6.10.

Recent BC Theories
Skemptons Theory for Cohesive Soil
A.W. Skempton, 1951 suggested a bearing capacity
theory for Saturated Clay for which u = 0.
Df
Value of Nc increased with the increase in ratio.
B
Expression for Nc proposed by Skempton:

For Strip Footings,

Df
Nc = 5(1+ 0.2 ),
B

Df
with Nc 7.5 for > 2.5
B

Df
Nc = 6(1+0.2 ),
B

Df
with Nc 9.0 for > 2.5
B

For Square and Circular Footings,

(B = side of square or diameter of circular footing)

 For Rectangular Footings,

Df
B
Nc = 5(1+ 0.2 ) (1+0.2 )
L
B
D
B
= 7.5(1+0.2 f) (1+ 0.2 )
B
L

For u = 0,

Df
for
2.5
B
for

Df
> 2.5
B

qnu = cuN

See Page No. 121,

RK Poudel

Df

Df
B

Alternatively, the graph given in Fig.1 can be used to find Nc.

Where,
B
Nc(rect) = Nc(sq) [0.84 + 0.16 ]
L

G.G. Meyerhof (1963) General form of BC equation

suggested by Meyerhof considers the Shape, Depth and Load
Inclination.
-

Hansens (1970) BC Equation

J. Brinch Hansen (1970) extended Meyerhofs BC equation by
including two additional factors : Ground factors (g) and Base
factors (b) to consider foundation on slopes (ground inclination)
and base tilt of the foundation (base inclination).
Widely used because the equation can be used for both shallow
as well as deep foundation.
qu = cNc sc dc ic gc bc + q0Nq sq dq iq gq bq + 0.5 B N s d i g b
Where,
s, d, i, g, b are the shape, depth, load inclination, ground and base
factors

For pure cohesive soil ( = 0)

qu = cNc(1 + sc + dc ic gc - bc) + q0

Shape Factors

Depth Factors

Sc = 0.2 B/L

dc = 0.4 k

Sc =
1+(Nq/Nc).(B/L)

dc = 1 + 0.4k
k = D/B for D/B 1,
k = tan-1 D/B for
[D/B>1]
k in radians

Sc = 1 for strip

Sq = 1 + B/L sin dq = 1+2tan(1sin)2k

k defined above

Sq = 1-0.4B/L

d = 1 for all

Inclination Factors

Other Factors
Ground factors
(base on slope)

ic = 0.5 0.5(1H/Afca)
ic = iq (1-iq)/(Nq 1)

gc = 0/1470

iq = [1-(0.5H)/(V+
Afca cot)]5

gq = g
= (1-0.5 tan)5

i=[1-(0.7H)/(V+
Afca cot)]5
i = [1-{0.7H
(0/4500)5}
/{V+ Afca cot}]a2

gc = 1 - 0/1470

Base factors
(tilted base)
bc= 0/1470
bc = 1- 0/1470
bq = e^(-2 tan)
b = e^(-2.7
tan)
in radians

Table
Hansens Shape,
Depth, load
Inclination,
Ground and Base
Inclination factors.
when = 0

See Page No.

118 and 119,
RK Poudel

Vesics BC Equation
Vesic (1973, 1975)

 All three investigators (Meyerhof, Hansen and Vesic) use the

equations proposed by Prandtl (1921) for computing the
values of Nc and Nq wherein the foundation base is assumed
as smooth with the angle 45 + /2

Values of Nc, Nq and Meyerhof (M), Hansen (H)

and Vesic (V) N Factors

Shape, Depth and Load Inclination Factors of

Meyerhof, Hansen and Vesic

6.11 Bearing Capacity from In-situ Tests

(Plate Load Test)
Plate load test enables to estimate the allowable
pressure of soil and settlement.
Usually plates square or round,
Ranging in sizes from 30 to 60 cm and thickness about
2.5 cm.
Plate load tests are expensive.
In sand they are usually carried out when the project is
big and numbers of footings are too many.
In clay where unconfined compression tests are not
feasible due to presence of fissures and cracks, PLT is
used to determine the UBC.

