Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Mech0041 2
Mech0041 2
Mech0041 2
Contents
Contents
List of Figures
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
1
1
1
2
4
5
6
7
8
8
9
10
11
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
1
6
7
9
10
10
11
11
12
12
List of Figures
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
1
y
p
A
L
y
Y
V
v
q
B
M
z
Z
W
w
r
C
N
Figure 1: Notation for analysis of dynamic stability
1.1 Introduction
In the first part of the course, we examined the static stability of aircraft, which means that we
have considered whether an aircraft tends to return to its equilibrium position after a perturbation, 1.1. We are now going to analyze the dynamic stability of aircraft and see how they
respond over time to perturbations in flight.
The axis system uses what are known as body axes. This axis system is not locked in
position in space, but moves with the aircraft. The origin of the axis system is at the centre of
gravity of the aircraft, since all rotations take place about the c.g.
A rigid aircraft has six degrees of freedom. To simplify the equations used when performing analysis of the dynamic modes of an aircraft, these degrees of freedom are expressed as
perturbation quantities in relation to steady straight flight (i.e. velocity perturbations u, v and
q = and r = ).
M
M
M
M
M
M
u+
v+
w+
p+
q+
r.
u
v
w
p
q
r
The partial derivatives in this expression are known as aerodynamic derivatives or stability
derivatives. We have already met the derivative M/q, often known as pitch damping, in
our analysis of control deflections for tailless aircraft. Therefore, if we know the aerodynamic
derivatives and the perturbations, we can calculate all of the forces and moments acting on
the aircraft (6 equations). If, in addition, we know the mass of the aircraft and its inertia in
roll, pitch and yaw (A, B, C) we can calculate the acceleration of the aircraft, and hence its
dynamic response.
The forces on the aircraft are the aerodynamic force F and mg:
F = Xi + Y j + Zk,
mg = mg1 i + mg2 j + mg3 k,
(1)
(2)
where the components of g are needed because the reference frame is fixed to the aircraft and
is not necessarily horizontal. The other quantitites we need for the aircraft are:
v = ui + vj + wk, velocity
= pi + qj + rk, angular velocity
h = h1 i + h2 j + h3 k, angular momentum.
The equations of motion in translation and rotation are then:
d
(mv) = mv + (mv) = F + mg,
dt
dh
= h + h = L,
dt
1
(3a)
(3b)
The analysis which follows is taken from M ILNE -T HOMSON , L. M., Theoretical aerodynamics, MacMillan
and Company, 1966.
where the boxed terms are required because the frame of reference is rotating. The applied
moment L is
L = Li + M j + N k.
Equations 3 are the general equations of motion for an aircraft and could, in principle, be used
to calculate the motion given enough information about the aerodynamics and mass distribution. We, however, want to know if the aircraft is dynamically stable, so we need to make
some approximations to see how the aircraft behaves when perturbed from steady flight.
In steady flight, we write:
v = V, = 0, F + mg = 0,
and add the small perturbation quantities so that:
V = V1 + u;
V1 = U i,
u = ui + vj + wk;
= pi + qj + rk.
For a small rotation ,
= i + j + k,
+ j
+ k.
= i
Similarly, the perturbation forces are:
F + F, m(g + g)
and it can be shown that
g + g = 0.
Inserting these assumptions in Equations 3 yields the equations of motion under small perturbations:
mu + m( V1 + g) = F,
h = L.
(4a)
(4b)
We can now simplify the system by making certain (reasonable) assumptions. First, we assume that the forces and moments depend only on velocities and not on accelerations, with
the exception of the dependence of pitching moment on w,
the downwash velocity. Then:
F = Xi + Y j + Zk,
L = Li + M j + N k,
F = (Xu u + Xw w + Xq )i
+ (Zu u + Zw w + Zq )k,
L = (Lp + Lr + Lv v)i + (Mq + Mu u + Mw w + Mw w)j
+ (Np + Nr + Nv v)k.
We need one more assumption about the aircraft, which is that there is no inertial coupling
between yaw and roll. This means that the only moments of inertia we need consider are A,
B and C, the moments of inertia about the coordinate axes.
