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Introduction To Networking: Communication Modes
Introduction To Networking: Communication Modes
Introduction To Networking: Communication Modes
INTRODUCTION TO NETWORKING
COMMUNICATION MODES
1.
2.
3.
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Modular Switch
Such switches in which we can add the additional cards when need.
Layer-2 Switches
Such switches which only do switching.
Examples: (CISCO Express 500) and (CISCO Catalyst 2940, 2950, 2960 series).
Layer-3 Switches
Such switches which can do switching as well as routing.
Example: (CISCO Catalyst 3550, 360, 370, 4500, 6500 Series).
ROUTER
It is a internetworking device (WAN), they based on microprocessor.
Cisco Switch And Router Hardware Components
1) RAM
2) NVRAM
3) FLASH
4) ROM
RAM
It is such memory where the running configuration (user configuration) exists.
NVRAM
It is such memory where the data stored permanently and this configured data is refer by
the term start-up-configuration.
FLASH
It is such memory where the IOS present and here the data also present permanently.
ROM
It is such memory where all modes of switch or router exist, these modes called the ROM
monitor mode; they come after the IOS load.
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Network Media
1. Guided media: Wired network.
Examples are coaxial, UTP, STP, Fiber optic cable
2. Un-guided media: Wireless network.
It has eight wires, they are twisted with one another in a pair due to minimize of EMI,
and their wires have external coating.
Max distance in UTP is 100m.
UTP categorization
CAT 1: use only for voice
CAT 2: use only for voice
CAT 3: support data and voice
CAT 4: data and voice, 4Mbps
CAT 5: data and voice, 100Mbps
CAT 5E / 6: 1000Mbps or up to 1Gbps
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Multimode fiber
Network topologies
Star topology
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Bus topology
Co-axial cable is used to connect the devices. The data rate of this cable is
10Mbps.
There is a single point of failure means if any one cable is broken then whole
network would be down.
It transmits the electrical signal from one end of a cable to the other end of a cable
This topology obsolete in early 90s.
Ring topology
Disadvantages:
In this topology some of the nodes in the network have a direct connection but
others do not.
It is very close to mesh topology.
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ETHERNET
It is an IEEE standard for LAN. Also known as 802.3
Classification of Ethernet
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
1) Application Layer
2) Presentation Layer
Three activities are taking place at this layer:
1) Encryption: The process of converting the plain text in to cipher text for data
confidentiality is called encryption. i.e. DES, 3DES and AES
2) Translation: Coverts protocol from one form to other. Like IPX to IP and vise
versa.
3) Compression: It simply works with the compression of data like win zip.
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3) Session Layer
4) Transport Layer
Functions of TCP/IP
1.
Telnet
SMTP
HTTP
HTTPS
DNS
23
25
80
443
53
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2. Error recovery
TCP numbers data bytes using the sequence and acknowledgement fields in the
tcp header
TCP sends data in sequence
Sender also sends re-transmission timer.
5) Network Layer
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7) Physical layer
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MODULE 2
SWITCHING
Cisco Switches Series
Layer 2 switches
Cisco express
Cisco catalyst
Cisco catalyst
Cisco catalyst
500 series
2940 series
2950 series
2960 series
Cisco catalyst
Cisco catalyst
Cisco catalyst
Cisco catalyst
Cisco catalyst
3550 series
3600 series
3700 series
4500 series
6500 series
Cisco catalyst 4500 and 6500 are called modular or core switches. In these switches we
can add the additional cards.
Layer 2 switches can only do switching while layer 3 switches can do switching as well
as routing.
It is such memory where data stored permanently and this configured data is
called start up configuration.
Syntax is: #show startup-configuration
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3) FLASH
This is such a memory where IOS (internetwork operating system) is present and
the data also present permanently.
4) ROM
It is such a memory where all modes of switch/router exist, these modes are called
ROM monitor mode. They come after IOS load.
Each and every switch creates a table in start called MAC address table or
forwarding data base.
At the power on the initial mac table is empty.
When the mac table is empty, the frame coming to the switch would be broadcast
by switch.
The mac addresses are bonded with respect to port numbers.
When the mac table is filled with source and destination mac addresses, now the
switch will not broadcast because the switch is an intelligent device and it
understands the mac addresses.
