Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Prep Book MATH1051
Prep Book MATH1051
.
.
S
hool of Mathemati
s and Physi
s, The University of Queensland, Brisbane QLD 4072, Australia
ii
Contents
List of Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
List of Figures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
List of Symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
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Introdu
tion . . . . . . . . . .
Properties of sums . . . . . .
Pra
ti
e Problems . . . . . .
Answers to Pra
ti
e Problems
Introdu
tion . . . . . . . . . .
Equivalent Fra
tions . . . . .
Arithmeti
of fra
tions . . . .
Pra
ti
e Problems . . . . . .
Answers to Pra
ti
e Problems
1
1
4
5
6
7
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Fra tions
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
4
Sigma Notation
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
3
Introdu
tion . . . . . . . . . .
Set Notation . . . . . . . . . .
Interval Notation . . . . . . .
Set and Logi
Notation . . . .
Pra
ti
e Problems . . . . . .
Answers to Pra
ti
e Problems
vii
viii
1
9
12
14
15
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Fa torization
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25
28
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29
31
32
Inequalities
5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4
5.5
5.6
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Introdu
tion . . . . . . . . . .
Index Laws . . . . . . . . . .
Pra
ti
e Problems . . . . . .
Answers to Pra
ti
e Problems
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45
46
51
52
55
Introdu
tion . . . . . . . . . .
The number e . . . . . . . . .
Logarithm Laws . . . . . . . .
Solving Log Equations . . . .
Pra
ti
e Problems . . . . . .
Answers to Pra
ti
e Problems
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Introdu
tion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Radians . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Trigonometry of right-angled triangles . . . .
General denitions of trigonometri
fun
tions
Pra
ti
e Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Answers to Pra
ti
e Problems . . . . . . . . .
Basi
derivatives . . . . . . . .
Derivatives of sin(x) and cos(x)
Derivatives of ex and ln x . . .
Leibniz's Notation . . . . . . .
Anti-derivatives . . . . . . . . .
Pra
ti
e Problems . . . . . . .
Answers to Pra
ti
e Problems .
55
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9.1
9.2
9.3
9.4
9.5
9.6
9.7
35
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42
45
Trigonometry
8.1
8.2
8.3
8.4
8.5
8.6
9
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Logs
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
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Powers
6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4
7
Introdu
tion . . . . . . . . . .
Solving basi
inequalities . . .
Combining inequalities . . . .
Absolute value . . . . . . . .
Pra
ti
e Problems . . . . . .
Answers to Pra
ti
e Problems
35
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85
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10 Ve tors
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85
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89
90
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96
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10.3.1 Properties . . . . . . .
10.4 S
alar Multipli
ation . . . . .
10.4.1 Properties . . . . . . .
10.5 Ve
tor Subtra
tion . . . . . .
10.6 Unit Ve
tors . . . . . . . . . .
10.7 Ve
tors in 3-spa
e . . . . . . .
10.7.1 Notation . . . . . . . .
10.8 Dot Produ
t . . . . . . . . . .
10.8.1 Denition . . . . . . .
10.8.2 Properties . . . . . . .
10.8.3 Component Form . . .
10.9 Pra
ti
e Problems . . . . . .
10.10Answers to Pra
ti
e Problems
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11 Matri es
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12 Worked Solutions
12.1
12.2
12.3
12.4
12.5
12.6
12.7
103
103
104
104
105
106
108
110
110
111
112
114
116
119
119
121
121
122
124
125
128
130
131
132
132
133
135
136
137
138
140
143
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v
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143
144
145
149
153
156
157
vi
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159
161
162
168
List of Tables
1.1 Spe
ial Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2 Logi
al symbols for sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2
6
35
70
vii
List of Figures
1.1 The real number line. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.1
10.2
10.3
10.4
10.5
P Q + QR=P R . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A ve
tor in 3-spa
e. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
v gives the velo
ity ve
tor of the zeppelin. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
viii
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4
100
100
102
107
110
Chapter 1
Notation and Sets
There are several types of important notation with whi
h you should
be familiar. Set notation allows a set to be des
ribed without writing
out ea
h of its elements. Interval notation does the same for
ertain
sets of real numbers. Finally, sigma notation allows the sum of many
terms to be expressed in a
on
ise manner.
1.2 Set Notation
B = {0, 4, 6},
n o
sets have spe
ial symbols. For instan
e, the set of the
ounting numbers
{1, 2, 3, . . . } is known as the natural numbers and is written as N.
Similarly, the set of all positive and negative natural numbers with
zero, {. . . , 3, 2, 1, 0, 1, 2, 3, . . . }, is the set of integers and is written as
Z. The set of all rational numbers, that is, those of the form a/b where
both a and b are integers, is denoted by Q. The set of all real numbers,
whi
h in
ludes all rational and irrational numbers, is denoted R (An
irrational number is one that
annot be expressed in the from p/q, but
has a de
imal expansion that is neither nite nor periodi
). The set of
omplex numbers is denoted C and
onsists of all numbers of the form
a + bi , where a and b are real numbers, and i2 = 1.
One other important set is the empty set. It is dened as the set
with no elements: {} , and is denoted .
Table 1.1:
Symbol
N
Z
Q
R
C
Meaning
the set {} with no elements
{1, 2, 3, . . . }
Name
Empty Set
Natural Numbers
{. . . , 3, 2, 1, 0, 1, 2, 3, . . . }
Integers
{a + b 1 | a, b R}
Real Numbers
{ 11 , 12 , 13 , 23 , 23 , 2, . . . } Rational Numbers
Complex Numbers
A parti
ular number will either belong to a given set or it will not.
For example, the number 4 belongs to the natural numbers, while the
number 2 does not. We use the notation 4 N and 2 6 N to denote
is used. The line |
an be read as `su
h that', so that the set above is `the
set of all x su
h that x is an integer and x is greater than 7. In general,
you
an
reate many sets of the form {x | x has
ertain properties }.
The use of the letter x in this notation is merely
onvention. This
notation also allows us to dene the
omplex numbers more su
in
tly.
We now have C = {a + bi | a, b R}.
Example 1.2.1.
x 12}.
Solution:
Example 1.2.2.
tion.
Solution:
The rationals are all the numbers than
an be represented as a fra
tion, with an integer numerator and denominator.
So
na
o
Q=
| a, b Z, and b 6= 0 .
b
This next example demonstrates that the des ription of a set is not
unique.
Example 1.2.3.
Figure 1.1:
of this real number line. These
onsist of all real numbers between 2
bounds. They have three types:
losed intervals, open intervals and
half-open, half
losed intervals.
A
losed interval is an interval whi
h in
ludes its endpoints. So an
interval of the form {x | x R and a x b} is a
losed interval
and we dene the notation [a, b] to des
ribe this interval.
An open interval is an interval whi
h does not in
lude its endpoints.
For example, the set of all real numbers between 0 and 1 but not
in
luding 0 or 1 is an open interval. Open intervals are of the form
{x | x R and a < x < b}, and we dene the notation (a, b) to
In your mathemati
s
ourses you may o
asionally en
ounter the following logi
al symbols asso
iated with dis
ussing sets. The symbols
and are usually reserved for use with logi
, set theory, and topology, and we mean `for all' and `there exists' respe
tively. However, in
mathemati
s le
tures you might see these symbols as shorthand.
Table 1.2:
Symbol
Meaning
Example
belongs to
2 {1, 2, 3}
6
does not belong to
8 6 {1, 2, 3}
for all
x R, x2 0
there exists
x R | x > 4
6
there does not exist
6 x R | x2 < 0
=
implies (if, then)
x Z and x > 0 = x N
or i
if and only if
x Z and x > 0 i x N
is a subset of
NZ
is a subset of or is equal to
{1, 2, 3} {1, 2, 3}
the union of
{1, 0} N = {1, 0, 1, 2, 3, . . . }
set of pairs in ea
h
{1, 2} {7, 2} = {(1, 7), (1, 2), (2, 7), (2, 2)}
Does 0 ?
1. {x | x Z and 2 x 6}
2. {x | x Z and 3 x 0}
3. {x | x N and x < 0}
Q 1.5.3.
sets.
1. {3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8}
2. {4, 4, 0, 2}
3. {6, 5, 3, 4, 5}
4. {4, 5, 6, . . . }
Q 1.5.4.
A 1.6.2.
(Q 1.5.2)
1. {2, 3, 4, 5, 6}.
2. {2, 1, 0}.
3. This set has no elements (therefore {x | x N and x < 0} = ).
(Q 1.5.3) There are generally many ways to des
ribe a set
in this fashion. Below is one example for ea
h problem.
A 1.6.3.
1. {x | x Z and 3 x 8}.
2. {x | x Z and x is even and 4 x 2}.
3. {x | x Z and 6 x 5 or 3 x 5}.
4. {x | x N and 3 < x}.
A 1.6.4.
1. [3, 5].
(Q 1.5.4)
2. [7, 15).
3. (4, ).
4. (, 0].
Chapter 2
Sigma Notation
represents the sum of all the numbers between 1 and 64, while
6
X
n=0
2n
10
expression
lower
In this notation, lower usually has the form of variable = integer and
upper is usually a larger integer. Together lower and upper dene an
interval of integers that the variable will take on. The expression is
usually some formula involving the variable. The expression is evaluated for ea
h of the possible integer values of the variable advan
ing by
1 ea
h time and the resulting terms are added together. For example,
5
X
j=2
(2j + 3) = (2 2 + 3) + (2 3 + 3) + (2 4 + 3) + (2 5 + 3),
= 7 + 9 + 11 + 13,
= 40.
Solution:
P4
m=1 (m/5)
and
11
2 1 1, 2 2 1, 2 3 1, . . . , 2 5 1,
so the sum is
5
X
(2n 1),
n=1
2 0 + 1, 2 1 + 1, 2 2 + 1, . . . , 2 4 + 1,
so the sum is
5
X
(2m + 1).
m=0
(2n 1) =
5
X
m+1=1
(2(m + 1) 1) =
5
X
m=0
(2m + 2 1) =
5
X
(2m + 1).
m=0
12
Example 2.1.3.
Solution:
Example 2.1.4.
Solution:
Example 2.1.5.
Evaluate N =
Solution:
N =
4
X
P4
n=1 (1)
P5
j=1 ij
n.
n 2
(1)nn2,
n=1
There may be a few rules whi
h might fa
ilitate adding in sigma notation. These are:
Rule 1.
n
X
j=1
kj = k
n
X
j=1
If we are summing over a variable j , another letter or number multiplied by j in the expression may be fa
torised to the front of the sum.
In more familiar terms, k + 2k + 3k + + kn = k(1 + 2 + 3 + + n),
13
Rule 2.
f (j) =
n+a1
X
j=a
f (j a + 1)
That is we an adjust the starting and ending points of the sum ( arefully).
Rule 3.
f (i) + g(j) =
n
X
f (i) +
i=1
n
X
g(j)
i=1
Rule 4.
m = mn
i=1
Example 2.2.1.
P5
j=1 (j
2j + 7).
14
Solution:
5
5
5
5
X
X
X
X
3
3
(j 2j + 7) =
j +
(2j) +
7,
j=1
j=1
5
X
j=1
3
j=1
5
X
j3 2
j=1
3
j=1
(j) + 7 5,
= (1 + 23 + 3 + 43 + 53)
2 (1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5) + 35,
= (1 + 8 + 27 + 64 + 125) 2 15 + 35,
= 225 30 + 35,
= 220.
Here are some problems for you to pra
ti
e on, followed by answers.
Q 2.3.1.
1.
2.
3.