See Page No. 26

RK Poudel

Test Procedure of PLT

A pit 5 times the size of plate is excavated at the proposed
depth of foundation. The pit is leveled and the test plate is
placed at the center of the pit.
A seating load of 70 gm/cm2 is applied and released after
some time.
The plate is loaded either through a kentledge or by the
reaction through a truss or a beam.
The load is applied in the increments of 1/5th of the design
load or 1/10th of failure load.
For each increment of load, four dial gauges are used on the
plate to measure the settlement.
Next higher load is applied when the rate of settlement of the
plate becomes 0.25 mm per hour.
The test is continued until failure or to a load 2.5 times the
design load, whichever is earlier.

Gravity Loading or
Through Kentledge

Against Reaction Beam

Reaction against Truss

Load Settlement Curves

In sandy soil the nature of
curve is straight in early
part and gradually becomes
steeper in later part and
the failure is not distinct.

In clayey soil failure is

pronounced and the failure
takes place by shear.

From the test results, a load-settlement curve should be plotted as

shown in Fig.. The allowable pressure on a prototype foundation for
an assumed settlement may be found by making use of the following
equations suggested by Terzaghi and Peck (1948) for square footings
in granular soils.

BC from SPT-value (N)

Cohesionless Soil In cohesionless soils, the BC is extremely high with respect to
shear failure criteria.
In sands, the shear failure criteria govern the capacity only in
the case of very narrow footing located in loose sand below
water table.
In most of the cases the bearing capacity in sands is governed
by settlement criteria.

 Allowable Bearing Pressure ,qna on the Basis of Shear Failure

Criteria Teng (1962) has suggested the BC in sands for
strip,
circular or square and
raft foundation from the results of SPT.

Strip footing
qna = 0.0167N2BRW1 + 0.0277(100 + N2)Df RW2
Square or circular footing
qna = 0.011N2BRW1 + 0.033(100 + N2)Df RW2
Raft foundation
qna = 0.02N2BRW1 + 0.06(100 + N2)Df RW2

Where,
B = Width of foundation (m)
N = Corrected SPT value
Df = Depth of foundation (m)
RW1, RW2 = Water table correction factors

The unit of qna is in t/m2

 Allowable Bearing Pressure, qna on the Basis of Settlement

Criteria In sand in most of the cases the BC is governed by settlement
criteria.

Correlation between SPT-Value and Allowable

Bearing Pressure by Terzaghi and Peak
Terzaghi and Peck (1948) first proposed a correlation
between the corrected N-value and Allowable Bearing
Pressure to give a settlement of 25 mm for a deep ground
water table.

Procedures:

N should not be corrected with

respect to overburden.
N should be averaged from the given
values.
The graph has been developed with
the condition that the water table is
deep.
If the WT is not deep the correction is
applied on the obtained allowable soil
pressure (qa) by a correction factor of
RW.
Dw
RW = 0.5{1 +
}
(D + B)
qa(corrected) = qa(graph) RW

See Page No. 123, RK Poudel

Modification of Terzaghi and Peck Correlation

by Peck, Hanson and Thornburn
Peck, Hanson and Thornburn (1974)
Peck et.al. modified the original Terzaghi and Peck
(1948) recommendations to obtain allowable bearing
pressure to give a settlement of 25 mm for a footing.

Procedures:
N- value should be corrected with respect to dilatancy and
overburden.
Average of the corrected value is considered.
qa is obtained from the graph of (Df/B) verses N (corrected
SPT) value.
If the WT is not deep the Correction is applied on the
obtained allowable soil pressure (qa) by a correction factor of

Dw
RW = 0.5{1 +
}
(D + B)
qa(corrected) = qa(graph) RW

See Page No. 125

RK Poudel

 Peck, Hanson and Thornburn (1974

Net safe bearing capacity of spread footing to give a
permissible settlement s and a differential settlement of 3/4th
of s.
qns = 0.042 RWN s
Where,
N = Average SPT value corrected for dilatancy and overburden
pressure
s = Permissible settlement, mm
RW = WT correction factor

6.12 Types of Settlement and Their Relationships

Foundation Settlement Vertical downward
Shifting of the foundation (and the structure built upon
it) due to the decrease in volume of the soil on which it is
built.

