiveness of rain splash
erosion;
Rain splash is most effective
when it is combined with slope
wash;
Rain splash can create a thin
surface crust which contributes
to slope wash by lowering
infiltration capacity.

Slope wash
Sheet flow : the
movement of water
across a slope
surface. It can move
clay, silt, sand or
gravel particles.
Concentrated
overland flow erodes
rills and gullies

Concentrated flow

Rills
Sustained
concentrated flow
can produce rills,
microchannels a few
cm in depth and
width;
Rills often occurs on
steep slopes with
poor vegetative
cover.

Gully erosion: Dover

Crescent/Dover Rd.
People taking a short cut

Gullies

Gullies form a permanent part of a

channel network. Gullies are more
fluvial than slope.

Soil erosion quantifications

Hard to quantify
because of the slow
process
Little information
compared to rivers

Erosion pins & tree

roots
Erosion plots
Erosion model:
Universal Soil Loss
Equation (USLE)

Erosion pins
Erosion pins measure
soil surface level
changes.
Pins can be made of
materials which will not
rot or decay.

Tree roots
Measuring the height of the
exposed tree/crop roots;
Estimating the age of the trees
from tree-ring counts.

Erosion plots
A bounded small
area with various
sizes
Small watershed

Universal Soil Loss Equation (USLE)

A= R*K*LS*C*P (Wischmeier and Smith, 1958; 1978) for
agricultural land.
A: annual soil loss per unit area
R: rainfall factor measuring the erosive potential of average annual
rainfall
K: soil erodibility factor
L and S: geomorphic factors of slope length (L) and slope inclination (S)
C: cropping factor or vegetation cover
P: soil conservation factor.

The factors influencing soil erosion

R: Rainfall (erosivity)

Amount of rainfall
Intensity of rainfall
K: Soils (erodibility)

Soil texture
Organic matter
Soil structures
Compaction

LS: Terrain

Slope angle
Slope length
Slope forms
C: Vegetation

Type
Canopy cover
Ground cover
P: Soil conservation
factor

Soil erosion in Singapore

Urbanization stages: Wolman (1967) proposed threephase of urbanization:
an initial undisturbed forest
an intermediate stage of urban construction
a fully urbanized region

Brief overview of soil erosion under the 3 different land

uses
Soil erosion in nature reserves
Soil erosion in construction sites
Soil erosion in urban areas

Soil erosion in the nature reserves

Rainforest at Bukit Timah:

Canopy 25-34 m high

Sub-canopy 5-20 m
Shrub layer
Leaf litter thickness is 2-3
cm

Splash as main
erosion form
Stemflow can trigger
overland flow
Erosion on trails

Soil erosion on Bukit Timah

Secondary forest
on Bukit Timah

Start of erosion
along a footpath

Continued erosion
along a footpath has
formed a new stream
bed! Bukit Timah Nature
Reserve is now closed for
repairs (i.e. insertion of
board walks)

A trail in Bukit Timah

Nature Reserve

Steps on the footpath slows erosion, still becomes a stream bed.

Soil erosion in construction sites

Heavy compaction
Loose materials
Long duration
Rills
Regulation in Singapore:
PUBs code: 50 mg
sediment per liter (50 mg/l)
of run-off water. Is it too
high or too low?

NUS

NUS

Soil erosion in urban areas

Engineered slopes
Green areas along roads
At bus stops
Barren short cut trails
Underneath heavy canopy trees

Erosion on engineered slopes

Heavy compaction
Removal of top soils
Steep slopes
Impact of trees
Gillman Heights

Erosion on green belts & at bus stops

(no tree protection)

AYE Express

Bus stop in NUH Food Enclave

 Grass cover: around 40%

Poor grass & erosion patches: 5-10%

Effects of soil erosion

On-site effects: loss of
soil deteriorates soil
quality and hence poor
vegetation;
Off-site effects:
siltation/sedimentation,
water quality (fresh and
coast water and marine
environment etc).
Siltwater treatment facility in the Singapore River

How to minimise soil erosion?

Proper urban design
(e.g. minimize slope
modification, site
selection etc)?
Management of the
engineered landscape
(e.g. soils and
vegetation etc) ?
Peoples awareness
(e.g. trampling, leaf
litter, Cow Grass cut
etc).

Removal of leaf
litter

Grass-cutting
on steep slopes

How urban design can help

Short cut

Bus stop

An example of soil erosion on Kent Ridge

Outside the Department of Geography on a nice day:

note the bare patches

On a very wet day!

Note exposed tree roots

Rain Trees give < 50% cover

= high through fall

Rain splash erodes, flowing water sheets

transport mud, silt, sand and gravel

Overflow is eroding a new micro valley

Ponding during a big rain storm

After a big rain storm: sand

and gravel deposited on foot paths

Tree roots exposed by soil erosion

Tree roots are not exposed on level

ground: but note exposed soil

Tree root failure

Base of slope flooding

Flash floods
Bukit Timah 20th Nov 2009

Orchard Rd 16th
June, 2010

Clay and silt is

being carried
away in suspension

23rd Dec 2011

Combined effects of soil erosion, soil

creep and a Sumatran Squall

Soil erosion

Interaction of the lithosphere, atmosphere, hydrosphere, biosphere

and anthrosphere

The worst example of soil erosion? The

Fragrant Plant Garden behind LT10

Erosion Rates

3 x vertical exaggeration

Bukit Gambok
Bukit Timah

Bukit Batok

15 cm of tree roots exposed around 20 year old trees = 7.5 mm eroded per year = an order
of magnitude larger than in active mountain belts. Bukit Timah is 165 m high. How long will
it take to erode away?
Answer: 165,000 / 7.5 = 22,000 yearsIF IT WAS MADE FROM JUST FROM SOIL

Erosion rate in granite catchments versus precipitation

Why lower?
Stable non-tectonic
Tropical vegetation

Bukit Timah Granite

7.5 mm/ky (?)
= 0.0075 mm/yr,
165 m eroded in
22 million years

Cow Grass or Pearl Grass?

Cow Grass

Pearl Grass

Just allowing the grass to

grow slows down soil erosion

Cow grass: cut 2 times each

month.
Pearl grass: cut once every 5
months, strong resistance to
trampling, can grow under
heavy canopy

Soil Creep

Soil stabilization in Singapore

Note slope failure

and soil erosion

Biotechnical stabilization: reinforced grass or geogrids with

live ground.

Conclusions
Factors influencing soil development: geology, climate, slope,
physical and chemical weathering, biological activity.
Ultisols on Bukit Timah Granite and Gomback Gabbro. Oxisols on
lower slopes and Old Alluvium. Inceptisols on Jurong Fm sandstone
ridge flanks
Entisols on reclamations. Urbansols nearly everywhere!!

Factors influencing soil erosion: rainfall, soil erodibility, slopes,

vegetation.
How to minimise soil erosion: minimise slope modifications,
manage the vegetation through urban design.
Factors influencing slope stability and soil creep: slope angle,
slope length, prolonged rain, vegetation

Reading list
Supplementary reading:
Lu, Wong and Chou. 2005. Ch. 5. slope processes
and modification.
Lu, Wong and Chou. 2005. Ch. 6. soil erosion in
Singapore.