P3
n=1 2n
P2
n=1 3
P5
i=0 i(i
Q 2.3.2.
+ 2)
1. 3 + 4 + 5 + 6 + 7 + 8
2. 2 + 1 + 4 + 7
1
3. 1 + 12 + 13 + . . . 100
15
Q 2.3.3.
Q 2.3.4.
To Q 2.3.1.
1. 2 + 4 + 6 = 12.
2. 13 + 1 + 3 + 9 = 403 .
3. 0 + 3 + 8 + 15 + 24 + 35.
To Q 2.3.2. There are many possible answers to these
problems. Those presented below are just examples.
A 2.4.2.
1.
2.
3.
P8
P100
i=3 i
P3
i=0 (3i
1
i=1 i
A 2.4.3.
A 2.4.4.
2).
P4
i=1 (1)
i1
(2i + 1)xi.
Chapter 3
Fra
tions
The fra
tions 13 and 26 are equivalent, that is, both fra
tions represent
the same amount. If you take any fra
tion and multiply or divide both
the numerator and the denominator by the same (non-zero) quantity,
you obtain an equivalent fra
tion. For example,
2
2 24
8
8
=
sin
e =
= .
3 12
3 3 4 12
Equivalent fra
tions help you to write a fra
tion in its simplest form,
also known as lowest terms. To nd the simplest form of a fra
tion
you must divide out any
ommon fa
tors from the numerator and denominator. For example, 14
= 147
= 32 . There are no
ommon fa
tors
21
217
between 2 and 3, so 23 is the simplest form of the fra
tion. Unless told
otherwise, you should always express fra
tions in their simplest form.
17
18
When you write a fra
tion that involves variables (an algebrai
fra
tion) in simplest terms, be
areful to only divide out
ommon fa
tors
and not single terms. For example,
4 + 2x 2(2 + x) 2 + x
=
=
.
6
2(3)
3
Solution:
40xy
64x
40xy 8x 5y
= .
64x 8x
8
Example 3.2.2.
Solution:
Simplify
Simplify
9a+27
6a+18
19
tor. To determine the sum of two fra
tions write ea
h fra
tion as an
equivalent fra
tions so that the two fra
tions have the same denominator, then add the numerators together and pla
e that sum over the
ommon denominator. Finally, if ne
essary, redu
e your answer to its
simplest form.
Simplify 16 + 83 .
Solution:
To nd a
ommon denominator, we need a number
that is divisible by both 6 and 8. Here we use 24.
Example 3.3.1.
1 3
4
9
13
+ =
+
= .
6 8 24 24 24
Solution:
Example 3.3.4.
Simplify 56 12 .
5 1 5 3 53 2 1
= =
= = .
6 2 6 6
6
6 3
Simplify
4x
7y
3
14x
(provided that x, y 6= 0).
20
Solution:
4x
3
4x 2x
3y
8x2
3y
8x2 3y
=
.
7y 14x 7y 2x 14x y 14xy 14xy
14xy
Solution:
Example
Solution:
Simplify
5
12
45 .
5
4
54
4
1
=
=
= .
12 5 12 5 12 3
ac
2
3.3.6. Simplify 6 ba (provided that a, b 6= 0).
ac
2
2ac
c
=
= .
6
ba 6ba 3b
Dividing by a number d is the same as multiplying by the number d1 .
The re
ipro
al of a fra
tion is obtained by inverting it, that is, swapping its numerator and denominator. To divide two fra
tions, multiply
the rst fra
tion by the re
ipro
al of the se
ond fra
tion. Remember
to redu
e your answer to simplest form if ne
essary.
Example 3.3.7.
Solution:
Example
Solution:
Simplify 47 118 .
4
8
4 11 4 11 11
=
=
= .
7 11 7
8
78
14
5ab
15b
3.3.8. Simplify 7c 6a (provided that a, b, c 6= 0).
=
=
.
7c
6a
7c
15b
7c (3 5)b
7c
21
Here are some problems for you to pra
ti
e on, followed by answers.
Q 3.4.1.
1.
14x
18x
2.
9ab
27bc
3.
8+4e
2e
(x 6= 0)
(b, c 6= 0)
(e 6= 0)
Q 3.4.2.
1.
3
12
+ 14
2. 13 + 154
3. 67 23
4.
13
18
79
Q 3.4.3.
form.
1.
4
11
2.
7
12
3
13
89
3. 58 27
4. 38 56
Q 3.4.4.
form.
1.
ab
4
2c
+ 8d
(d 6= 0)
22
2.
4xy
9
3.
30gh
14
4.
9a
24
+ 3x
12
5h
(g 6= 0)
7g
8b5 (b 6= 0)
Q 3.4.5.
form.
1.
12g
16h
2.
4e
45
9d
(f 6= 0)
f
3.
xy
7
x
14
(x 6= 0)
4.
5a
7
7
9a
(a 6= 0)
h2 (h 6= 0)
1.
7
9
2.
a
3c
3.
4+2c
e
A 3.5.2.
1.
1
2
2.
3
5
3.
4
21
4.
1
18
(Q 3.4.1)
(Q 3.4.2)
A 3.5.3.
1.
7
33
2.
27
104
3.
5
28
4.
9
20
A 3.5.4.
(Q 3.4.3)
(Q 3.4.4)
1.
abd+c
4d
2.
16xy+9x
36
3.
15g 2h5h
7g
4.
3ab5
8b
A 3.5.5.
1.
3g
8
2.
4ed
5f
3. 2y
4.
45a2
49
(Q 3.4.5)
23
Chapter 4
Fa
torization
Suppose you were asked to evaluate 2(3 + 4), using the
orre
t order
of operations (sometimes
alled BEDMAS). You would rst add the
numbers in the bra
kets (giving 7) and then multiply 2 by 7. Your
steps would be
2(3 + 4) = 2(7) = 14.
However we
an evaluate this expression in a dierent way. We rst
multiply the number outside the bra
kets by ea
h term inside the bra
kets, and then add the results. This is
alled expanding, and the steps
are
2(3 + 4) = 2 3 + 2 4 = 6 + 8 = 14.
So given a produ
t of terms involving bra
kets, like a(b + c), it is easy
to multiply them together to expand the produ
t, giving ab + ac.
Example 4.1.1.
Solution:
3(7 2) = 3 7 3 2 = 21 6 = 15.
Example 4.1.2.
26
Chapter 4. Fa torization
Solution:
2x(4 + y) = 2x 4 + 2x y = 8x + 2xy.
Solution:
3x2 + 6x = 3x x + 3x 2 = 3x(x + 2).
Example 4.1.4.
Solution:
2ab + 8b + 14bc = 2b a + 2b 4 + 2b 7c = 2b(a + 4 7c).
Example 4.1.5.
Solution:
27
Example 4.1.6.
Fa torise 3xy + 6y + 2x + 4.
Solution:
3xy + 6y + 2x + 4 = 3y(x + 2) + 2(x + 2) = (3y + 2)(x + 2).
Example 4.1.7.
Solution:
28
Chapter 4. Fa torization
There are some spe
ial fa
torisations that are useful to remember.
They are perfe
t squares and the dieren
e of two squares.
4.2.1 Perfe
t squares
Example 4.2.1.
Fa torise a2 + 8a + 16.
Solution:
a2 + 8a + 16 = (a + 4)(a + 4) = (a + 4)2.
It helps to re
ognise that the rst and last terms themselves are perfe
t squares, then to
onsider the middle term.
Example 4.2.2.
Solution:
a2 b2 = (a + b)(a b).
29
Example 4.2.3.
Solution:
Fa torise x2 1.
Solution:
30
Chapter 4. Fa torization
Fa
torise x2 + 8x + 12.
Solution:
First we need to nd two numbers that multiply to 12
and add to 8. There are many fa
tors of 12: (12, 1), (6, 2) and (4, 3),
but only one of these
ombinations adds to 8. That
ombination is 2
and 6. Therefore,
Example 4.3.1.
x2 + 8x + 12 = x2 + 2x + 6x + 12,
= x(x + 2) + 6(x + 2),
= (x + 6)(x + 2).
Fa
torise x2 + x 20.
Solution:
First we need to nd two numbers that multiply to
20 and add to 1. These are 4 and 5. Therefore,
Example 4.3.2.
x2 + x 20 = x2 + 5x 4x 5 (4),
= x(x + 5) 4(x + 5),
= (x 4)(x + 5).
When the
oe
ient of x2 is not 1, the method only
hanges slightly.
To fa
torise ax2 + bx + c, we still need to nd two numbers that add
to give b, but now they must multiply to give a c. For example,
to fa
torise 2x2 + 9x + 4, two numbers that multiply to give 8 and
add to give 9 are 8 and 1. Written in expanded form the expression
31
Here are some problems for you to pra
ti
e on, followed by answers.
Q 4.4.1.
1. 4y2 16y
2. 32ab + 16b + 8abc
3. 6xyz + 3yz + 18wyz
Q 4.4.2.
1. 4 + 4b + b2
2. 25a2 10ad + d2
3. x2 + 12xy + 36y2
4. 144 48a + 4a2
32
Q 4.4.3.
Chapter 4. Fa torization
1. 9y2 36
2. 64 121g4
3. 16x6 49y8
Q 4.4.4.
1. x2 5x + 4
2. x2 + 2x 15
3. y2 3y + 2
4. x2 + 13x + 42
5. x2 11x + 24
6. a2 + 7a + 12
Q 4.4.5.
1. 3x2 + 17x + 10
2. 2y2 + 12y + 16
3. 4x2 8x 12
4. 2z 2 z 15
4.5 Answers to Pra
ti
e Problems
A 4.5.1.
(Q 4.4.1)
1. 4y(y 4)
2. 8b(4a + 2 + ac)
3. 3yz(2x + 1 + 6w)
A 4.5.2.
(Q 4.4.2)
1. (2 + b)2
2. (5a d)2
3. (x + 6y)2
4. (12 2a)2
A 4.5.3.
(Q 4.4.5)
1. (3y + 6)(3y 6)
2. (8 + 11g2)(8 11g2)
(Q 4.4.5)
1. (x 4)(x 1)
2. (x 3)(x + 5)
3. (y 2)(y 1)
4. (x + 7)(x + 6)
5. (x 8)(x 3)
6. (a + 3)(a + 4)
A 4.5.5.
(Q 4.4.5)
1. (x + 5)(3x + 2)
33
34
2. (y + 4)(2y + 4)
3. 4(x 3)(x + 1)
4. (z 3)(2z + 5)
Chapter 4. Fa torization
Chapter 5
Inequalities
x > 1,
17 < 23.
Symbol
Meaning
Examples
<
is less than
2<3
36
Chapter 5. Inequalities
Solution:
Solve 2x 6 < x + 3.
now add 6 to both sides
now subtra
t x from both sides
2x 6 <x + 3
2x <x + 9
x <9
Solve
58x
3
15.
37
Solution:
5 8x
15
3
5 8x 45
8x 40
x 5.
The solution to
58x
3
Solve 4+a
< 5.
a
Solution: Note that here a
annot be zero sin
e we
annot divide by
zero. If a > 0 then multiplying both sides by a gives
Example 5.2.3.
4 + a < 5a,
4 < 4a,
1 < a.
For this
ase we want the values of a that satisfy both a > 0 (our
assumption) and a > 1 (the solution); these
ombine to give a > 1.
If a < 0 then multiplying both sides by a gives
4 + a > 5a, reversed sin
e multiplying by a negative
4 > 4a,
1 > a.
For this
ase we want the values of a that satisfy both a < 0 (our
assumption) and a < 1 (the solution); these
ombine to give a < 0.