Implications on a Foundation of Settlement

Appearance of structure
Utility of structure
Damage to the structure

A)
1)
2)
a)
b)

Types of Settlement

On the Basis of Movement of Foundation

Uniform Settlement
Non-uniform Settlement
Tilt
Angular Distortion

B) On the basis of Loads Imposed on a Foundation

1) Immediate or Elastic Settlement (Si or Se)

Takes place in a short time (about a week) after application of
load
It is due to elastic distortion of the soil.
As the settlement is experienced in a short time, there will not be
enough time for soil mass for change in its w/c.
So, Settlement takes place under constant Volume or under
undrained conditions.
Computed by elastic theory.
Very small and often neglected unless the structure is very
important.
2) Consolidation Settlement (Sc)
3) Secondary Consolidation Settlement (Ss)

Total Settlement (S) = Si + Sc + Ss )

Calculation of Se or Si

Se or Si of Cohesive Soils

1) Schleichers (1926) Method Based on linear theory of elasticity to determine the elastic settlement of
footings on Saturated Clay.
Gives formula for vertical settlement under a uniformly distributed
Flexible Area.
Gives settlement at the corner of rectangular loaded area at the surface of
a semi-infinite medium of a homogeneous and isotropic soil mass:
si = qB(1-2)Is/E
Where,
si = Immediate settlement
q = Load on foundation
B = Smaller dimension of the loaded area
= Poissons Ratio (= 0.5 for saturated clay)
Is = Influence coefficient
E = Modulus of elasticity
For a rectangular area, the settlement at the center = four times the
settlement at the corner.

Value of Is for a Saturated Clay Layer of Semiinfinite Extent

Shape of
Loaded Area

Flexible

Rigid

Centre

Corner

Average

Circular

1.00

0.64

0.85

0.80

Rectangular
(L/B)
1.0

1.12

0.56

0.95

0.90

1.5

1.36

0.68

1.20

1.09

2.0

1.53

0.77

1.31

1.22

5.0

2.10

1.05

1.83

1.68

10.0

2.52

1.26

2.25

2.02

100.0

3.38

1.69

2.96

2.70

Janbu, Bjerrum and Kjaernslis (or Janbu et. al.)

Method

They suggested the equation to compute average immediate

settlement under a flexible compressible foundation in saturated
undrained clays.
si = 01qB/Eu
Where,
si = Average immediate settlement for flexible footing
01 = Shape factors obtained from the charts shown in Fig.2
Eu = Undrained modulus of elasticity of the soil
q = Load on foundation
B = Smaller dimension of the loaded area

01 = Shape factors obtained from the charts shown in Fig.2

Calculation of Consolidation Settlement (Sc)

Caused due to the expulsion of pore water from the voids of a
saturated soil mass under the excess hydrostatic pressure induced
by load imposed on a foundation.
sc = H e/(1 + e0)
= mvPH
For NC clay, Sc is given by:
Where, H = Significant depth
e = Change in void ratio
e0 = Initial void ratio
P = Change in pressure
mV = Coefficient of volume compressibility
Cc = Compression Index
P0 = Effective overburden pressure

 The compression index is the straight portion of the e-logp

curve and is given by:

Indirectly the compression index for NC clay is given by:

Cc = 0.009(wL - 10)
Where, wL is the liquid limit.

Calculation of Secondary Settlement (Ss)

Takes place under constant effective stress.

