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Keph 105
Keph 105
LAWS
OF
MOTION
5.1 INTRODUCTION
5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4
5.5
Introduction
Aristotles fallacy
The law of inertia
Newtons first law of motion
Newtons second law of
motion
5.6 Newtons third law of motion
5.7 Conservation of momentum
5.8 Equilibrium of a particle
5.9 Common forces in mechanics
5.10 Circular motion
5.11 Solving problems in
mechanics
Summary
Points to ponder
Exercises
Additional exercises
90
PHYSICS
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
Fig. 5.1(a)
LAWS OF MOTION
91
92
PHYSICS
Fig. 5.2 (a) a book at rest on the table, and (b) a car
moving with uniform velocity. The net force
is zero in each case.
LAWS OF MOTION
93
94
PHYSICS
p
p
or F = k
t
t
respect to t, denoted by
dp
. Thus
dt
LAWS OF MOTION
dp
dt
For a body of fixed mass m,
95
F =k
(5.2)
dp
d
dv
=
= ma
(m v ) = m
dt
dt
dt
(5.3)
(5.5)
dp x
dt
dp y
= ma x
= ma y
dt
dp
Fz = z =m a z
dt
(5.6)
F=
90 90
u2
m s 2 = 6750 m s 2
=
2 0.6
2s
96
PHYSICS
1 2
gt . Find
2
the force acting on the particle.
mass m is described by y = ut +
Answer We know
y = ut +
dy
= u + gt
dt
dv
=g
dt
Then the force is given by Eq. (5.5)
F = ma = mg
t
Thus the given equation describes the motion
of a particle under acceleration due to gravity
and y is the position coordinate in the direction
of g.
acceleration, a =
Impulse
We sometimes encounter examples where a large
force acts for a very short duration producing a
finite change in momentum of the body. For
example, when a ball hits a wall and bounces
back, the force on the ball by the wall acts for a
very short time when the two are in contact, yet
the force is large enough to reverse the momentum
of the ball. Often, in these situations, the force
and the time duration are difficult to ascertain
separately. However, the product of force and time,
which is the change in momentum of the body
remains a measurable quantity. This product is
called impulse:
Impulse = Force time duration
= Change in momentum
= 3.6 N s,
1 2
gt
2
Now,
v=
(5.7)
LAWS OF MOTION
97
(5.8)
(force on A by B) = (force on B by A)
Thus if we are considering the motion of any
one body (A or B), only one of the two forces is
relevant. It is an error to add up the two forces
and claim that the net force is zero.
However, if you are considering the system
of two bodies as a whole, FAB and FBA are
internal forces of the system (A + B). They add
up to give a null force. Internal forces in a
body or a system of particles thus cancel away
in pairs. This is an important fact that
enables the second law to be applicable to a
body or a system of particles (See Chapter 7).
98
PHYSICS
( px )
initial
( px )
final
( )
= m u cos 30 , p y
initial
( )
= m u cos 30 , py
final
m u sin 30
= m u sin 30
Fig. 5.6
( px )
( px )
initial
final
= mu
= mu
(p )
(p )
y initial
y final
=0
=0
2 m u/ 2 m u cos 30 =
2
3
1.2
LAWS OF MOTION
99
pA p A = ( pB p B )
i.e.
pA + pB = p A + p B
(5.9)
(5.10)
(5.11)
(a)
(b)
Fig. 5.8
(c)
Equilibrium of a body requires not only translational equilibrium (zero net external force) but also rotational
equilibrium (zero net external torque), as we shall see in Chapter 7.
100
PHYSICS
5
5
= 40
or = tan 1
6
6
Note the answer does not depend on the length
of the rope (assumed massless) nor on the point
at which the horizontal force is applied.
t
tan =
We are not considering, for simplicity, charged and magnetic bodies. For these, besides gravity, there are
electrical and magnetic non-contact forces.
LAWS OF MOTION
since we are talking of uncharged and nonmagnetic bodies in mechanics. At the microscopic
level, all bodies are made of charged constituents
(nuclei and electrons) and the various contact
forces arising due to elasticity of bodies, molecular
collisions and impacts, etc. can ultimately be
traced to the electrical forces between the charged
constituents of different bodies. The detailed
microscopic origin of these forces is, however,
complex and not useful for handling problems in
mechanics at the macroscopic scale. This is why
they are treated as different types of forces with
their characteristic properties determined
empirically.
101
( )
is independent of
(f )
= s N
(5.13)
where s is a constant of proportionality
depending only on the nature of the surfaces in
contact. The constant s is called the coefficient
of static friction. The law of static friction may
thus be written as
(5.14)
f s s N
s
max
( )
( )
max
(5.15)
102
PHYSICS
( )
maximum value, f s
max
= s N.
Therefore,
tan max = s or max = tan1 s
When becomes just a little more than max ,
there is a small net force on the block and it
begins to slide. Note that max depends only on
s and is independent of the mass of the block.