The solution to 4+a
a < 5 is the real numbers a su
h that a > 1 or
38
Chapter 5. Inequalities
a < 0.
However, if two inequalities des
ribe two se
tions of the number line,
then they
annot be
ombined into a single statement. An example of
two inequalities that
annot be
ombined is x > 2 or x < 3. These
inequalities
reate two dierent se
tions on the number line: x greater
than or equal to 2, and x less than 3. We
annot write 2 < x < 3
be
ause if 2 < x and x < 3 then 2 < 3, whi
h is wrong.
Example 5.3.1.
bined?
Solution:
39
Example 5.3.2.
bined?
Solution:
No.
Solve | x |< 4.
Solution:
Case 1: If x 0, then | x |= x so | x |< 4 means x < 4.
For this
ase we want the values of x that satisfy both x 0 (our
assumption) and x < 4 (our solution); these give 0 x < 4.
Case 2: If x < 0, then | x |= x so | x |< 4 means x < 4,
40
Chapter 5. Inequalities
that is, x > 4. For this
ase we want the values of x that satisfy
both x < 0 (our assumption) and x > 4 (our solution); these give
4 < x < 0.
The solution to | x |< 4 is 0 x < 4 or 4 < x < 0. We
an put
these together as 4 < x < 4. The solution set is all values of x at
a distan
e of less than 4 from the origin.
Example 5.4.2.
Solve | 2x 6 |> 5.
Solution:
Case 1: If 2x 6 0, then | 2x 6 |= 2x 6.
2x 6 > 5,
2x > 11,
11
x >
.
2
For this
ase we want the values of x that satisfy both 2x 6 > 0
(our assumption) and x > 112 (our solution). This means x 3 and
11
x > 11
so
we
want
x
>
.
2
2
41
2x > 1,
1
x < .
2
For this
ase we want the values of x that satisfy both 2x 6 < 0
(our assumption) and x < 21 (our solution). This means x < 3 and
x < 21 so we want x < 12 . The solution to | 2x 6 |> 5 is x > 11
2 or
x < 21 .
Example 5.4.3.
Solve | x + 5 | 3.
Solution:
Case 1: If x + 5 0, then | x + 5 |= x + 5.
x + 5 3,
x 2.
For this
ase we want the values of x that satisfy both x + 5 0 (our
assumption) and x 2 (our solution). This means x 5 and
x 2, so we want 5 x 2.
Case 2: If x + 5 < 0, then | x + 5 |= (x + 5).
(x + 5) 3,
x 5 3,
x 8,
x 8.
42
Chapter 5. Inequalities
For this
ase we want the values of x that satisfy both x + 5 < 0 (our
assumption) and x 8 (our solution). This means x < 5 and
x > 8, so we want 8 x < 5.
The solution to | x + 5 | 3 is 5 x 2 or 8 x < 5,
whi
h we
an put together to obtain the solution 8 x 2.
5.5 Pra
ti
e Problems
Q 5.5.1.
1.
4x
7
3+x
2. 12 6x < 8 x
3.
11a+4
6
> 3 + 2a
4.
7b14
b
Q 5.5.2.
1. | 3x |> 12
2. | 4b 6 | 18
3. 7 | x + 14 |
4. 9 <| 3c 6 |
(Q 5.5.1)
1. x 7
2. x >
4
5
3. a < 14
4. 0 < b 7
A 5.6.2.
(Q 5.5.2)
1. x > 4 or x < 4
2. 3 b 6
3. 21 x 7
4. c > 5 or c < 1
43
Chapter 6
Powers
10 10 10 = 1000,
10 10 10 10 = 10000.
In general, a produ
t su
h as
n terms
z
}|
{
a a a a
46
Chapter 6. Powers
laws.
6.2 Index Laws
m
a a =a
am
mn
=
a
an
(a b)m = am bm
m+n
(am)n = amn
a m am
= m
b
b
1
an = n
a
a0 = 1
m
m/n
n
a
= ( a) = n am
am an = am+n
is the statement:
m terms
n terms
m+n terms
z
}|
{ z
}|
{ z
}|
{
a a a a a a a a=a a a a
For instan e,
23 24 = (2 2 2) (2 2 2 2),
= 27 ,
= 23+4.
47
2. Division
am
mn
=
a
an
is the statement:
m terms
z
}|
{
a a a a
n terms
For instan e,
z
}|
{
a a a a
mn terms
z
}|
{
=a a a a
35
33333
=
,
32
33
= 33 ,
= 352.
3. Powers
am
n
= amn
is the statement:
m terms
z
}|
{
m terms
mn terms
}|
{ z
z
}|
{
a
a
n times
=a a a a
..
m terms
z
}|
{
a a a a
This illustration shows how the power law follows from repeated appli-
48
Chapter 6. Powers
ab
For instan e,
m
= am bm
(3 5)2 = 3 5 3 5,
= 3 3 5 5,
= 32 52 .
5. Quotients
a m
b
For instan e,
3 3
5
am
= m
b
3 3 3
,
5 5 5
333
=
,
555
33
= 3.
5
=
6. Zero
a0 = 1
49
This illustration shows how the zero law follows dire
tly from the quotient law.
31 3
0
11
3 =3
= 1 = = 1.
3
3
7. Negatives
an =
1
an
This illustration shows how the negatives law follows dire
tly from the
quotient law and the zero law.
2
=2
03
20
1
= 3 = 3.
2
2
m/n
m
n
= ( a) = n am
For instan
e,
8
2/3
= (8
3
) = ( 8)2 = 22 = 4
1/3 2
or
8
2/3
2 1/3
= (8 )
82
1/2
64 = 4
is equivalent to
x.
Solution:
Simplify
x4 x2
x3
x4 x2 x4+2 x6
= 3 = 3 = x63 = x3
3
x
x
x
50
Example 6.2.2.
Chapter 6. Powers
Simplify
Solution:
(x2 y 3 )2
x2 y 4
(x2 y 3 )2
x22 y (3)2
=
,
x2 y 4
x2 y 4
x4 y 6
= 2
,
x y4
= x4(2) y 64 ,
= x6 y 10 .
Example 6.2.3.
Solution:
Evaluate
29 23
16
29 23
29 23
=
,
16
24
293
=
,
24
26
= 4,
2
= 264,
= 22 ,
= 4.
Example 6.2.4.
Evaluate 272/3
51
Solution:
272/3 = (271/3)2,
3 1/3 2
= (3 )
,
2
= (331/3 ,
1 2
= (3 ,
= 32 ,
= 9.
Example 6.2.5.
Simplify
Solution:
(x3/2 y 2 )2
y 7/2x3
(x3/2 y 2 )2
x(3/2)2 y 22
=
,
y 7/2 x3
y 7/2 x3
x3 y 4
= 7/2
,
y
x3
= x33 y 4(7/2) ,
= x0 y (8/2)+(7/2),
= y 1/2,
1
= .
y
Write 95 as a produ t.
Q 6.3.2.
Simplify
1. x2 x3
2.
y5
y2
52
Chapter 6. Powers
3. (x4)3
4. (2x)3
5. x3
Q 6.3.3.
1.
213 24
214
2. 1252/3
3. (x y)0
Q 6.3.4.
Simplify
Q 6.3.5.
Simplify
Q 6.3.6.
Simplify
(x7 y 4 )2
(y 12 x3 )3
(x3 y)2
x4 y 6
214 93 51
2582 311
(Q 6.3.1) 9 9 9 9 9
(Q 6.3.2)
1. x5
2. y3
3. x12
4. 8x3
5.
1
x3
A 6.4.3.
(Q 6.3.3)
1. 8
2. 25
3. 1
A 6.4.4.
A 6.4.5.
A 6.4.6.
(Q 6.3.6) 28 35 53
53
Chapter 7
Logs
You should make sure you understand powers before reading; this se
tion. For assistan
e with powers refer to Chapter 6.
7.1 Introdu
tion
55
56
Chapter 7. Logs
In this
ase a is the base, and the equation
an be read as `the logarithm
of y to the base a is x'. It is required that a > 0, y > 0 and a 6= 1.
57
so
e 2.718281828.
Solution:
ln e = 1.
Example 7.2.2.
Solution:
Determine ln e.
Let x = ln e. Then ex = e. Hen
e x = 1, so
Determine ln
1
e
Let x = ln 1e . Then ex = 1e , so ex = e1 . Hen
e
x = 1, so ln 1e = 1.
Example
1
3 2
7.2.3. Determine ln
e .
58
Solution:
so ln 3 e2 = 23 .
Chapter 7. Logs
3 2
Let x = ln e . Then ex = e2/3. Hen
e x = 23 ,
Be
ause of the
onne
tion between logarithms and powers, there are
analogues for many of the power laws. These logarithm laws below are
expressed using loga, as they are equally appli
able for any base.
The logarithm laws are:
59
loga 1 = 0
x
loga a = x
logc b
loga b =
logc a
x
y
n(loga x) = loga xn
aloga x = x
Simplify ln 5 + ln 7.
Solution:
ln 5 + ln 7 = ln(5 7) = ln 35 3.5553.
Example 7.3.2.
Solution:
24
4
= log10 6 0.7782.
Example 7.3.3.
Example 7.3.4.
60
Chapter 7. Logs
Solution:
2 log10 7 + log10 3 = log10 72 + log10 3,
= log10 49 + log10 3,
= log10(49 3),
= log10(147),
2.1673.
Example 7.3.5.
Solution:
Example 7.3.6.
Simplify
log10 81
log10 9
log10 81
log10 34
=
log10 9
log10 32
4 log10 3
2 log10 3
4
2
= 2.
x.
Solution:
Let y = ln x. By the denition, ey = x if and only
if y = ln x. Sin
e y = ln x, this is
ertainly true. It follows that
eln x = x.
Example 7.3.7.
Solution:
above.
Simplify eln(x1).
eln(x1) = x 1 by the nal logarithm law given
Logarithms
an be used to solve equations involving powers, by taking the logarithm of ea
h side of the equation (with the same base).
Consider the example below.
Example 7.4.1.
Solve 10x = 4.
61
Solution:
10x = 4,
log10 10x = log10 4,
x = log10 4,
0.6021 . . . ( from the
al
ulator ).
Example 7.4.2.
Solution:
ex1 = 33,
ln(ex1 ) = ln 33,
x 1 = ln 33,
x = 1 + ln 33,
4.4965 . . . ( from the
al
ulator ).
Example 7.4.3.
Solution:
62
Chapter 7. Logs
log10(2x) = 1.4,
101.4 = 2x,
101.4
x =
,
2
12.559 . . . ( from the
al
ulator ).
Example 7.4.4.
Solution:
log10 x + log10(x 3) = 1,
log10 x(x 3) = 1,
x(x 3) = 101,
x2 3x 10 = 0,
(x 5)(x + 2) = 0,
x = 5 or x = 2.
Solve 4x = 83.
63
Solution:
4x = 83,
ln 4x = ln 83, ( taking ln on ea
h side )
x ln 4 = ln 83,
ln 83
x =
,
ln 4
3.1875 . . . ( from the
al
ulator ).
Example 7.4.6.
Solution:
11x = 27,
log10 11x = log10 27,
x log10 11 = log10 27,
log10 27
x =
,
log10 11
= 1.3744 . . . ( from the
al
ulator ).
log10 7 =
ln 7
.
ln 10
logc b
logc a
. Here
64
Chapter 7. Logs
= log2 2 + log2(32),
= 1 + 2 log2 3,
log 3
= 1+2 3 ,
log3 2
1
,
= 1+2
log3 2
2
1+
,
0.63093
4.16993.
x.