A switch can learn multiple mac addresses on its single port.
SWITCH TECHNOLOGIES
Switches work in different Technologies. These are as under:
Cut Through
In this mode latency does not depend on frame size, because it does not store
frame but forward it after seeing the MAC address.
It does not perform error detection.
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Fragment Free
In this mode switch checks first 64 bytes of a frame. The CRC field also exist in
this part of a frame, thus check out for any error.
Latency is not dependent on the size of frame.
Cisco 1900 series switches use this technology.
REDUNDENT TOPOLOGY
In this topology there is a backup link so that if one link fails than other is
activated. Such switching network that has the backup path for data transmission
is called redundant links.
This topology has some issues due to switching loop, which are as under:
Broadcast Storming
When the destination host frame not found by the switch, so the switch start
broadcast.
Network become down and frame transmission start in looping.
Frame first arrived will copy and then second time discarded.
Response on other hosts becomes slow due to multi frame discarded.
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Root Bridge
Root Bridge is the master switch and controls all the STP operation.
All other switches are non-root bridges and they use the best path.
All the ports are designated and act in forward state.
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Bridge ID
Combination of bridge priority and Mac address of a switch is called Bridge ID.
Bridge Priority
All the Cisco switches have default priority value of 32768.
MAC address
Root Port
Non-Root port
All other ports except one root port in Non-root Bridge are non-root ports.
Non-designated ports cant forward packet. Can receive or listen packet.
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Bandwidth
10Mbps
100Mbps
1Gbps
10Gbps
Listening State
Here the port receives the BPDU and decided the port nature also called discarding state.
Learning State
Here the port can receive and send and also the switch built the MAC table. Forwarding
delay Time taken by port in shifting from one state to other.
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It is such LAN by which we can create two or more separate logical-AreaNetwork in a single Switch.
We can also give same IP to host in different V-lan, as they behave as separate
logical LAN or logical switches.
Broadcast Domain
ADVANTAGES OF VLAN
.
1. Broadcast Control: Large broadcast is divided into sub networks.
2. Security: One vlans information can not transfer into another vlan.
3. Flexibility: Transfer of port from one vlan to another vlan through configuration.
Trunk Port
It is such port which carries the multiple Vlans traffic. It is not the part of any vlan.
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TYPES OF VLAN
Static VLAN
This vlan is actually configured manually at each switch.
Syntax:
switch (config) # vlan (any number)
Dynamic VLAN
These are such vlan which are configured by a server called VMPS (vlan management
policy server) in a large network environment and not need to create at each switch.
Benefit
You dont need to manually configure every time for access your vlan through out the
organization.
802.1q Standard
Note
At both the end the encapsulation protocol must be same, otherwise the line protocol not
up.
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VTP MODES
There are three modes of VTP which are as following:
1) Server mode.
2) Client mode.
3) Transparent mode.
Server Mode
It is such mode where we can create, delete, modify and also synchronize the
Vlan information. vlan information is permanently save in flash memory.
Client mode
It is such mode in which we cant create, delete, modify the vlan information but
it can only synchronize and forward the vlan information.
Transparent mode
It is such mode where we can create, delete, modify the vlan information but it
can not synchronize but forward the information of vlan.
PORT SECURITY
When A port broadcast so the data will go to B as well as C port. The destination address
is B but C will also capture the data using the sniffer software, so to resolve this issue we
use switch. By using switch point to point communication is taking place between A&B.
But when the Mac table becomes full so the switch will broadcast the data.
MAC FLOODING ATTACK
It is such process which is used for hacking which becomes possible by the overflow the
MAC table; this process uses the software called the sniffer software. So to prevent the
switch by this attack we use the security feature called port security.
Sniffer Software
It is the software which is used by hacker for capturing the data in the plain text form.
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Macof
It is term used for flooding the Mac table by sending 300 to 400 Mac addresses in 1sec.
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There is a central device for example AP (Access Point). AP can connect to a switch with
cable.
2. Ad hoc Mode
There is no centralized device all PCs are connected together.