For
max = 15,
s
= tan 15
= 0.27
(b)
Fig. 5.11
(c)
Fig. 5.12
LAWS OF MOTION
103
22
23
m s 2 = 0.96 m s-2
t
Rolling friction
A body like a ring or a sphere rolling without
slipping over a horizontal plane will suffer no
friction, in principle. At every instant, there is
just one point of contact between the body and
the plane and this point has no motion relative
to the plane. In this ideal situation, kinetic or
static friction is zero and the body should
continue to roll with constant velocity. We know,
in practice, this will not happen and some
resistance to motion (rolling friction) does occur,
i.e. to keep the body rolling, some applied force
is needed. For the same weight, rolling friction
is much smaller (even by 2 or 3 orders of
magnitude) than static or sliding friction. This
Fig. 5.13 Some ways of reducing friction. (a) Ball bearings placed between moving parts of a machine.
(b) Compressed cushion of air between surfaces in relative motion.
104
PHYSICS
fc =
mv 2
R
(5.16)
v2
mv 2
R
s RN
= s Rg
[ N = mg]
m
which is independent of the mass of the car.
This shows that for a given value of s and R,
there is a maximum speed of circular motion of
the car possible, namely
v max = s Rg
(a)
(5.18)
(b)
Fig. 5.14 Circular motion of a car on (a) a level road, (b) a banked road.
(5.19a)
mv 2
R
(5.19b)
But f s N
Thus to obtain v
max
we put
f = s N .
(5.20a)
LAWS OF MOTION
105
N=
t
turn.
mg
cos s sin
or v max
+ tan 2
= Rg s
1 s tan
(5.21)
vmax
Example 5.10 A cyclist speeding at 18
km/h on a level road takes a sharp circular
turn of radius 3 m without reducing the
speed. The co-efficient of static friction
between the tyres and the road is 0.1. Will
the cyclist slip while taking the turn ?
Answer On an unbanked road, frictional force
alone can provide the centripetal force needed
to keep the cyclist moving on a circular turn
without slipping. If the speed is too large, or if
the turn is too sharp (i.e. of too small a radius)
or both, the frictional force is not sufficient to
provide the necessary centripetal force, and the
cyclist slips. The condition for the cyclist not to
slip is given by Eq. (5.18) :
v2 s R g
Now, R = 3 m, g = 9.8 m s-2, s = 0.1. That is,
s R g = 2.94 m2 s-2. v = 18 km/h = 5 m s-1; i.e.,
v2 = 25 m2 s-2. The condition is not obeyed.
The cyclist will slip while taking the circular
+ tan
= Rg s
1 s tan
1/2
= 38.1 m s 1
106
PHYSICS
Fig. 5.15
LAWS OF MOTION
107
3.
4.
Aristotles view that a force is necessary to keep a body in uniform motion is wrong. A
force is necessary in practice to counter the opposing force of friction.
Galileo extrapolated simple observations on motion of bodies on inclined planes, and
arrived at the law of inertia. Newtons first law of motion is the same law rephrased
thus: Everybody continues to be in its state of rest or of uniform motion in a straight line,
unless compelled by some external force to act otherwise. In simple terms, the First Law
is If external force on a body is zero, its acceleration is zero.
Momentum (p ) of a body is the product of its mass (m) and velocity (v) :
p = mv
Newtons second law of motion :
The rate of change of momentum of a body is proportional to the applied force and takes
place in the direction in which the force acts. Thus
F =k
dp
=kma
dt
where F is the net external force on the body and a its acceleration. We set the constant
of proportionality k = 1 in SI units. Then
F=
dp
= ma
dt
The SI unit of force is newton : 1 N = 1 kg m s-2.
(a) The second law is consistent with the First Law (F = 0 implies a = 0)
(b) It is a vector equation
(c) It is applicable to a particle, and also to a body or a system of particles, provided F
is the total external force on the system and a is the acceleration of the system as
a whole.
(d) F at a point at a certain instant determines a at the same point at that instant.
That is the Second Law is a local law; a at an instant does not depend on the
history of motion.
5. Impulse is the product of force and time which equals change in momentum.
The notion of impulse is useful when a large force acts for a short time to produce a
measurable change in momentum. Since the time of action of the force is very short,
one can assume that there is no appreciable change in the position of the body during
the action of the impulsive force.
108
PHYSICS
6.
7.
8.
( )
f s fs
max
= s R
= R
k
k
s (co-efficient of static friction) and k (co-efficient of kinetic friction) are
constants characteristic of the pair of surfaces in contact. It is found
experimentally that k is less than s .
f
POINTS TO PONDER
1.
2.
3.
LAWS OF MOTION
109
In the second law of motion F = m a, F stands for the net force due to all
material agencies external to the body. a is the effect of the force. ma should
not be regarded as yet another force, besides F.