Q 7.5.2.
1. 54 = 625
2. y = ex
3. 102 = 0.01
Q 7.5.3.
Simplify
1. log10 12 + log10 5
2. log10 44 log10 11
65
3. 2 ln 5 + ln 4 ln 10
4. log47 1
Q 7.5.4.
Simplify
2(log10 25)
log10 125
1. 10x = 43
2. ex+1 = 12
3. ln x = 1.54
4. log10(3x 7) = 2.4
5. log10 x + log10(x 5) = 2
6. 3x = 19
7. 7x = 46
7.6 Answers to Pra
ti
e Problems
A 7.6.1.
(Q 7.5.1) 7x = 55.
A 7.6.2.
(Q 7.5.2)
1. log5 625 = 4
2. ln y = x
3. log10 0.01 = 2
A 7.6.3.
(Q 7.5.3)
66
Chapter 7. Logs
1. log10 60
2. log10 4
3. ln 10
A 7.6.4.
(Q 7.5.4) 43 .
A 7.6.5.
(Q 7.5.5)
1. 1.4849
2. 4.6646
3. 86.0629
4. 12.8078
5. 2.6801
6. 1.9675
Chapter 8
Trigonometry
3
1
sin 60 =
,
cos 60 = , and
tan 45 = 1.
2
2
The numbers returned by these fun
tions are ratios of side lengths of
a right-angled triangle.
8.2 Radians
You are probably used to measuring angles in degrees. Another
ommon unit of measurement for angles is the radian. By denition, one
radian is the angle required to
reate a se
tor of a
ir
le with an are
length equal to the radius.
67
68
Chapter 8. Trigonometry
180
degrees ,
1 degree =
radians .
180
Example 8.2.1.
Solution:
150
5
6
150 5
=
= .
180
180
6
Multiply 54 by 180 .
Example 8.2.2.
Solution:
5 180 5 180
=
= 225.
4
Hen e
5
4
radians is 225.
69
For
onvenien
e, we will refer to the lengths of the sides labeled opposite, adja
ent and hypotenuse as opp, adj, and hyp, respe
tively. The
three trigonometri
fun
tions sine,
osine, and tangent are then dened
as
sin =
opp
,
hyp
cos =
adj
, tan
hyp
opp
.
adj
Note that for these denitions of the trigonometri fun tions, 0 < <
sin
.
Also
note
that
tan
=
.
2
cos
Solution:
3
opp
6
, so sin =
= ,
hyp
10 5
adj
8
4
cos =
, so cos =
= ,
hyp
10 5
opp
6 3
tan =
, so tan = = .
adj
8 4
sin =
You may nd the a ronym SOH CAH TOA will help you in remembering the trigonometri ratios, where O stands for opposite, A stands
70
Chapter 8. Trigonometry
for adja
ent, H stands for hypotenuse, and S, C, and T stand for sine,
osine, and tangent respe
tively.
In many
ases, given a parti
ular angle, it is di
ult to measure
side lengths of a triangle exa
tly, so the best we
an do is nd de
imal
approximations for the trigonometri
ratios. However, we do know
exa
t values of the trigonometri
ratios for
ertain angles. Here are two
triangles that let you determine the exa
t values pf the trigonometri
ratios for 30 = 6 radians, 45 = 4 radians, and 60 = 3 radians. To
help you in memorising these triangles, it may help to re
all that in
any triangle, the shortest side is opposite the smallest angle.
Table 8.1:
30
45
60
1
2
1
2
3
2
3
2
1
2
1
2
1
3
71
Solution:
We use tangent sin
e the sides involved are opposite and adja
ent to the angle marked 60.
tan 60 =
50
50
, so y tan 60 = 50, whi
h means y =
.
y
tan 60
72
Chapter 8. Trigonometry
50
28.87. The
If you are given a triangle in whi
h the given angle is not one of the
spe
ial angles, then you will need to use your
al
ulator to determine
the relevant trigonometri
ratio. When you use your
al
ulator, always
he
k that you have it in the
orre
t mode (degrees or radians).
Example 8.3.4.
Solution:
We use
osine sin
e the sides involved are the hypotenuse and the side adja
ent to the angle marked 23.
cos 23 =
z
, so z = 10 cos 23.
10
73
Solution:
The given side lengths are the adja
ent and hypotenuse, so we use
osine.
cos =
6
1
= .
12 2
We
an refer to the spe
ial triangles to nd that the angle with a
osine of 12 is 60. This is written mathemati
ally as
= arccos
1
so = 60.
2
74
Chapter 8. Trigonometry
Solution:
The given side lengths are the opposite and the
hypotenuse so we use sine.
sin =
1
4
= .
16 4
1
so 14.
4
75
sin = y,
y
tan = .
x
sin
Noti
e that tan = cos
, and that tan is not dened when x = 0,
sin
e we
annot divide by 0. Note that these denitions agree with the
previous denitions for 0 < < 2 .
= 1.
2
cos = x so cos = 0.
2
y
tan =
so tan is not dened.
x
2
sin = y so sin
Example 8.4.2.
sin = y so sin = 0.
cos = x so cos = 1.
y
0
tan =
so tan =
= 0.
x
1
From these denitions you
an see the trigonometri
fun
tions have
dierent signs in dierent quadrants of the xy plane. Here are two
diagrams whi
h may help you to remember in whi
h quadrants the
trigonometri
fun
tions are positive and negative. The diagram on the
76
Chapter 8. Trigonometry
right is often
alled the CAST rule (in ea
h quadrant starting at the
lower right, a letter of the word CAST identies whi
h of the fun
tions
are positive in that quadrant; A means all are positive).
Below are the graphs for sine,
osine and tangent. You
an see from
the graphs that sine and
osine have a period of 2 (so the graphs
repeat every 2 radians) and tangent has a period of radians. These
graphs are
onsistent with the CAST diagram: you
an see that sin
is positive between 0 and and negative between and 2 . From the
tangent graph you
an see that the fun
tion is not dened at 2 , whi
h
we demonstrated in Example 8.4.1.
Suppose we want to nd the value of cos 34 . First we draw the point P
on the unit
ir
le whi
h makes an angle of 3
4 measured anti
lo
kwise
from the x-axis. We must nd the x and y
oordinates of P . To do this,
we draw a line from P to the x-axis to
reate a right-angled triangle
with the right-angle on the x-axis. The angle that this right-angled
triangle makes at the origin is 4 .
77
Using spe
ial triangle OQP , we see cos 4 = 12 . Then taking into
a
ount that the x-
oordinate of a point in the se
ond quadrant is
1
negative (hen
e
osine is negative) we see that cos 3
4 = cos 4 = 2 .
Evaluate sin 76 .
Solution:
We draw the point P to
reate a right-angled triangle with an angle of 6 at the origin.
Example 8.4.3.
78
Chapter 8. Trigonometry
signs. Thus an angle and its related angles have the same trigonometri
values, ex
ept possibly for a
hange in sign.
2
4
=
and + = + = .
3
3
3
3
79
The two angles between 0 and 2 radians that satisfy cos = 12 are
4
= 2
and
=
.
3
3
Example 8.4.4.
sin = 23 .
Solution:
The angle in the rst quadrant that has sin = 23
is 3 . The related angles in the quadrants where sine ( y-
oordinate)
is positive are = 3 and = 3 = 23 .
3
2
are =
and =
2
3
80
Chapter 8. Trigonometry
1. 120
2. 260
3. 315
Q 8.5.2.
1.
4
9
2.
3
5
3.
Q 8.5.3.
1. sin
2. cos
3. tan
Q 8.5.4.
81
Q 8.5.5.
1. sin 11
6 .
2. cos 56 .
3. tan 43 .
4. sin 14
(use your
al
ulator for this one).
15
Q 8.5.6.
are true.
1. sin =
2. cos = 1.
3. tan =
1
3
4. cos =
1
4
82
Chapter 8. Trigonometry
1.
2
3
2.
13
9
3.
7
4
A 8.6.2.
(Q 8.5.1)
(Q 8.5.2)
1. 80
2. 108
3. 20
A 8.6.3.
(Q 8.5.3)
1. sin =
5
13
2. cos =
12
13
3. tan =
5
12
A 8.6.4.
(Q 8.5.4)
1. x = 10.62 cm
2. x = 30.91 cm
3. = 47.29
A 8.6.5.
1.
2.
1
2
3
2
(Q 8.5.5)
3. 3
4. 0.208
A 8.6.6.
1.
5
4
(Q 8.5.6)
and
7
4
2. 0 and 2
3.
and
7
6
83
Chapter 9
Derivatives and Anti-derivatives
86
Rule 2.
Rule 3.
Example 9.1.1.
Example 9.1.2.
Solution:
2 1x21 = 2x.
Example 9.1.3.
Solution:
87
this fun
tion is f (x) = 6x. Say that we wanted to nd the gradient
at the point (4, 52). To do this, we substitute the value x = 4 into
the derivative, giving f (4) = 6 4 = 24. We say that the derivative
evaluated at x = 4 is equal to 24. This means that the gradient of the
fun
tion f (x) = 3x2 + 4 at the point x = 4 is 24.
Example 9.1.6.
4x at x = 1.
Solution:
The gradient of the fun
tion f (x) at any point is
the derivative f (x) at that point. From the rules above we have
f (x) = 4x + 4. So at x = 1, the gradient is f (1) = 4 + 4 = 0.
So at that point the gradient is zero.
Negative powers are handled in exa
tly the same way as positive
powers.
Example 9.1.7.
Solution:
h(x) = 11x.
Indeed, it is also possible to take derivatives this way when the powers involved are any rational numbers, not just integers.
Solution:
We know x = x1/2. So using Rule 1, f (x) =
1
1
1/2
x
=
.
2
2x1/2
88
a g (x).
Rule 6.
Example 9.2.1.
Solution:
Example 9.2.2.
Solution:
9.3 Derivatives of
ex
and
ln x
89
When learning about logarithms, the
onstant e was introdu
ed. The
rules for the derivatives of ex and ln x are also quite simple.
Rule 7.
Rule 8.
It is here that the signi
an
e of the number e be
omes more apparent. The fun
tion f (x) = ex has the unique property that f (x) =
f (x). So the gradient of the slope at any point along the fun
tion is
equal to the value of the fun
tion at that point.
Example 9.3.1.
Solution:
One of the most signi
ant appli
ations of derivatives
omes from
the fa
t that they allow fun
tions to be maximised or minimised. A
lo
al maximum or minimum in a fun
tion will
orrespond to a position
where the gradient of the fun
tion, and therefore the derivative of the
fun
tion at that point, will be zero. Sin
e fun
tions
an be used to
model all manners of problems in s
ien
e, business, e
onomi
s and information te
hnology, this ability to nd extrema is extremely valuable.
Unlike derivatives, anti-derivatives are not unique. This is be
ause the
derivative of a
onstant is 0. So if F is the anti-derivative of f , then
F and F + c have the same derivative.
90
d
An alternative notation for f (x) is dx
f . In order to make the pro
ess
d
and
of dierentiating f (x) easier, we use the Leibniz's notation dx
apply it to f (x) so that
f (x) =
We write
df
dx
d
f (x) .
dx
to abbreviate this.
Example 9.4.1.
Cal ulate
Solution:
f (x) =
=
=
=
=
d
dx f (x)
d
f (x),
dx
d
(4x3 + 7x 11),
dx
d
d
d
(4x3) + (7x) + (11),
dx
dx
dx
d
d
d
4 (x3) + 7 (x) 11 (1),
dx
dx
dx
2
4(3x ) + 7 1 11 0,
= 12x2 + 7.