Now, assuming disturbed horizontal flight and expanding the cross products in Equations 4
yields the equations of motion for each translational and rotational component:
mu = Xu u + Xw w + Xq q mg,
m(w U q) = Zu u + Zw w + Zq ,
B q = Mq q + Mu u + Mw w + Mw w.
(5a)
(5b)
(5c)
m(v + U r) = Yv v + Yp p + Yr r + mg,
Ap = Lp p + Lr r + Lv v,
C r = Np p + Nr r + Nv v.
(6a)
(6b)
(6c)
and
The first of these sets of equations covers symmetric motion, e.g. pitch oscillations, while the
second covers lateral motion, such as yaw and roll. An important point to note is that these
equations are uncoupled, longitudinal motion does not affect lateral and vice versa.
The following analysis, with different notation, is based on G RAHAM , W., Asymptotic analysis of the
classical aircraft stability equations, Aeronautical Journal, February 1999, pp95103.
the differential equations and finding combinations of parameters which satisfy the system.
The most convenient form of solution is:
u = u0 et , v = v0 et , = 0 et .
Inserting these assumptions into Equation 5a, for example, yields:
mu0 et = Xu u0 et + Xw w0 et + Xq 0 et mg0 et .
Now, we can divide through by exp t and, as always, non-dimensionalize the parameters, to
give the non-dimensional equations of motion:
xq C L
0
0
( xu )u xw w
0 = 0,
(7a)
c
2
zq
0
0
zu u + ( zw )w 1 +
0 = 0,
(7b)
c
m
(b mq )
w
c + m w w 0 +
= 0.
(7c)
c
The non-dimensional parameters are:
xu =
xq =
mq =
mw =
b=
Xu
Xw
Zu
Zw
, xw =
, zu =
, zw =
,
U S
U S
U S
U S
Xq
Zq
Mu
Mw
, zq =
, mu =
, mw =
,
U Sc
U Sc
U Sc
U Sc
Mq
,
U Sc2
Mw
,
Sc
B
mc2
and
=
m
m
, c =
.
U S
Sc
Phugoid
The first approximate solution we consider is a low frequency oscillation. We state without
proof that there is a solution with and u0 / of order one and w 0 /0 of order 1/c . This
means that, in this case, the vertical motion is negligible or, equivalently, the incidence is
almost constant. We can rewrite Equations 7 in matrix form, with the negligible terms in each
equation removed:
0
xu
0
CL /2
u
0
0
zu
w = 0 .
0
mw (b mq )/c
0
0
This equation can only have a non-trivial solution if the determinant of the matrix is zero:
zu
2 xu CL = 0.
2
Solving for gives:
"
2 #1/2
(xu )
xu
=
jph 1
,
2
2ph
which specifies oscillatory motion with:
1/2
zu CL
ph =
, natural frequency,
2
xu
, damping.
cph =
2ph
(8a)
(8b)
This solution defines the phugoid mode, which is a lightly damped long period oscillation.
The incidence is almost constant and the aircraft varies altitude at constant energy, trading
potential for kinetic and back again, Figure 2.
hmax , Vmin
hmin , Vmax
The second solution for longitudinal oscillation is for the case where is of order c , u0 /0
1/2
is of order c
and w0 /0 is of order one. In this case, the approximation to equations 7 is:
xq C L
xw
c 2 u0 0
x u
0
0
w = 0 .
0
0
(b mq )
0
mw + mw
c
c
Again, we find the natural frequency by requiring that the determinant of the matrix be zero:
mq + mw
z w mq m w c
2
( xu ) zw +
+
= 0,
b
b
which, on solving the quadratic, gives a result for the non-dimensional natural frequency and
damping:
c (mw ) + mq zw
, natural frequency,
b
mq + mw
1
zw +
, damping.
=
2spo
b
spo =
(9a)
cspo
(9b)
This is the short period oscillation and is a heavily damped mode with period typically of a
few seconds. The aircraft pitches rapidly about its centre of gravity which continues to fly
at almost constant speed in a straight line. The periodic time is typically a few seconds, but
must not be less than about 1.25 seconds, otherwise there is a risk of Pilot Induced Oscillation
(PIO).
