SPACE TRANSPORTATION:

A generalised analysis of the system

complexity of space flight missions.

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

Space transportation, also referred to as space flight or space travel falls in the
category as an Engineering System. Its elements contain sub-systems that have
a highly complex structure and elaborate connections that include social
elements. Over the years, the complexity of space travel has evolved into an
expansive system that continually gives rise to technological ingenuity providing
advances in our society.

Relationships between the elements of space transportation are heavily

influenced by the current mission trends in the industry. Modern objectives of
space missions are focused on exploration, research and development, and the
growing commercial interest such as space tourism. Essentially, the political
structure of the space flight industry is shaped around the current societal
demands in pursuing the benefits from space flight missions which is decided by
a funding. Nevertheless, the elements form a functional network that adjusts
accordingly to the conditions and constraints imposed upon it.

Interactions within complex systems are often too complicated to analyse in

isolation because of the intricate interconnections between the subsystems and
subcomponents. Abstract elements such as Data flows involve a high level
interaction between the data elements, the physical or hardware components
and the human operator. A multitude of other interactions exists in space
transportation the interactions that involve engineering systems are extensive,
all affecting the overall behaviour of space flight systems to some degree.

Although space flight missions continue to thrive due to ongoing support from
government and private funding, it has significant challenges and implications.
The impact of space travel on health and the environment are not clearly
understood and requires further research. Conversely, the social and economic
benefits from space exploration provides a strong source of technology and
services that becomes an integral part of society. Future challenges and
implications will continue to challenge scientists and engineers from every
discipline as space travel continues to develop beyond its current threshold.

Contents
1

INTRODUCTION................................................................................................ 1

SYSTEM OVERVIEW.......................................................................................... 1
2.1

KEY ELEMENTS.......................................................................................... 2

2.1.1

Physical Elements...............................................................................3

2.1.2

Data and Software..............................................................................4

2.1.3

Biological Element.............................................................................. 4

2.1.4

Government........................................................................................ 4

2.1.5

Technology and Service Providers.......................................................4

2.1.6

Private Agencies................................................................................. 5

2.1.7

Other Elements...................................................................................5

MAJOR SYSTEM INTERACTIONS (500 words)....................................................5

3.1

Data-Hardware-User Interactions..............................................................6

3.2

Political and Technical Interactions............................................................7

3.3

Other Interactions..................................................................................... 8

SYSTEM CONTEXT............................................................................................ 8
4.1

Current Challenges....................................................................................8

4.2

Implications............................................................................................... 8

4.2.1

Health Implications............................................................................. 9

4.2.2

Social Impacts..................................................................................... 9

4.2.3

Economic Implications........................................................................9

4.2.4

Environmental Impacts.......................................................................9

FUTURE CHALLENGES...................................................................................... 9
5.1

Future Challenges for Engineers.............................................................10

CONCLUSION................................................................................................. 10

REFERENCES................................................................................................. 12

APPENDICES.................................................................................................. 14
A. SPACE FLIGHT MIND MAP..............................................................................14
B. DIAGRAM OF ALL KNOWN SPACE CRAFT LAUNCHERS IN THE WORLD..........15

1 INTRODUCTION
Space transportation or space flight is a highly complex operation of sending a
space craft through the earths orbit and into space for various missions that are,
and have been beneficial to society. The entire process of carrying out space
flight missions incorporates an immense number of engineering and nonengineering sub-systems that are deeply interconnected with each other. The
intrinsic nature of space flight sub-systems identifies it as an Engineering System
where the application of systems approach is essential.
The aim of this report is to provide a generalised analysis of space transportation
as an entire system, using data and resources to present an overview of the key
components that encompass space flight missions. As the components are
broken down into elements, it will become evident that the system is comprised
of major constituents as well as other elements that are expected in a complex
system. A further analysis of the context around space flight reveals that the
whole structure is a vast network of technical and political structures that has
significant social implications. The diversity of relationships and interactions
within the system generates ongoing challenges and critical issues that impact
on how the entire system operates which are also outlined in the report.