91
9.5 Anti-derivatives
d
d
af (x) = a f (x)
dx
dx
d sin x
= cos x
dx
dex
= ex
dx
Example 9.4.2.
Cal ulate
Solution:
f (x) =
=
=
=
=
=
d
dx :
dxn
= nxn1
dx
df dg
d
f (x) + g(x) =
+
dx
dx dx
d cos x
= sin x
dx
d ln x 1
=
dx
x
d
dx f (x)
d
f (x),
dx
d
(12x5 + cos x ln x),
dx
d
d
d
(12x5) + (cos x) + ( ln x),
dx
dx
dx
d
d
12 (x5) sin x (ln x),
dx
dx
1
12(5x4) sin x ,
x
1
60x4 sin x .
x
9.5 Anti-derivatives
92
Rule 3.
R
R
R
f (x) + g(x) dx = f (x)dx + g(x)dx.
R
The third rule demonstrates an important point. Given the derivative of a fun
tion, integration allows the original fun
tion to be found.
Taking the derivative of a
onstant gives a result of zero, however,
so there will be no referen
e in the derivative to any
onstant that
appeared in the original fun
tion. For this reason an arbitrary
onstant must be in
luded for any integration, as in Rule l. This is why
anti-derivatives are known as `indenite' integrals.
R
f (x)dx.
Example 9.5.1. Let f (x) = 3x2 + 4x + 1. Find
Solution:
From Rule 2, we know the integral of this sum is
just the sum of the integrals of ea
h individual term. Then using
Rule 1 ea
h time we have
Z
93
9.5 Anti-derivatives
Example 9.5.2.
f (x).
Solution:
9x4dx,
9x4+1
=
+ c,
4 + 1
= 3x3 + c.
f (x) = 3x3,
f (x) = 3x3 7.
Rule 6.
f (x) = ex gives
Rule 7.
f (x) =
1
x
gives
f (x)dx = ex + c.
f (x)dx = ln (x) + c.
94
Example 9.5.3.
Example
x4 x2
f (x)dx =
+
+ ex cos (x) + c.
2
2
R
1
9.5.4. Let f (x) = 2 + cos (x) + x . Find
f (x)dx.
Solution:
On
e again the rules above allow the anti-derivatives
of ea
h to be found. So
Z
1. f (x) = 4x2 + 2x + 6
2. f (x) = 9x3 5x4 + 5
3. f (x) = x + 2x2
4. f (x) = a4 a2 + a
Q 9.6.2.
1. f (x) = 4 cos x
2. f (x) = 2 sin x + 8x
3. f (a) = a2 + sin a 4
4. f (x) = x3 3 cos x + 2x
Q 9.6.3.
1. f (x) = 5ex
2. f (x) = 7ex + x2
3. f (x) = 2 ln (x)
1. f (x) = 9x3 x + 7
2. f (x) = 3x2 + 2x + 8
3. f (x) = 4x3 + x3 + 3x
4. f (a) =
Q 9.6.5.
1
a2
+ 4a4 + 1
1. f (x) = sin x + x2
2. f () = cos + 2
3. f (x) = 2x3 sin x
95
96
1. f (x) = ex + 6x2
2. f (x) = 4x3 + x1
3. f (x) = cos x ex
(Q 9.6.1)
1. f (x) = 8x + 2
2. f (x) = 27x2 + 20x5
3. f (x) =
2 x
+ 4x
4. f (x) = 4a3 2a + 1.
See WS 12.9.1.
A 9.7.2.
(Q 9.6.2)
1. f (x) = 4 sin x
2. f (x) = 2 cos x + 8
3. f (a) = 2a + cos a
4. f (x) = 3x2 3 sin x + 2
See WS 12.9.2.
A 9.7.3.
(Q 9.6.3)
1. f (x) = 5ex
97
2. f (x) = 7ex + 2x
3. f (x) =
2
x
4. f (x) = 8a + a1
See WS 12.9.3.
A 9.7.4.
(Q 9.6.4)
1. f (x)dx =
9x4
4
x2 + 7x + c
2. f (x)dx = x3 + x2 + 8x + c
R
4. f (a)dx = a1 + 4a5 + a + c
5
See WS 12.9.4.
A 9.7.5.
(Q 9.6.5)
1. f (x)dx = cos x + x3 + c
3
2. f ()d = sin + 2 + c
R
3. f (x)dx =
R
4. f (x)dx =
x4
2
+ cos x + c
4x3
3
See WS 12.9.5.
A 9.7.6.
sin x + c
(Q 9.6.6)
1. f (x)dx = ex + 2x3 + c
R
2. f (x)dx = x4 + ln x + c
R
3. f (x)dx = sin x ex + c
98
Chapter 10
Ve
tors
100
Figure 10.1:
Figure 10.2:
101
Solution:
v=
0
0
xQ xP
y yP
! Q
41
1 3
xP
OP =
.
yP
!
1
So the position ve
tor of P = (1, 1) is just
.
1
10.2 Denition (magnitude)
In a ve tor spa e, the origin O = (0, 0) is a spe ial point. This is not the ase in an ane spa e.
102
?
Solution:
k v k=
(3)2 + 42 = 9 + 16 = 25 = 5.
Figure 10.3:
P Q + QR=P R
w =P R. In terms of
omponents, if
!
!
v1
w1
v=
,
w=
,
v2
w2
then
v+w =
v1 + w1
v2 + w2
103
Example 10.3.1.
Evaluate
7
Solution:
3
!
2
4
!
2
4
!
7 + (2)
(3) + 4
!
5
1
10.3.1 Properties
It follows from the
omponent des
ription that ve
tor addition satises
the following2 properties:
v + w = w + v,
u + (v + w) = (u + v) + w,
v + 0 = 0 + v = v.
( ommutative law )
(10.3.1)
(10.3.2)
(10.3.3)
5+0=0+5=5
104
Example 10.4.1.
Solution:
2v =
(2) 4
(2) (2)
8
4
2
!
0
0
v1
v2
by zero, we
= 0.
10.4.1 Properties
( exists 1 in s alars )
(10.4.1)
(10.4.2)
We set
v = (1) v.
105
That is, the ve
tor with the same magnitude as v but pointing in the
opposite dire
tion. Subtra
tion of ve
tors is then dened by
v w = v + (w).
!
!
4
2
Example 10.5.1. Evaluate
.
1
5
!
!
!
!
4
2
4
2
Solution:
=
+
=
1
5
1
5
!
6
6
4 2
1+5
A unit ve
tor is a ve
tor of unit length (i.e. a ve
tor that has magnitude
1). If v 6= 0 is a ve
tor, then
v
=
v
kvk
ve tor v =
8
6
Solution:
8
6
v
=
2
2
k= 8 + 6 = 100 = 10. So
v
1
=
k v k 10
8
6
4/5
3/5
106
6
p
p
2
2
that k v k= 1 : (4/5) + (3/5) = 16/25 + 9/25 = 1.
In parti ular
1
0
!
0
1
(10.6.1)
So far we!have dis
ussed 2-spa
e, the set of all 2-
omponent ve
tors
v1
v=
with real entries: v1, v2 R. Similarly in 3-spa
e a ve
tor
v2
zQ zP
v1
For v =OP = vv23 the magnitude of the ve
tor v is
q
107
ation by a s
alar . So if
v
1
v = vv2 ,
3
w=
w
1
w2
w3
are ve
tors, then we have the sum and s
alar multiples respe
tively
given by
v1 +w1
v
1
2 ,
v + w = v2 +w2 ,
v = v
R.
v3
v3 +w3
Example 10.7.1.
6
3
0
1
and w =
12
11
Solution: v + 2w =
1
3
5
+2
Figure 10.4:
6
3
0
1
3
5
A ve tor in 3-spa e.
3
5
6
0
3
5
108
10.7.1 Notation
109
= 10 2i + 10 2j.
w = 10 cos 60i 10 sin 60j,
= 5i 5 3j.
sin =
opposite side
).
hypotenuse
20 cos 45 + 10 cos 60 = 10 2 + 5.
20 cos 45 + 10 cos 60 = 10 2 5 3.
2
kvk =
(10 2 + 5) + (10 2 5 3)2,
q
=
500 + 100 2(1 3),
19.91.
10 2 5 3
tan =
.
10 2 + 5
110
So 15.98.
Figure 10.5:
111
= v1w1 + v2w2,
v2
w2
v w
1
1
v2 w2
= v1w1 + v2w2 + v3w3 .
v3
w3
(10.8.2)
(10.8.3)
10.8.2 Properties
k v k= v v.
3.
v w = w v,
v (u + w) = v u + v w,
(10.8.4)
(10.8.5)
112
as we have
i i = j j = k k = 1 and
i j = j i = i k = k i = j k = k j = 0.
ve
tors:
(i) v =
Solution:
is given by
0
0
1
0
w= 2 .
(ii) v =
cos =
vw
.
k v kk w k
1
5
4
,
w=
3
3
3
113
(i) Here k v k= 1, k w k= 0 + 4 + 4 = 2 2,
0
0
v w = 0 2 = 0 + 0 + 2 = 2.
1
1
2
cos = = .
2 2
2
Solution:
We must nd the angle between the ve
tors QP
and QR. Note that the ve tor QP is not given by the oordinates of
QP =
QP =
2
4
1
2
2
3
1
1
1
1
1
1
=
=
1
3
2
3
1
2
,
.
QP QR= 3 1 = 3 + 3 4 = 4.
It follows that
cos =
QP QR
kQP kkQRk
4 2
=
,
14
7
114
and we obtain
106.60 = 106 + 0.60 = 106 36.
Q 10.9.3.
12
!
3
2
and v =
Q 10.9.4.
!
In Se
tion 10.4,
! we state that using
! similar triangles it
v
v1
follows that if v = 1 , then v =
. Verify this with the
Q 10.9.5.
ve tors
!
2
3
and
6
9
v
!2
v2
115
Q 10.9.6.
1.
2
2
1/2
2.
3.
4.
1
1
3/2
!
0
1
Q 10.9.7.
Q 10.9.8.
Let u =
3
2
and v =
!
2
3
!
1
7
a s
alar multiple of v.
Let u
and v
be unit ve
tors.
2. Show that 1 u
v
1.
116
4. True or False: u
+v
and u
v
are orthogonal. Explain.
Q 10.9.10.
Let v =
2
4
2
Q 10.9.12.
Let v =
!
2
7
and w =
6
21
be ve tors in R2.
A 10.10.3.
12.10.3.
117
A 10.10.4.
A 10.10.5.
A 10.10.6.
A 10.10.7.
A 10.10.8.
(Q 10.9.7)
12 2
1
2 2
. See WS 12.10.7.
1
7
1
13 (17u
!
1
2
, then
A 10.10.9.
1
6
2 . Part 3.
A 10.10.10. (Q 10.9.10) Part 1. 2 6. Part 2. 6
1
0
w = 1 . See WS 12.10.10.
2
A 10.10.11.
WS 12.10.11.
A 10.10.12.
A 10.10.13.
Chapter 11
Matri
es
Histori
ally matri
es were introdu
ed to solve simultaneous linear equations of su
h as:
2x 3y + z = 13,
x + 4y = 0,
x 2y + 3z = 2.
a11 a12
a21 a22
A=
...
...
am1 am2
119
. . . a1n
. . . a2n
. . . ... .
. . . amn
(11.2.1)
120
O=
0 0 .
0 0
Example 11.2.1.
121
11.3 Equality
Solution:
1 1
A=
4 8 .