( yv )v
yr
0 + 1
r 0 = 0,
s
lr
lv v 0 + (a lp ) 0 r 0 = 0,
s
s
c nr 0
np
0 +
r = 0.
nv v 0
s
s
yp CL
+
s
2
(10a)
(10b)
(10c)
Yv
,
U S
Yr
Lv
Nv
Yp
, yr =
, lv =
, nv =
,
U Ss
U Ss
U Ss
U Ss
Lp
Lr
Np
Nr
, lr =
, np =
, nr =
,
2
2
2
U Ss
U Ss
U Ss
U Ss2
A
C
,
c
=
,
ms2
ms2
mr0
m
v0
, r0 =
, s =
.
U
U S
Ss
Dutch roll
The first lateral mode we consider is Dutch roll which has oscillations of roughly equal magnitude in pitch, yaw and roll. In this case, equations 10 reduce to:
0
1
v
0
lv a2 /s
0 0 = 0 .
nv
0
c/s
r0
0
As before the determinant of the matrix must be zero for a non-trivial solution to exist:
2 (c2 + s nv ) = 0,
and the frequency of the oscillation is, on the approximations we are using:
n 1/2
s v
.
dr =
c
(11)
In Dutch roll, yawing oscillation (analogous to the longitudinal SPO) causes alternating sideslip.
This in turn causes a rolling oscillation via Lv v. The periodic time is typically a few seconds,
but as for the SPO it should not have a period of less than 1.25 seconds due to PIO.
Dutch roll is not permitted to be divergent. Divergent Dutch roll can be fixed by a yaw
damper on the rudder which damps the yawing oscillation, and hence the roll response as well.
0
0
CL /2
1
v
0
lv (a lp )/s
lr /s
0 = 0 .
nv
np /s
(c nr )/s
r0
0
(12)
lv n r l r n v
CL
.
2 (lp )nv + (lv )[cCL /2 + (np )]
(13)
rs =
and
sm =
Note that both of these roots are real and so they do not describe oscillations. The first, rs , describes rolling subsidence which is a pure rolling motion that is generally heavily damped, and
is therefore generally stable. The damping is primarily from the wings, where the incidence
along the wing is changed due to the roll-rate, as shown in figure 4.
Roll rate p
Loading
10
Increasing altitude
Dihedral effect
Lv is known as the dihedral effect since the majority of the rolling moment due to sideslip
comes from dihedral (on an aircraft with unswept wings), as shown in figure 6. Positive dihedral combined with positive sideslip results in a negative rolling moment (and hence negative
Lv ).
Lv < 0
Relative wind
Positive sideslip
Wing sweep has a large, negative, effect on Lv due to reduced or increased effective sweep
for positive sideslip. this is shown in figure 7.
Wing/fuselage interference effects give contributions to Lv due to changes in wing effective incidence near the root. These contributions are negative for high mounted wings and
positive for low mounted wings, as shown in figure 8.
11
Positive sideslip
Increased effective sweep:
reduced lift
Lv < 0
High wing
Lv > 0
Low wing
A reasonable level of Lv may be achieved by using anhedral with swept and high mounted
wings (e.g. Harrier). Ground clearance issues may limit anhedral on low wing aircraft, resulting in an unstable Dutch roll mode.
Weathercock stability
The aerodynamic derivative Nv is known as weathercock stability since it is, effectively, the
ability of an aircraft to turn into the wind. It is produced mainly by the sideways lift-force
of the fin in sideslip, and should always be negative. However, as shown in 1.6, if N v is too
large the aircraft may be spirally unstable.
The fin contribution to Nv generally reduces with increasing Mach number, since the fins
lift curve slope is reducing. Therefore an aircraft with a large fin may be spirally stable at high
speeds but unstable at low speeds. This can be solved by using paired fins close together. At
low speeds their mutual interference reduces their effectiveness, while at supersonic speeds
this interference is progressively removed, increasing their effectiveness to combat the decreasing lift curve slope. This is shown in figure 9.
12
fin a1
Mach cone
1.0
For VSTOL aircraft (e.g.Harrier) engine air intake mass flow may give a negative contribution to Nv making the aircraft directionally unstable in the hover and at low forward speeds.
This is because the air undergoes a change in direction and hence a momentum change to go
down the intake, giving a sideforce acting ahead of the aircraft c.g., as shown in figure 10.
Nv < 0
Fin
Nv
Sidef
Directionally
orce
unstable
Total
Flight speed
Intak
e flow
Intake flow