AP works in half duplex mode
Information
Antenna
Data
Radio
2.4 GHz
5 GHz
in 1997
in 1999
in 1999
in 2003
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WLAN
Enterprise Class AP
Consumer Class AP
1000 Series
1100 Series
1200 Series
Reflection
Refraction
Scattering:
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WEP
Encryption
Authentication
RC4
Pre-shared keys
password
Authentication
802.1x
3. 802.1I
WPA 2
Encryption
AES (Advance Encryption Standard)
Authentication
802.1x
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MODULE 3
IP ADDRESSING
It is network address used for the communication between the nodes at LAN as
well as WAN.
These addresses are assigning by the IANA (Internet assigned numbering
authority)
There are two types of IP addressing, IPV4 and IPV6.
IPV4 address
It is total 32 bits address scheme these bits are divided into four octets, this
address scheme has two segments or portions (Host and Network).
In this class the network segment have 8-bits and the host segments have24-bits.
Its range is from 01 up to 126 and total host exist 17millions.
Subnet mask is 255.0.0.0
Class B
Class C
In this class the network segment have 24-bits and host segment 16-bits.
Its range is from 192 up to 223 and total host exist 254.
Subnet mask is 255.255.255.0
Class D
It range is from 224 up to 239.
Class E
It range is from 240 up to 255.
Note: After the class E IPV4 addressing range become end, after that we use IPV6
addressing.
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SUBNETTING
It is the process of dividing the single network ID into further various different
network IDs.
SUBNETMASK
It is the actually the group of network and host segment. It actually tells that how
many bits are used for network and how many bits are used for host.
128 bits
Assigned in hexadecimal (0--F)
I Hexadecimal = 4 bits
10C0:00FD:09C5:C509:0000:0000:509F
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MODULE 4
ROUTING
Routing
Static Routing
Dynamic Routing
Default Route:
# Ip route 0.0.0.0 0.0.0.0
OR
#Ip route 0.0.0.0 0.0.0.0 s0/0
#show ip route
S* 0.0.0.0/0 s0/0
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Distance Vector
Link State
Hybrid
Distance Vector
They exchange complete routing tables with each other after periodic time period
E.g. RIP (30 sec) and IGRP (60 sec).
Distance vector protocols have only best route information to the destination.
If best path is down than they recalculate the best path.
Link State
Link state routing protocol only send routing updates whenever there is some change in
network topology.
They are less bandwidth consumer because they only send routing updates not the whole
routing table means they efficiently utilize the bandwidth.
These protocols have complete network topology information.
These protocols are more intelligent because they have all routes information to the
destination
E.g. OSPF, IS-IS.
Disadvantage: CPU and memory intensive.
Hybrid
RIP version 2
The features of RIPv2 are:
It is class-less routing protocol.
RIPv2 is authentication supported.
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EIGRP TABLES
It creates 3 tables:
Neighbor table
Topology table
Routing table
Neighbor Table
In EIGRP directly connected routers maintain neighbor relationship.
They exchange HELLO PACKETS for maintaining the neighbor relationship.
Topology Table
This table contains the complete network information.
Router# show ip eigrp topology
Routing Table
This table contains the information of best route to the destination.
Router # show ip route
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If IP, IPx, Apple all are running at a time then this protocol will make different
tables for different operating systems.
Although IPx and Apple are not used nowadays.
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OSPF TABLES
1. Neighbor table.
2. Topology table
3. Routing table
Neighbor Table
It contains the information of directly connected routers just like eigrp.
Neighbor routers exchange HELLO PACKETS.
In OSPF neighbor table is also referred as Adjancy database.
Router #show ip ospf neighbor
Topology Table
This table contains complete topology information.
In OSPF topology table is referred as Link state database (LSDB).
Router #show ip ospf database
Routing Table
This table contains the information of best routes to the destination.
In OSPF routing table is also referred as forwarding database
Router #show ip route
In OSPF interfaces are refer as links
SPF algorithm applies on LSDB and best path moved in routing table.
OSPF Router ID
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OSPF AREAS
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MODULE 5
SECURITY
ACCESS CONTROL LIST (ACL)
1. Standard ACL
2. Extended ACL
Standard ACL
Example
This ACL will not deny host 10.0.0.1 because it is permitted in first statement
Access list filter traffic from and to router but do not filter traffic originating from
router.