9 18
11.3 Equality
That is, we just add
orresponding elements, (just like ve
tor addi
tion).
Addition is only dened between matri
es of the same size.
Evaluate
Example 11.4.1.
1 4
6 1
6 3 + 0 3 .
9 4
2 0
122
Solution:
1 4
6 1
1 6 4 + 1
5 3
6 3 + 0 3 = 6 + 0 3 3 = 6 0 .
7 4
2 0
9 4
2 + 9 0 4
Evaluate
Example 11.4.2.
!
12 6
1
3 2 11
7 7 4
Solution:
This sum is undened, as it is not possible to add
matri
es of dierent sizes.
11.5 Properties
(
ommutative law),
( asso
iative law),
( exists zero matrix ),
( exists additive inverse ).
123
11.5 Properties
2 3
A = 1 4
,
6 1
Solution:
1 0
B = 4 3
,
8 7
3 1
C = 5 2
4 7
3 1
21 3+0
(A + B) + C = 1 + 4 4 + 3 + 5 2
,
6 + 8 1 + 7
4 7
3 1
1 3
= 5 7 + 5 2
,
4 7
2 8
1+3 3+1
=
5 + 5 7 + 2 ,
2+4 87
4 4
= 10 9
.
6 1
124
A + (B + C) =
3
1 + 3 0 + 1
+
4 4 + 5 3 + 2
,
1
8+4 77
3
2 1
4 + 9 5
,
6 1
12 0
2+2 3+1
1 + 9 4 + 5 ,
6 + 12 1 + 0
4 4
10 9 .
6 1
125
Let
Example 11.6.1.
A=
4 6 3
0 1 2
B=
5 1 0
3 1 0
1 5 3
3 2 2
AB =
If
A=
A+A=
1
A=
2
6 0
2 1
12 0
3 0 2
then
!
4 2
!
3 0
21
9 7 3
= 2A
etc.
126
...
... b . . . b . . . b
..
2k
2r
21
..
mr matrix
.
.
ai1 a22 . . . ain .
. = AB ,
.
...
... ...
...
...
..
where (ab)ik = dot produ
t between i-th row and A and k -th
olumn
of B .
AB is only dened if the number of
olumns A = the number of
rows of B .
learly, matrix multipli
ation involves multiplying elements in rows
1. Write matrix A.
2. Write matrix B
above
and to
the right
of matrix A.
127
of B ,
7. Repeat steps (4), (5), and (6) for ea
h row of A and for ea
h
olumn of B .
5 6
2 3 1 0
4 5
128
Example 11.8.1.
Let A =
BA are dened.
0 1
2 1
and B =
0 1
1 2
2 1
3 4
!
0+3 0+4
23 44
!
3 4
.
1 0
1 2
3 4
. AB and
129
Similarly
1 2
BA =
3 4
0 1
!
4 1
8 1
2 1
0 1
0 1
AB = 1 0 1
1 2 ,
2 12
1
= (0 + 0 2) 1 + 0 + 2 ,
= 2 32 .
Example 11.8.3.
Let
A= 1 3 9 ,
B=
1 .
7
130
Solution:
2
AB = 1 3 9
1 ,
7
= 2 + 3 + 63 ,
= 68 .
Not that if A were a
olumn ve
tor, this would be the dot produ
t of
the two ve
tors, but
2
BA =
1 1 3 9 ,
7
2 6 18
=
1 3 9 .
7 21 63
131
11.10 Transposition
matri
es to be zero:
!
!
1 1
1 1
2 2
1 1
0 0
0 0
ie.
a11 a12
a21 a22
...
...
am1 am2
a11 a21
. . . a2n
= a12 a22
...
...
. . . ...
. . . amn
a1n a2n
. . . a1n
. . . am1
. . . am2
. . . ... .
. . . amn
132
!T
5 4
5 8 1
=
,
8 0
4 0 0
1 0
!T
!
1 1
1 2
=
,
2 0
1 0
7
T
=
7 5 2
5 .
2
A olumn ve tor
v1
v2
n
v=
... R
vn
133
w
2
T
v w = v1w1 + v2w2 + . . . vn wn = v1 v2 . . . vn
... = v w.
wn
Also
7
4
4
2
dot produ
t v w using matrix multipli
ation.
Solution:
11
v w = vT w = 3 2 7 4
4 = 42.
2
An n n matrix
A=
...
... . . . ...
134
a11 0 . . . 0 0
a11 a12
...
a2n
..
...
... ... ...
...
...
.
...
... 0 0 0 . . . a
..
(n1)(n1) a(n1)n
an1 an2
. . . ann
0 0 ...
0
ann
lower triangular
upper triangular
If elements above and below the prin
ipal diagonal are zero, so that
aij = 0,
1 0
For example, A =
0 3
0 0
matrix
.
for i 6= j,
0
is a diagonal 3 3 matrix.
2
135
1 0 0 ... 0
0 1 0 . . . 0
I = 0 0 1 . . . 0 .
. . .
.. .. .. . . . ...
0 0 0 ... 1
a11 a12
a21 a22
= A = A I.
136
ej =
1 j.
0
.
..
0
11.14 Inverses
137
A3 = A2 A,
Ak+1 = Ak A,
Solution:
Let A =
(Ak )r = Akr .
!
1 4
1
A2 = A A, !
3 8
=
,
2 5
A4 = A2 A2, !
7 16
=
.
4
9
In
identally, A1 is reserved to mean the inverse of A, whi
h only exists if the determinant of A is non-zero. You will learn how to
ompute
3 3 determinants later in MATH1051.
138
A=
Let
4 1 4
3 0 0
1 8 9
B=
5 5 2
6 1 4
2 2 11
C=
1 9
0
4 2 7
7 0 1
(11.16.1)
1. A + B
2. B + C
3. A + (B + C)
4. (B + A) + C
5. A C
6. B B
Let A, B , C be the matri
es given in Eqn. (11.16.1).
Cal
ulate the following if possible.
Q 11.16.2.
1. AO
2. A(B + C)
3. BC
4. 3C
5. 2B + 5C
6. A2
139
Q 11.16.3.
and let
D=
!
3 0
1 0 0
12 0 9
, E=
,
I
=
. (11.16.2)
0 1 0
0 0
2 1 1
2 8
0 0 1
Let A =
1 7
2 1
140
Q 11.16.6.
(11.16.3)
5x 11y + 19z = 2.
(11.16.4)
5x y = 2.
(Q 11.16.1)
1. A + B =
2. B + C =
9 4 6
3 1 4
3 10 20
6 4 2
2 3 11
9 2 10
3. A + (B + C) =
4. (B + A) + C =
5. A C =
6. B B =
10 5
6
1 3 11
10 10 19
10 5
6
1 3 11
10 10 19
3 8 4
1 2 7
6 8 10
000
000
000
141
See WS 12.11.1.
(Q 11.16.2)
A 11.17.2.
1. AO =
000
000
000
2. A(B + C) =
3. BC =
4. 3C =
6. A =
62 11
37
18 12 6
71 38 180
39 35 33
26 56 3
87 14 3
3 27 0
12 6 21
21 0 3
5. 2B + 5C =
2
17
15 35
4
8 12 43
39 4 17
28 52
12 3 12
37 71 85
See WS 12.11.2.
A 11.17.3.
(Q 11.16.3)
1. AD annot be al ulated.
19 16
2. BE =
10 32.
28 88
3. B + E
annot be
al
ulated.
4. D + E T =
5. DC =
15 0 11
2 1 7
!
75 108 9
9 20 6
142
75 9
T T
6. C D = 108 20
.
9 6
7. DI = D.
8. IA = A.
See WS 12.11.3.
A 11.17.4.
(Q 11.16.4) Let B =
1
13
1 7
2 1
(Q 11.16.5)
4x y + 4z = 1,
3x = 8,
x + 8y + 9z = 0.
See WS 12.11.5.
1
2 0
0 1 3
5 11 19
(Q 11.16.6) Let A =
Then we have AX = b. See WS 12.11.6.
A 11.17.6.
A 11.17.7.
,X=
x
y
z
,b=
16
(Q 11.16.7) x = 10
17 , y = 17 . See WS 12.11.7.
13
4
2
Chapter 12
Worked Solutions
WS 12.1.2. To Q 1.5.2.
has
0 6 .
1. The set {x | x Z and 2 x 6}
ontains all the integers between and in
luding 2 and
6. So this is 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6.
2. The set {x | x Z and 3 < x 0}
ontains all the integers between and in
luding 3
and 0, in
luding 0 but not 3 So this is 2, 1 and 0.
3. The set {x | x N and x < 0}
ontains all the natural numbers that are less than zero,
so this set is empty. So {x | x N and x < 0} = .
WS 12.1.3. To Q 1.5.3.
1. The set {3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8}
ontains all the integers between and in
luding 3 and 8. So one
notation for this is {x | x Z and 3 x 8}.
2. The set {4, 2, 0, 2}
ontains all the even integers between and in
luding 4 and 2.
One notation for this is {x | x Z and x is even and x x 2}.
3. The set {6, 5, 3, 4, 5}
ontains all the integers between 6 and 5 and all the integers
between 3 and 5. So one notation for this is {x | x Z and 6 x 5 or 3 x 5}.
4. The set {4, 5, 6, . . . }
ontains all the natural numbers greater than, but not in
luding 3.
One notation for this is {x | x N and 3 < x}.
WS 12.1.4. To Q 1.5.4.
1. The interval that
onsists of all the real numbers between 3 and 5, in
luding 3 and 5, is
simply denoted [3, 5], by denition.
2. The interval {x | x R and 7 x < 15}
onsists of the real numbers between 7 and
15, where 7 is in
luded but 15 is not. So this is notated [7, 15).
143
144
3. The interval {x | x R and x > 4}
onsists of the real numbers greater than but not
in
luding 4. So this is notated (4, ).
4. The interval {x | x R and x 0}
onsists of the real numbers less than or equal to 0.
So this is therefore notated (, 0].
n=1
WS 12.2.2. To Q 2.3.2.
1. The sum 3 + 4 + 5 + 6 + 7 + 8 is the sum of all integers from 3 to 8. In sigma notation
P
this is 8i=3 i.
1
3. The sum 1+ 12 + 13 + + 100
is the sum of 100 terms, ea
h of whi
h is a fra
tion, where the
numerator is 1 and the denominator is the number between 1 and 100 whi
h
orresponds
P 1
to the parti
ular term. In sigma notation this is 100
i=1 i .
WS 12.2.3. To Q 2.3.3.
j
j2
(1) (2j + n
).
This is
P6
j=3 (1)
(2j + nj2 )
WS 12.2.4. To Q 2.3.4. The sum 3x1 5x2 + 7x3 9x4 is a sum with alternating plus and
minus signs for ea
h term, a fa
tor out the front that in
reases by 2 ea
h time, and a subs
ript
of x that in
reases by 1 for ea
h
onse
utive term. If we let the variable over whi
h the sum is
145
to be performed be i, and allow this to go from 1 to 4, the rst term
ould be 2i + 1xi . This
gives the right terms, but now they positives and negatives must be dealt with. Sin
e (1)0 = 1
and(1)1 = 1, we
an in
lude the term (1)i1 to give the full sum. This gives a nal answer
P
of 4i=1 (1)i1 (2i + 1)xi .
2.
9ab
9ab
=
,
27bc
27bc
9ab
=
,
9 3bc
a
=
, sin
e b 6= 0.
3c
3.
8 + 4e
2(4 + 2e)
=
,
2e
2e
4 + 2e
.
=
e
WS 12.3.2. To Q 3.4.2.