2 SYSTEM OVERVIEW
Space agencies in many countries are considerably analogous with each other,
operating with similar standards of operation as shown by the similarities in
mission life cycle standards of NASA and the European Cooperation for Space
Standardization or ECSS (see figure 1 and table 1). Nevertheless, the key
elements of space transportation have remained relatively constant throughout
history with new key players emerging as commercialization takes precedence.

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Table 1 Space Mission Phases from the European

Cooperation for Space Standardization (ECSS) (De
Elia, 2010)

MISSION CYCLE
Phase 0 Mission analysis/needs
identification
Phase A Feasibility
Phase B Preliminary Definition
Phase C Detailed Definition
Phase D Qualification and
Production
Phase E Utilization

Figure 1 Space Mission Phases by NASA standards. (Image: Jet Propulsion Laboratory, 2014)
Phase F Disposal

2.1 KEY ELEMENTS

Space flight missions consists of the usual elements that are comparable to other
transport systems but with emphasis on technology and politics. The high level
of technical complexity indicates the broad spectrum of engineering systems
involved within the field. Figure 2 depicts the basic elements that space flight
missions all share to some degree (De Elia, 2010) and figure 3 represents
interrelating key elements of space transportation system which identifies it as a
complex system.

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FUNDAMENTAL ELEMENTS

SPACE FLIGHT KEY ELEMENTS

Figure 2 Overview of the elements involved in space transportation and space flight missions, dotted lines depict networked connections between th

Figure 3 The fundamental elements of a Space Mission (Image: De Elia, 2010)

2.1.1 Physical Elements
Physical elements are most prominent due to the highly technical
nature of the system. Physical components range from a small piece
of technology on board a space craft to the colossal Kennedy Space
Centre building complex where the major operations are conducted.
This include but not limited to the launch vehicles (figure 4), the
launch platforms (figure 5) and the space crafts. Figure shows a list
of spacecraft classification and a more comprehensive diagram is
available in the Appendix. Physical components may interact with
the human elements, the target subject and deals with a fair
amount of data and software components.

SPACECRAFT
LAUNCH
VEHICLES EXAMPLES
SPACE
CLASSIFICATION
AND EXAMPLES

SPACE LAUNCH INFRASTRUCTURE EXAMPLES

Figure 4 Some of the Popular Launch Vehicles involved in space flight missions (Images: JPL, 2014)
Figure 6 eight classes of space crafts and their prime examples
2014)
P a g e(Images:JPL,
3

Figure 5 Launch sites

2.1.2 Data and Software

Data and software systems is a crucial element in all space
missions and is comprised of the housekeeping data and the
mission data (De Elia, 2010). The information collected requires
software protocols for the transmittal of data as well as data
processing, encryption and storage. Communication and Data
systems play a massive role in space flight missions such that a
multitude of ground infrastructure and sub-systems are dedicated
solely for data management.
2.1.3 Biological Element
The crew or personnel plays a part in the operation of the physical
elements and is classified as a major element. Biological elements
include customers that participate in retail or tourism trades within
the space industry as well as the test subjects that are either in a
ground facility or in space.
2.1.4 Government
Another key element is the political or government entity that
embodies the administration and regulation of the missions. This
include the Federal Government and the government space
agencies themselves such as NASA and the ESA.
2.1.5 Technology and Service Providers
Technology providers are quite common in the aerospace industry.
Companies such as Lockheed and Boeing offer technology to space
agencies that the agency otherwise cannot procure internally.
Service providers include organizations like the European
Cooperation for Space Standardization that provide the platform
used by agencies to ensure systems compatibility.
2.1.6 Private Agencies
Private companies are starting to emerge as having an operational
flight status. Other private companies are now entering the testing
phase. The commercialization of space flight means that space is
now accessible to the consumers as well as other space agencies
including the government.