Most restrictive statement of ACL should be on top
Any for all destinations.
Any any for all sources and all destinations
One ACL can be applied at one interface and in one direction
Extended ACL
Direction of ACL
Inbound direction
Traffic entering from 10.2 than for e0 it is inbound and traffic coming from Internet
toward 10.2 than it is out bound for e0.
Router (config)# Access-list 101 permit tcp 10.0.0.1 0.0.0.49 host 1.1.1.1 eq 80
Router (config)# Access-list 101 permit tcp 10.0.0.1 0.0.0.49 host 2.2.2.2 eq 25
Router (config)# Access-list 101 permit ip 10.0.0.51 0.0.0.49 any
Router (config)# Int fa 0/0
Router (config-int)# ip access-group 101 in
This will permit hosts from 10.0.0.1 to 10.0.0.50 to communicate pc 1.1.1.1 via tcp
protocol and Internet browser.
Example
Router (config)# ip access-list extended (or standard) cttc (any name)
Router (config-ext-nacl)# permit tcp 10.0.0.1 0.0.0.49 host 1.1.1.1 eq 80
Router (config-ext-nacl)# permit tcp 10.0.0.1 0.0.0.49 host 1.1.1.1 eq 25
Router (config-ext-nacl)# permit ip 10.0.0.51 0.0.0.49 any
Router (config)#int fa 0/0
Router (config-int)# ip access-group cttc in
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Types of NAT
1. Dynamic NAT
2. Static NAT
3. NAT Overload
We can configure dynamic NAT, Static NAT and NAT overload simultaneously
#show ip nat translation
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Only problem is security because your data is in clear text form so any one/hacker
can capture your confidential data.
There is a key used for encryption from plain text to cipher text which is of 56
bits.
This standard is breakable but high processing machine is needed for breaking the
encryption.
It is broken in 90s
Now the object of IBM was to secure DES .So they created new protocols called
3DES.
1. 128 bits
2. 192 bits
3. 256 bits
strongest
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2) DATA INTEGRITY
HASHING ALGORITHM
MD-5 (Message Digest - 5)
algorithm)
128 bit Hash
3) PEER AUTHENTICATION
In peer authentication a Pre shared key is used called IKE (Internet Key
Exchange) protocol.
Data confidentiality
Data integrity
Origin authentication
AH (Authentication Header)
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MODULE 6
Advantages
Disadvantages
Circuit switching
Advantage
It is Cost effective solution
Disadvantage
Bandwidth is very low.
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It is a set of digital services that transmit voice and data over phone lines.
It is a cost effective solution and also speed is high than normal dial up
connection.
It is also good to use it as a back-up link for other types of links like frame
relay and T1 connection.
B channel is used for voice and data both and D channel is used for signaling and
control.
T1
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Cisco HDLC
If at both ends there are Cisco routers than use HDLC otherwise use PPP.
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PPP Authentication
There are two types of PPP authentication:
1) Password authentication protocol (PAP)
2) Challenging handshake authentication protocol (CHAP)
Password Authentication Protocol (PAP)
1st router sends its password to 2nd router and 2nd router check its on password. If
both passwords are same than line protocol is up.
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1st router sends CHAP signal to 2nd router which says thyat I want to
communicate to you, send your password.
2nd router will send its password to 1st router in encrypted form.
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Frame Relay
It is a Standard of ITU-T.
It works on data link layer of OSI reference model.
This is an example of packet switching.X.25,Frame relay,ATM
Frame relay is working from POP to customer.
Router of customer is called Frame relay router.
The device in POP is called Central office Switch (CO Switch).
It is cost effective b/c there is a bandwidth-sharing concept within the cloud
The aim of frame relay is to connect customer router to Point of presence (POP)
of service provider.
Frame service provider provides service 1 connectivity as well as layer 2
connectivity. For layer 2 connectivity we have to configure Frame Relay.
In case of frame relay, at layer 1 we can use any type of media.
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It maintains the connection status b/w frame relay router and frame relay switch.
LMI Types
1. CISCO (Cisco propriety)
2. ITU-T (Open standard)
3. ANSI
LMI States
They help in troubleshooting by this we can see the segment status of Frame relay
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