1.
3
1
3
3
+
=
+ ,
12 4
12 12
3+3
=
,
12
6
=
,
12
1
=
.
2
146
2.
4
1
4
1
+
=
+ ,
3 15
3 15
5
4
=
+ ,
15 15
5+4
=
,
15
9
=
,
15
33
=
,
35
3
=
.
5
3.
6 2
18 14
=
,
7 3
21 21
18 14
=
,
21
4
.
=
21
4.
13 7
13 14
=
,
18 9
18 18
13 14
=
,
18
1
=
.
18
WS 12.3.3. To Q 3.4.3.
1.
4
7
47
=
,
11 12
11 12
47
=
,
11 4 3
7
=
,
11 3
7
=
.
33
2.
8
3
9
3
=
,
13 9
13 8
39
=
,
13 8
27
=
.
104
3.
52
5 2
=
,
8 7
87
52
=
,
247
5
=
,
47
5
=
.
28
4.
3 5
3 6
=
,
8 6
8 5
36
,
=
85
323
=
,
245
33
,
=
45
9
=
.
20
WS 12.3.4. To Q 3.4.4.
1.
ab 2c
ab 2d 2c
+
=
+ ,
4
8d
4 2d
8d
2abd 2c
=
+ ,
8d
8d
2abd + 2c
=
,
8d
2(abd + c)
=
,
2 4d
abd + c
=
.
4d
147
148
2.
4xy
3x
4xy 3x
+
=
+
,
9
12
33 34
3 3x
4xy 4
=
+
,
334 334
4xy 4 + 3 3x
=
,
334
16xy + 9x
=
.
36
3.
30gh 5h
30gh g 2 5h
,
14
7g
14 g
2 7g
2 3 5gh g 2 5h
=
,
2 7g
15g 2h 5h
=
.
7g
4.
9a
5
9a b
35
,
24 8b
24 b 3 8b
3 3a b 3 5
,
=
3 8b
3ab 5
=
.
8b
WS 12.3.5. To Q 3.4.5.
1.
12g h
12g h
=
,
16h 2
16h 2
3 4g h
=
,
16h 2
3g
=
.
8
2.
4e 9d
4e 9d
=
,
45
f
45 f
4e 9d
=
,
59f
4de
=
.
5f
149
3.
x
xy 14
xy
=
,
7
14
7
x
xy 14
=
,
7x
xy 2 7
=
,
7x
= 2y.
4.
5a
7
5a 9a
=
,
7
9a
7
7
5a 9a
=
,
77
45a2
=
.
49
2.
32ab + 16b + 8abc = 8b 4a + 8b 2 + 8b ac,
= 8b(4a + 2 + ac).
3.
6xyz + 3yz + 18wyz = 3yz 2x + 3yz + 3yz 6w,
= 3yz(2x + 1 + 6w).
WS 12.4.2. To Q 4.4.2.
150
1.
4 + 4b + b2 = 2 2 + 2 b + 2 b + b b,
= 2(2 + b) + (2 + b)b,
= (2 + b)(2 + b),
= (2 + b)2 .
2.
25a2 10ad + d2 = 25a2 10ad + d2 ,
3.
x2 + 12xy + 36y 2 = x x + x 6y + x 6y + 6y 6y,
= x(x + 6y) + (x + 6y)6y,
= (x + 6y)(x + 6y),
= (x + 6y)2.
4.
144 48a + 4a2 = 12 12 + 12 (2a) + 12 (2a) + (2a) (2a),
= 12(12 + (2a)) + (12 + (2a))(2a),
= (12 + (2a))(12 + (2a)),
= (12 2a)2 .
WS 12.4.3. To Q 4.4.5.
1.
9y 2 36 = 3y 3y 6 6,
2.
64 121g 4 = 8 8 11g 2 11g 2 ,
3.
16x6 49y 8 = 4x3 4x3 7y 4 7y 4,
WS 12.4.4. To Q 4.4.5.
1.
x2 5x + 4 = x x 1x 4x + (1) (4),
= x(x 1) + (x 1) (4),
= (x 1)(x 4).
2.
x2 + 2x 15 = x x + 5x 3x + (3) 5,
= x(x 3) + 5(x 3),
= (x 3)(x + 5).
3.
y 2 3y + 2 = y y 1y 2y + (1) (2),
= y(y 1) + (2)(y 1),
= (y 1)(y 2).
4.
x2 + 13x + 42 = x x + 6x + 7x + 6 7,
= x(x + 6) + 7(x + 6),
= (x + 7)(x + 6).
151
152
5.
x2 11x + 24 = x2 3x 8x + (3) (8),
= (x 8)(x 3).
6.
a2 + 7a + 12 = a2 + 3a + 4a + 3 4,
= a(a + 3) + 4(a + 3),
= (a + 3)(a + 4).
WS 12.4.5. To Q 4.4.5.
1. Fa
torisations ab of 3: are ab = 1 3. Fa
torisations cd of 10 are 1 10, 2 5. We
require ac + bd = 17. This is 17 = 1 2 + 3 5. Therefore
3x2 + 17x + 10 = 1x 3x + 2 1x + 5 3x + 2 5,
= 1x(3x + 2) + 5(3x + 2),
= (x + 5)(3x + 2).
= 2y y + 4 2y + 4y + 4 4,
3.
4x2 8x 12 = 4x2 8x 12,
= 4(x2 2x 3),
153
4.
2z 2 z 15 = 2z 2 z 15,
= 1 2z 2 3 2z + 5 1z 3 5,
= (z 3)(2z + 5).
21 7x 4x,
21 3x,
7 x.
2.
12 6x < 8 x,
12 8 < 6x x,
4 < 5x,
4
< x.
5
3.
11a + 4
> 3 + 2a,
6
11a + 4 > 6 (3 + 2a),
11a + 4 > 18 + 12a,
154
sin e b > 0
7b 5b 14,
2b 14,
b 7.
sin e b < 0
7b 5b 14,
2b 14,
b 7,
WS 12.5.2. To Q 5.5.2.
3x > 12,
12
x >
,
3
x > 4.
3x > 12,
12
x <
,
3
x < 4.
Sin
e x 6= 0 be
ause this would mean that 0 > 12, whi
h is absurd, we must have x > 4 or
x < 4.
155
4b 18 + 6,
4b 24,
b 6,
4b 18 6,
4b 12,
b 3.
7 14 x,
7 x,
7 + 14 x,
21 x,
21 x.
156
9 + 6 < 3c,
15 < 3c,
5 < c.
9 6 < 3c,
3 < 3c,
1 > c.
95
written as a produ t is 9 9 9 9 9.
WS 12.6.2. To Q 6.3.2.
1. x2 x3 = x2+3 = x5 .
2.
y5
y2
= y 52 = y 3.
1
x3
WS 12.6.3. To Q 6.3.3.
1.
213 24
214
213+4
214
= 21714 = 23 = 8.
3. (x y)0 = x0 y 0 = 1 1 = 1.
2
= 52 = 25.
157
WS 12.6.4. To Q 6.3.4.
(x7 y 4 )2
x72 y (4)2
=
x3(3) ,
(y 12 x3 )3
y 12(3)
x14 y 8
= 36
,
y
y 9
= x14(9) y 8(36) ,
= x23 y 28 .
WS 12.6.5. To Q 6.3.5.
s
(x3 y)2
=
x4 y 6
=
=
=
s
s
p
p
x(3)(2) y 2
,
x4 y 6
x6 y 2
,
x4 y 6
x64 y 2(6) ,
x2 y 4,
= xy 2 , (
provided x, y 0).
WS 12.6.6. To Q 6.3.6.
214 93 51
214 (32 )3 51
=
,
25 82 311
52 (23 )2 311
214 32(3) 51
=
,
52 232 311
214 36 51
=
,
26 311 52
= 2146 36+11 512 ,
= 28 35 53 .
log7 55 = x
WS 12.7.2. To Q 7.5.2.
1. 54 = 625 is equivalent to log5 625 = 4 by the denition.
2. y = ex is equivalent to ln y = x as ln y is the same as loge y .
3. 102 = 0.01 is equivalent to log10 0.01 = 2.
WS 12.7.3. To Q 7.5.3.
158
WS 12.7.4. To Q 7.5.4.
2 log10 25
log10 125
2 log10 52
log10 53
22 log10 5
3 log10 5
4
3
WS 12.7.5. To Q 7.5.5.
1.
10x = 43,
log10 10x = log10 43(taking
al ulator)
2.
ex+1 = 12,
ln ex+1 = ln 12
x = 1 + ln 12
1.4849 . . . (from
al ulator)
3.
ln x = 1.54,
e1.54 = x
4.
log10 (3x 7) = 2.4,
102.4 = 3x 7
2.4
3x = 10 + 7,
102.4 + 7
x =
,
3
86.0629 . . . (from
al ulator)
159
5.
log10 x + log10 (x 5) = 2,
x2 5x 100 = 0,
5
5
x (1 + 17) x (1 17) = 0,
2
2
12.8078 . . . (the
6.
3x = 19,
log10 3x = log10 19
al ulator)
7.
7x = 46,
ln 7x = ln 46
x ln 7 = ln 46,
ln 46
,
x =
ln 7
1.9675 . . . (from
al ulator)
260
360
2. 260 180 =
1320
920
3. 315 180 =
45 7
45 4
=
=
=
2
3
4
9
180
4180
9
= 80 .
2.
3
5
180
3180
5
= 108.
3.
180
9
= 20 .
= 1.
1.
180
180
= 1.
13
9
7
4
160
WS 12.8.3. To Q 8.5.3.
1. sin =
OP P
HY P
5
13
2. cos =
ADJ
HY P
12
13
3. tan =
OP P
ADJ
5
12
WS 12.8.4. To Q 8.5.4.
1. cos 56 =
ADJ
HY P
x
19 cm
2. sin 15 =
OP P
HY P
8 cm
z
3. tan =
OP P
ADJ
13 cm
12 cm
. Therefore z =
8 cm
sin 15
= 30.91 cm.
. Therefore = arctan 13
= 47.29 .
12
WS 12.8.5. To Q 8.5.5. Ea
h
of the following ex
ept for (4) require
onsideration of a right
3
< 11
4
6
11
= 6
6
sin 30 = 12
< 2 ,
2. Sin
e 2 < 56 < , the angle is in the se
ond quadrant, where
osine is negative. This
orresponds to a triangle with interior angle equal to 30 . We have cos 30 = 23 , so
cos 5
= 2 3 .
6
3. Sin
e < 43 < 34 , the angle is in the third quadrant, where tangent is positive. This
orresponds to a triangle with interior angle equal to 3 = 60 . We have tan 43 = tan 3 =
3.
4. Sin
e 2 < 14
< , the angle is in the se
ond quadrant, where sine is positive. Using the
15
al
ulator, sin 14
= 0.207912 0.208.
15
WS 12.8.6. To Q 8.5.6.
1. The required triangle has sides 1, 1, 2 and the interior angles are 4 , 4 , 2 . Sin
e sin < 0,
we have in the third or fourth quadrants. That is = + 4 = 54 and = 2 4 = 74 .
2. Sin
e cos 0 = cos 2 = 1, = 0 and 2 .
3. The required triangle has sides 1, 3, 2 and the interior angles are 6 , 3 , 2 . The angle of
the triangle
orresponding to tan = 13 is 6 . Sin
e tan > 0, the angle is in the rst
or third quadrants so = 6 and = + 6 = 76 .