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2.1.7 Other Elements

Typically, consumers have an indirect part in the whole system with
the exception of space tourists where customers become part of the
crew. Otherwise, consumers benefit from the space technology that
enables services telecommunications.

3 MAJOR SYSTEM INTERACTIONS

The following are some of the major interactions that will be examined in general
terms for the purpose of this report.

DATA FLOW EXAMPLE

Figure 7 Data Flow Diagram illustrating the flow of information through physical components.

3.1 Data-Hardware-User Interactions

Each interaction is equally important however some are not readily obvious due
to its abstract nature. Data is an often overlooked element that has a significant
interaction with its physical medium and its user. Since information flows are an
integral part of space flight missions it is an important subsystems interaction to

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analyse. Figure 1 illustrates the data flow from source through the physical
components.
Interactions between the data, the physical component and the human user has
its trade-offs and is crucial in determining the set-up of the system. The
information goes through physical components such as sensors, satellites,
ground receivers and computers so the physical element must be engineered to
handle the large volume of information which are often from distant sources
either in flight or on the ground. The processing power of the hardware and
efficiency of software must also be engineered to match the necessary
requirements but it has to be determined whether processing is centralised or
distributed. Automation is generally preferred for when components fail
unexpectedly and an automatic response is beneficial (Jet Propulsion Laboratory,

Figure 8 Trade-offs in data delivery involving data, physical elements and human elements interaction.
2014). Trade-offs that are involved in data delivery and are strongly interrelated
(De Elia, 2010). Figure 8 illustrates the relationships of these trade-offs.

Engineering systems are integrated in a component such as a space craft,

forming an interaction and interrelationship between the data and hardware
elements. To demonstrate, figure 8 shows the sub-systems of Magellan space
craft and displays the subsystems involved with data and command control.

SUB SYSTEMS EXAMPLE

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Figure 9 Magellan Space Craft Subsystems.

3.2 Political and Technical Interactions

Political and technical Interactions play a major factor in space transportation.
Inter-government and government to private agencies connections are also
common. International collaboration between space agencies have been known,
as evident in the International Space Station (ISS), although recent tension
between NASA and the Russian space agency Soyuz, has steered the U.S.
government into utilizing private flight services from private companies, SpaceX
and Boeing to send crew into space (Amos, 2014).
Political domain has a direct effect on the technical aspect of space
transportation. The following table and diagrams present the connections and
interactions between the political and technical elements in a system showing
relationships and interdependencies.

Table 2 Processes and outputs of domains involved in politico-technical (Weigel & Hastings, 2003)

Domain
Political
Technical
Operational
Architectural

Process
Politics
Systems engineering
User needs analysis
Systems architecting

Output
Policy
Physical system
Validated user needs
System architecture

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Figure 11 Graphical representation of the domains and interactions (Weigel & Hastings, 2003)

Figure 12 An influence diagram of the translation of policy parameter effects into the technical domain (Weig

3.3 Other Interactions

Other regular interactions include maintenance personnel in a variety of physical
engineering systems. There are also interactions between agencies and
technology providers forming contractual agreements that shape the
specification of the engineered products and services which are multidisciplinary.

4 SYSTEM CONTEXT
4.1 Current Challenges
Current challenges facing space flight include the usual aspects involving
sending humans to space. One of the current challenges is related to human and
machine interface and the context of automation as discussed in the previous
section. Case studies by Marianne Rudisill of NASA Langley Research Centre
present accidents caused by the operators confusion and over-reliance of the
automations sophisticated and complex flight modes (2010).

4.2 Implications
According to MITs Research Group, space exploration depends on the initiative
of the government and the private agencies (2008) and that the public interest
vary per nation. So far, the rising interest in space commercialization and plans
on taking humans to Mars, indicate an ongoing interest in space travel. As

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manned missions continue to be realized, its current risks and implications need
to be assessed and reconsidered.