When consolidation is completed, the adsorbed water is
drained out and plastic readjustments of soil particles
occur.
Consequently the soil mass is settled down.
This type of settlement is also negligible as compared to
consolidation settlement.
The secondary settlement is given by:
ss = Hf Cs log[(t1 +t)/t1]
Where,
ss = settlement in time t after completion of consolidation
settlement and
t1 = time of completion of consolidation settlement.
Hf = thickness of compressible stratum.
Cs = slope of secondary branch of the time compression curve.

6.13 Allowable Settlement and Allowable

Bearing Pressure
6.13.1Allowable/Permissible/
Tolerable/Acceptable
Settlement

Dened as the maximum

amount
of
settlement
that
a structure can tolerate
without impairing its
structural integrity or
function
Different
types
of
structures have their
limit to tolerate a certain
amount of Maximum or
Differential Settlement.

Total and Differential Settlements

Total settlement of a structure is the maximum amount the
structure has settled with respect to its original position.
If different parts of a structure are subjected to
different settlement. This is known as differential settlement.
i.e. Different amount of settlement within same structure is
known as differential settlement.

 Differential settlement can be computed as the

difference in settlement between two adjacent
points.
Difficult to measure so it is expressed in terms of
Computed Maximum Permissible Total Settlement.
Differential Settlement is not to exceed 3/4th of
the Computed Maximum Permissible Total
Settlement.
Differential settlement in a structure is more
undesirable than the total settlement or uniform
settlement Because it causes more damage to the
structure as compared to the uniform
overall settlement of the structure.

Type of
Settlement

Total settlement

Tilting

Differential
settlement

Limiting factor
Drainage
Access
Probability of non-uniform settlement:
1.
Masonry walled structures
2.
Framed structures
3.
Chimneys, silos, mats
Stability against overturning
Tilting of chimneys, towers
Rolling of trucks etc.
Stacking of goods
Crane rails
Drainage of floors
High continuous brick walls
One-storey brick mill building, wall
cracking
Plaster cracking
Reinforced concrete building frame
Reinforced concrete building curtain walls
Steel frame, continuous
Simple steel frame

Maximum Settlement
15 30 cm
30 60 cm
2.5 5 cm
5 10 cm
8 30 cm
Depends on H and L
0.004L
0.01L
0.01L
0.003L
0.01 0.02 L
0.0005 0.001 L
0.001 0.002 L
0.001 L
0.0025 0.004 L
0.003 L
0.002 L
0.005 L

Types of Problem
Difficulty with machineries
sensitive to settlement
Danger for frames with diagonals
Limits for buildings where
cracking is not possible
Limits where cracking in panel
walls is to be expected or where
difficulties with over head cranes
are to be expected
Limits where tilting of high
buildings may be noticeable.
Considerable cracking in panel
walls. Safe limit for flexible brick
wall where h/L<1/4
Limits where structural damage
may occur

Angular
Distortion
1/750
1/600
1/500

1/300
1/250
1/150
1/150

See Page No. 130,

RK Poudel

Relation Between Total and Differential Settlement

Bjerrum (1963) based on Actual observations on buildings

From the graph, ( = difference between two footings spaced by distance, L)

In Granular Soils Minimum Differential Settlement = Maximum
Permissible Total Settlement
See Page No. 130, RK Poudel

In Sands Maximum Differential Settlement rarely

exceeds 3/4 of the Maximum Permissible Total Settlement

 From the graph

In Clays Differential Settlement is much less than Maximum
Permissible Total Settlement
See Page No. 131, RK Poudel

In Clays Max. Differential Settlement rarely

exceeds of the Max. Permissible Total Settlement.

6.13.2 Allowable Bearing Pressure or Capacity

Defined as Maximum pressure which is considered Safe with
respect to the Shear Failure and Settlement i.e. Maximum
Safe Soil Pressure at the base of the foundation which neither
causes Shear Failure nor produces any Settlement beyond
permissible limits.

 Terzaghi and Peck (1967):

(B + 0.3)
qns = 1.37(N - 3)
2B

RwRdS

Where,
qns = Net Safe Bearing Pressure, kN/m2
N = SPT value corrected for overburden pressure
RW = WT correction factor
Rd = Depth correction factor = 1 + 0.2Df/B 1.2
S = Permissible Settlement in mm but B and Df in meters.