4. A
al
ulator or
omputer gives arccos(1/4) 1.31812 however sin
e cos > 0, is in
the rst or fourth quadrants. Therefore 1.32 radians and 2 1.31812 4.97
radians.
161
2 x
+ 4x.
WS 12.9.2. To Q 9.6.2.
WS 12.9.3. To Q 9.6.3.
WS 12.9.4. To Q 9.6.4.
1.
2.
3.
4.
f (x)dx =
9
x3+1
3+1
1
x1+1
1+1
+ 71 x1 + c =
f (x)dx =
3
x2+1
2+1
2
x1+1
1+1
+ 81 x1 + c = x3 + x2 + 8x + c.
f (x)dx =
4
x3+1
3+1
1
x3+1
3+1
f (a)da =
1
a2+1
2+1
4
a4+1
4+1
+ a + c = a1 +
WS 12.9.5. To Q 9.6.5.
3
x1+1
1+1
9x4
4
x2
2
+ 7x + c.
+ c = 2x2 +
4a5
5
x4
4
3x2
2
+ c.
+ a + c.
2+1
2
2. f () = cos + 2 so f ()d = sin + 1+1
1+1 + c = sin + 2 + c.
2
x3+1
3+1
WS 12.9.6. To Q 9.6.6.
cos x + c =
4
x4+1
4+1
x4
2
+ cos x + c.
sin x + c =
4x3
3
sin x + c.
162
6
1. f (x) = ex + 6x2 so f (x)dx = ex + 2+1
x2+1 + c = ex + 2x3 + c.
4
x3+1
3+1
+ ln x + c = x4 + ln x + c.
2
4. f (x) = x1 sin x + 2x2 so f (x)dx = ln x cos x + 2+1
x2+1 + c == ln x + cos x + 2x3 + c.
whi
h is a s
alar quantity sin
e is only in
luded magnitude, not dire
tion. 36 m s1
towards the
entre of the Earth is a ve
tor quantity, provided it is understood from where the
starting point is. Eight kilometres per hour North-West is a ve
tor quantity sin
e it in
ludes
magnitude and dire
tion.
u =
!
5
12
is determined using
WS 12.10.3. To Q 10.9.3.
kuk=
=
(3)2 + (2)2 ,
kuk=
kuk=
13,
(2)2 + (3)2 ,
13,
so these ve
tors have the same norm. What about their dire
tions? They have the same dire
tions sin
e there exists R su
h that
3
2
!
3
=
.
2
2 = 2,
163
WS 12.10.4. To Q 10.9.4.
w = u + v,
!
!
1
1
=
+
,
2
2
!
11
=
,
2+2
!
0
=
.
4
kwk =
02 + 42 ,
= 4.
v =OQ=
2
3
, 3v =OQ =
6
9
, and
OP Q
and OP Q , where
O = (0, 0),
P = (2, 0),
Q = (2, 3),
O = (0, 0),
P = (6, 0),
Q = (6, 9).
The horizontal and verti
al line segments of these triangles are the
omponents of the ve
tors
v and 3v.
WS 12.10.6. To Q 10.9.6. In order for the ve
tor v to be a unit ve
tor, we must have k v k= 1.
Letting
t=
!
2
,
2
u=
!
1/2
,
3/2
v=
!
1
,
1
w=
!
0
,
1
164
22
(2)2 ,
8,
= 2 2,
k u k = 1/4 + 3/4,
k v k = 2,
k w k = 1,
k u k = 1,
k v k = 2,
k w k = 1.
kuk=
1
v
=
v
=
kvk
2
uv =
!
21 2
.
1
2
2
u=
1
1
3
2
and v =
2
3
are orthogonal,
!
2
,
3
= (3)(2) + (2)(3),
= 6 + 6,
= 0.
3 2 = 1,
2 + 3 = 7.
a
b
17
13
and = 19
. Therefore
13
1
(17u + 19v).
13
!
a
= u + v
b
165
WS 12.10.9. To Q 10.9.9. Part 1. The dot produ t u v is a s alar, not a ve tor so it annot
u
v
= k u kk v k cos ,
= cos
re
all: 1 cos 1,
so 1 u v 1.
Part 3. The largest possible value that k u + v k
an be o
urs when u and v are equal, so that
ku
+v
k=k 2u k= 2.
!
!
u
v
To see that this is true in R2 , let u = 1 and v = 1 . Then sin
e these are
u2
v2
2
2
2
2
k u k= 1 =k v k so that u1 + u2 = v1 + v2 .
!
u1 + v1
ku
+v
k = k
k,
u2 + v2
p
=
(u1 + v1 )2 + (u2 + v2 )2 ,
q
=
(u21 + u22 ) + 2(u1 v1 + u2 v2 ) + (v12 + v22 ),
p
=
1 + 2(u1 v1 + u2 v2 ) + 1,
=
2 1+u
v
,
0= 2 11
2 1 + 1 = 2 by Part 2 sin
e 1 u
v
1.
u1
..
.
u
and v =
v1
unit ve tors,
166
k u k= 1 =k v k
u1 +v1
..
ku
+v
k = k
k,
.
un +vn
p
=
(u1 + v1 )2 + (u2 + v2 )2 + . . . (un + vn )2 ,
q
=
(u21 + u22 + . . . u2n ) + 2(u1 v1 + u2 v2 + . . . un vn ) + (v12 + v22 + . . . vn2 ),
2 1+u
v
,
=
0 = 2 11
2 1 + 1 = 2 by Part 2.
Part 4. We
he
k whether the ve
tors u + v and u v are orthogonal by taking their dot produ
t.
Re
all that if it is zero, then they are orthogonal.
(
u+v
) (
uv
) = u
u
u
v
+v
u
v
v
,
= u
u
u
v
+u
v
v
v
,
= u
u
v
v
,
= k u k2 k v k2 ,
= 1 1,
= 0.
Part 2.
2
4
2
22 + 42 + (2)2 = 24 = 2 6.
v
6 1
1 2
4
2
v
=
= 2
=
,
kvk
6 1
2 6
whi
h is a unit
v.
ve
tor parallel to v. Another possible answer is
w1
3
Let w = ww23 R be perpendi
ular to v. Then
vw =
2
4
2
w1
2
w
,
w3
to v =
2
4
2
167
u =RP ,
v =RQ,
= P R,
5
1
= 2 1 ,
4
34
= 3 ,
= Q R,
5
2
= 4 1 ,
4
73
= 5 .
3
= 24.
u v = k u kk v k cos ,
p
p
24 =
(4)2 + 32 + (1)2 (3)2 + 52 + 32 cos ,
=
26 43 cos ,
24
cos = ,
26 43
0.717778,
44.1286
or 0.77019 in radians.
Q = (2, 9, 2),
S = (5, 8, 5).
P Q = Q P,
1
2
= 9 6 ,
3
221
= 96 ,
2+3
1
3
=
,
5
QR = R Q,
6
2
= 11 9 ,
0
62 2
= 119 ,
02
4
2
=
,
2
RS = S R,
5
6
= 8 11 ,
5
56 0
= 811 ,
50
1
3
=
,
5
= P Q,
SP = P S,
1 5
= 6 8 ,
3
5
15
= 68 ,
3+5
4
2
=
,
2
= QR .
168
2
7
v =
and w =
6
21
v + w = v 3v,
= ( 3)v,
= v,
where = 3 R,
4 1 4
3 0 0
1 8 9
B=
WS 12.11.1. To Q 11.16.1.
1. A + B =
4 1 4
3 0 0
1 8 9
5 5 2
6 1 4
2 2 11
5 5 2
6 1 4
2 2 11
4+5 1+5
4+2
36 0+1 0+4
1+2 8+2 9+11
C=
are parallel,
9 4 6
3 1 4
3 10 20
1 9
0
4 2 7
7 0 1
.
169
2. B + C =
5 5 2
6 1 4
2 2 11
3. A + (B + C) =
1 9
0
4 2 7
7 0 1
4 1 4
3 0 0
1 8 9
4 1 4
3 0 0
1 8 9
1
9 0
4 2 7
7 0 1
6. B B = bij bij = 0 =
WS 12.11.2. To Q 11.16.2.
1. AO = aij 0ij =
2. A(B + C) =
3. BC =
4. 3C = 3
1 9
3 0 0
1 8 9
1 9
5 5 2
6 1 4
2 2 11
3 0 0
1 8 9
0 0 0
0 0 0
0 0 0
4+2
32 0+3 0+11
1+9 8+2 9+10
6
1 3 11
10 10 19
41 1+9 4+0
34 02 07
17 8+0 9+1
45+10+0 0+352
6+4+28 54+2+0
0+74
2+8+77 18+4+0 0+1411
30
37
3(1)
1 9
0
4 2 7
7 0 1
=
3 27 0
12 6 21
21 0 3
2. BE =
12 0
9
,
2 1 1
5 5 2
6 1 4
2 2 11
10 5
6
1 3 11
10 10 19
3 8 4
1 2 7
6 8 10
3 0
E = 0 0 ,
2 8
62 11
37
18 12 6
71 38 180
39 35 33
15 35
26 56 3
87 14 3
6 4 2
2 3 11
9 2 10
163+8 811+40
18+0+0 12+0+0 6+0+0
616+81 4+24+18 2+88+90
24+2+36
4+6 14
5+20+14
32
30
+5
34
37
5+1 59 2+0
6+4 1+2 4+7
2+7 2+0 111
10 5
31 3(9)
4 1 4 4 1 4
3 0 0
1 8 9
6 4 2
2 3 11
9 2 10
0
4 2 7
7 0 1
0
4 2 7
7 0 1
0 0 0
0 0 0
0 0 0
4 1 4
5 5 2
6 1 4
2 2 11
5. 2B + 5C = 2
6. A2 =
6 4 2
2 3 11
9 2 10
4. (B + A) + C = A + (B + C) =
5. A C =
17
4
8 12 43
39 4 17
28 52
12 3 12
37 71 85
1 0 0
I = 0 1 0 .
0 0 1
3 0
15 + 0 + 4 0 + 0 + 16
19 16
0 0 = 18 + 0 + 8 0 + 0 + 32 = 10 32.
2 8
6 + 0 + 22 0 + 0 + 88
28 88
12 0
9
D + ET =
2 1 1
!
15 0 11
=
.
2 1 7
3 0 2
0 0 8
12 + 3 0 + 0
9+2
2 + 0 1 + 0 1 + 8
170
5.
6.
!
12 0
9 1 9 0
4 2 7
DC =
=
7 0 1
2 1 1
!
75 108 9
=
.
9 20 6
75
9
!
12 + 0 + 63 108 + 0 + 0 0 + 0 9
,
247
18 2 + 0 0 7 + 1
7. DI = D.
8. IA = A.
1 7
2 1
A=
a b
c d
d b
c a
1
adbc
1 7
2 1
1
13
. Yes, A
WS 12.11.5. To Q 11.16.5.
Ax =
Therefore
4 1 4 x
3 0 0
1 8 9
y
z
4xy+4z
3x
x+8y+9z
1
8
0
4x y + 4z = 1,
3x = 8,
x + 8y + 9z = 0.
1 2 0
x
13
A = 0 1 3 , X = yz , b = 4 .
5 11 19
Then we have
WS 12.11.7. To Q 11.16.7. The methods learned in Q ?? have shown that in order to solve
2x + 3y = 4,
5x y = 2,
x
y
!
4
,
2
2 3
5 1
171
1 3
5 2
2 3
5 1
1
17
x
y
1
=
17
x
y
1
=
17
x
y
1
17
1 3
5 2
1 3
5 2
!
4
,
2
!
4+6
,
20 4
!
10
.
16
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es
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ien
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173