4.2.1
Health Implications
Numerous studies on the effects of space travel on the
human body have been published to show that space
travel have a negative and profound effects on the human
body and that a major study by the British Medical Journal
suggests that physicians still do not fully understand the
impacts of space travel on humans (Leland, 2013).
4.2.2
Social Impacts
Advances in space flight technology has contributed to an
extensive amount of service to the society.
Telecommunications, weather systems, and national
security are examples of services that are deeply ingrained
into the society that came from space technologies
(International Academy of Astronautics. N.D.).
4.2.3
Economic Implications
The economic implications of space flight depend on the
benefits acquired through its endeavours which is often
referred to as spin-offs. Innovations that stem out of space
research and development have contributed to consumer
products available today. Technologies that utilize
communication satellites for instance are highly stable and
profitable with an expected positive market for sub-orbital
flights or space tourism (Griffin in Foust, 2007).
4.2.4
Environmental Impacts
Impacts to the environment by space flight missions are a
major concern. Space debris is an ongoing problem. There
is also not enough available research on black carbon that
is produced by burning jet fuels which is a concern due to
the rising space tourism flights in the coming decades
(Rosenblum, 2013).

5 FUTURE CHALLENGES
The emerging problem of policy and technology requirements for space tourism
and human colonisation will continue to be a challenge in the future for scientists
and engineers. As the interest in space exploration rises, the chances of society
wanting to go up into space means that basic human needs have to be
addressed as well. Government agencies and Committees such as CCSDS
Engineering Group are actively involved in developing standards to enable space

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flight collaboration between space agencies (Consultative Committee for Space

Data Systems, 2014) and with future collaborations inevitable, this plays an
important role in system structuring.

5.1 Future Challenges for Engineers

Many of the elements of space flight encompasses a multitude of engineering
disciplines. Centres and facilities are in the domain of civil engineering and data
systems are designed and managed by computer engineers and are powered by
electrical engineers. Materials and fuel used are developed by chemical
engineers. Mechanical and Aerospace engineers are involved in flight systems
and machines. However, engineering disciplines are not contained within one
aspect of the system. All the engineering disciplines interact and are dependant
of each other.
Future challenges will need to be addressed by future engineers that understand
the complex interactions within the multi-disciplinary systems. Table 3 lists some
of the engineering disciplines involved in space transportation, the sub-system it
is involved in and some examples of its interrelationship and future challenges.

Table 3 Examples of engineering disciplines, the sub-system of the key element that each
discipline works with, some interrelationship with other elements and example of future challenges
for the field.

ENGINEERING
DISCIPLINE
Aerospace

SUB SYSTEM

INTERRELATION

Space Craft

Mechanical

Machines

Chemical/Process

Fuel, Materials

Civil

Infrastructures

Systems

Management

Computer/Software

Data/Software

Nuclear

Radiation/Power

Data systems,
Physical
interactions
Data systems,
Physical
interactions
Physical,
technology
providers
interaction
Physical, tech
providers
Data, biological,
political
Physical and user
interactions.
Physical, political

Geological

Resource Mining

Physical, Data,

FUTURE
CHALLENGE
Faster Travel

Better
machines.
Better fuel,
energy, mining

Building in
space.
More complexity
rising
Artificial
Intelligence
Clean energy,
Fission power
Asteroid/Planeta

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Political

ry Mining

6 CONCLUSION
Space transportation is composed of elaborate technical, political and social
sub-systems which contributes to its complex behaviour. High level
interactions occur in elements involving data, physical components and user
as well as within the political and technical interrelationships. Most of the
technical systems involve multiple engineering disciplines such as
mechanical, electrical and computer engineering but the systems approach
has been applied to other areas, demonstrating the systems
multidisciplinary nature. Implications involving social intricacy and the future
challenges ahead that includes involvement of the human activities, further
support the conclusion that space transportation is an advanced Engineering
System. The outlook of space flight missions has a likelihood of further
commercialization and political and ethical issues regarding human
colonization. It is expected that engineers and the systems approach will
continue to be an integral part of space transportation.