 Tengs Method (1962)

(B + 0.3)
qns = 35(N - 3)
RWRd
2B

Where,
qns = Net Safe Bearing Pressure, kN/m2
N = SPT value corrected for overburden pressure
RW = WT correction factor
Rd = Depth correction factor = 1 + 0.2Df/B 1.2

General Form of Above Equation :

(B + 0.3)
qns = 1.4(N - 3)
RwRdS
2B

Where, S = Permissible Settlement in mm but B and Df in meters.

Meyerhof (1974) slightly different from Tengs equation.

qns = 12NRwRd
(B + 0.3)
qns = 8N
B

RwRd

for B 1.2m
for B >1.3 m

Where,
qns = Net safe bearing pressure, kN/m2
N = SPT value corrected for overburden pressure
Rw = WT corrected factor
Rd = Depth correction factor = 1 + 0.33Df/B 1.33

 Bowles Method (1982)- The equation proposed by Meyerhof and

Teng were found to be very conservative and Bowles modified these
equations.

Tengs Modified Equation:

(B + 0.3)
qns = 53(N - 3)
2B

Meyerhofs Modified Equation:

qns = 20NRWRd

(B + 0.3)
qns = 12.5N
B

RWRd

RwRd

for B 1.2 m and

for B >1.3 m

Where,
qns = Net safe bearing pressure, kN/m2
N = SPT value corrected for overburden pressure
RW = WT correction factor
Rd = Depth correction factor = 1+ 0.33 Df/B 1.33.

Value of Nq and N can

be found out from the
approximate correlation
between the N -value
and proposed by
Peck, Hanson and
Thornburn (1974) as
shown in Fig.2.

See Page No. 125

RK Poudel

6.14 Steps Involved in the Proportion of Footings

Objective: To reduce the differential settlement due to live load
variations for footings on granular soils, it is desirable to
proportion all the footings in such a way that they have equal
pressures under the service loads.

So all the footings would settle by equal amounts and the

differential settlement would be considerably reduced.

Steps on Proportioning as Suggested by Peck et al

(1974) and Procedures are Given by Teng (1976)

1. Determine dead load (inclusive self-weight of column and estimated value

of footing) of all the footings.
2. Determine the footing subjected to maximum live load.
3. Compute the ratio of live load to dead load for each of the footing.
4. Identify the governing footing. (The footing having maximum live load to
dead load ratio is the governing footing.)
5. Find the area of the governing footing (Ag).
Ag = (DL+LL) / Allowable bearing capacity
6. Determine service load for all the footings. ( Service load = DL + Reduced
LL)
7. Determine the design bearing capacity (qd) of all the footings except the
governing footing.
qd = Service load of the governing footing / Ag
8. Determine the area under other footings.
A = Service load of that footing / qd

Solution Hints:

1
2
3
4
1) DL (kN) = ? (Given)
200
350
250 270
2) Max. LL (kN) (Given)
200
400 200 270
3) DL + Max. LL (kN) 200 + 200
=
400
750 450 540
4) Max.LL/DL Ratio = 200/200
=
2
5) Reduced LL (kN)
= Max. LL/2 = 200/2 =
100
6) DL + Reduced LL (kN) = Service Load
= 200 +100
=
300
7) Governing Footing Max. LL/DL ratio
8) Area of Governing Footing (Ag) = (DL + Max.LL)/qna
9) Design BC (qd) = Service Load/Ag
10) Area under Other Footings(A) = Service Load of that Footing/qd

Numerical
A building is supported symmetrically on four columns,
spaced at 4.5 m c/c. at the chosen depth of 2 m, the allowable
bearing capacity is 300 kN/m2, = 18 kN/m3. Proportion the
footings for equal settlement. The column loads are given
below:
Column
No.

DL (kN)

200

350

250

270

LL(kN)

200

400

200

270