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7 REFERENCES
Amos, J. (2014). Nasa picks astronaut crew ship designs. BBC News. Retrieved on
September 18, 2014 from http://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment29228900.

Agenzia Speziale Italiana. 2009. Luigi Broglio Space Centre. Retrieved on 18

September 2014 from http://www.asi.it/en/agency/bases/broglio.

Consultative Committee for Space Data Systems (CCSDS). 2014. Overview

CCDS Engineering Steering Group (CESG). Retrieved on 18 September 2014 from
http://cwe.ccsds.org/cesg/default.aspx

De Elia, E. (2010). Space Mission Designs and Operation. Retrieved on 17

September 2014 from
aulavirtual.ig.conae.gov.ar/moodle/pluginfile.../SeminarioDeElia.pdf.

Engineers Dedicated to a Better Tomorrow. (2006). A Brief Guide to Engineering

Majors. Retrieved on 19 September 2014 from
http://www.dedicatedengineers.org/Resources/Engineering_Disciplines_Handout.p
df.

International Academy of Astronautics. (N.D.). The Impact of Space Activities

upon Society. Retrieved on 19 September 2014 from
http://www.spaceandsociety.org/index2.html

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Jet Propulsion Laboratory California Institute of Technology, 2014. Basics of Space

Flight. Retrieved on 17 September 2014 from
http://www2.jpl.nasa.gov/basics/bsf10-1.php.

Leland, K. (2013). Commercial Space Travel Carries Implications for Health.

Retrieved on 19 September 2014 from
http://www.ucsf.edu/news/2012/12/13309/commercial-space-travel-carriesimplications-health

Massachusetts Institute of Technology Research Group. (2008). The Future of

Human Space Flight. Space, Policy, and Society Research Group Massachusetts
Institute of Technology. Retrieved on 19 September 2014 from
http://web.mit.edu/mitsps/MITFutureofHumanSpaceflight.pdf.

National Aeronautics space Agency. 2003. Human-Rating Requirements and

Guidelines for Space Flight Systems ( NPG: 8705.2). Retrieved on 19 September
2014 from
http://www.dept.aoe.vt.edu/~cdhall/courses/aoe4065/NASADesignSPs/N_PG_870
5_0002_.pdf.

Rosenblum, A. (2013). Space Tourism's Black Carbon Problem. Retrieved on 19

September 2014 from http://www.popsci.com.au/science/space-tourisms-blackcarbon-problem,379557.

Rudisil, M. (2000). Crew/Automation Interaction in Space Transportation Systems:

Lessons Learned from the Glass Cockpit. [CiteSeer] Retrieved on 19 September
2014 from http://www.cs.odu.edu/~mln/ltrs-pdfs/NASA-2000-hstew-mr.pdf.

Sea Launch. 2014. Launch Systems Overview. Retrieved on 18 September 2014

from http://www.sea-launch.com/launch/10004

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Space Today Online. 2004. Space Launch Sites Around the World. Retrieved on 18
September 2014 from
http://www.spacetoday.org/Rockets/Spaceports/LaunchSites.html.

Steinberg, A. (2011). Space policy responsiveness: The relationship between

public opinion and
NASA funding. Space Policy 27 240e246. DOI: 10.1016/j.spacepol.2011.07.003

Weigel, A.L., Hastings, D.E. (2001). Interaction of policy choices and technical
requirements for a space transportation infrastructure. Acta Astronautica 52 (551
562) DOI: 10.1016/S0094-5765(02)00122-4.

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8 APPENDICES

A. SPACE FLIGHT MIND MAP

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B. DIAGRAM OF ALL KNOWN SPACE CRAFT LAUNCHERS

IN THE WORLD

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