5. The centripetal force should not be regarded as yet another kind of force. It is
simply a name given to the force that provides inward radial acceleration to a
body in circular motion. We should always look for some material force like
tension, gravitational force, electrical force, friction, etc as the centripetal force
in any circular motion.
6. Static friction is a self-adjusting force up to its limit s N (fs s N). Do not put
fs= s N without being sure that the maximum value of static friction is coming
into play.
7. The familiar equation mg = R for a body on a table is true only if the body is in
equilibrium. The two forces mg and R can be different (e.g. a body in an
accelerated lift). The equality of mg and R has no connection with the third
law.
8. The terms action and reaction in the third Law of Motion simply stand for
simultaneous mutual forces between a pair of bodies. Unlike their meaning in
ordinary language, action does not precede or cause reaction. Action and reaction
act on different bodies.
9. The different terms like friction, normal reaction tension, air resistance,
viscous drag, thrust, buoyancy weight centripetal force all stand for force
in different contexts. For clarity, every force and its equivalent terms
encountered in mechanics should be reduced to the phrase force on A by B.
10. For applying the second law of motion, there is no conceptual distinction between
inanimate and animate objects. An animate object such as a human also
requires an external force to accelerate. For example, without the external
force of friction, we cannot walk on the ground.
11. The objective concept of force in physics should not be confused with the
subjective concept of the feeling of force. On a merry-go-around, all parts of
our body are subject to an inward force, but we have a feeling of being pushed
outward the direction of impending motion.
4.
EXERCISES
5.1
5.2
5.3
Give the magnitude and direction of the net force acting on a stone of mass
0.1 kg,
(a) just after it is dropped from the window of a stationary train,
(b) just after it is dropped from the window of a train running at a constant
velocity of 36 km/h,
(c ) just after it is dropped from the window of a train accelerating with 1 m s-2,
110
PHYSICS
(d) lying on the floor of a train which is accelerating with 1 m s-2, the stone
being at rest relative to the train.
Neglect air resistance throughout.
5.4
mv2
mv2
, (iii) T +
, (iv) 0
l
l
T is the tension in the string. [Choose the correct alternative].
A constant retarding force of 50 N is applied to a body of mass 20 kg moving
initially with a speed of 15 m s-1. How long does the body take to stop ?
A constant force acting on a body of mass 3.0 kg changes its speed from 2.0 m s-1
to 3.5 m s-1 in 25 s. The direction of the motion of the body remains
unchanged. What is the magnitude and direction of the force ?
A body of mass 5 kg is acted upon by two perpendicular forces 8 N and 6 N.
Give the magnitude and direction of the acceleration of the body.
The driver of a three-wheeler moving with a speed of 36 km/h sees a child
standing in the middle of the road and brings his vehicle to rest in 4.0 s just
in time to save the child. What is the average retarding force on the vehicle ?
The mass of the three-wheeler is 400 kg and the mass of the driver is 65 kg.
A rocket with a lift-off mass 20,000 kg is blasted upwards with an initial
acceleration of 5.0 m s-2. Calculate the initial thrust (force) of the blast.
A body of mass 0.40 kg moving initially with a constant speed of 10 m s-1 to
the north is subject to a constant force of 8.0 N directed towards the south
for 30 s. Take the instant the force is applied to be t = 0, the position of the
body at that time to be x = 0, and predict its position at t = 5 s, 25 s, 100 s.
A truck starts from rest and accelerates uniformly at 2.0 m s-2. At t = 10 s, a
stone is dropped by a person standing on the top of the truck (6 m high from
the ground). What are the (a) velocity, and (b) acceleration of the stone at t =
11s ? (Neglect air resistance.)
A bob of mass 0.1 kg hung from the ceiling of a room by a string 2 m long is
set into oscillation. The speed of the bob at its mean position is 1 m s-1.
What is the trajectory of the bob if the string is cut when the bob is (a) at one
of its extreme positions, (b) at its mean position.
A man of mass 70 kg stands on a weighing scale in a lift which is moving
(a) upwards with a uniform speed of 10 m s-1,
(b) downwards with a uniform acceleration of 5 m s-2,
(c) upwards with a uniform acceleration of 5 m s-2.
What would be the readings on the scale in each case?
(d) What would be the reading if the lift mechanism failed and it hurtled
down freely under gravity ?
Figure 5.16 shows the position-time graph of a particle of mass 4 kg. What is
the (a) force on the particle for t < 0, t > 4 s, 0 < t < 4 s? (b) impulse at t = 0 and
t = 4 s ? (Consider one-dimensional motion only).
(i) T, (ii) T
5.5
5.6
5.7
5.8
5.9
5.10
5.11
5.12
5.13
5.14
Fig. 5.16
LAWS OF MOTION
111
Fig. 5.17
5.25 Figure 5.18 shows a man standing stationary with respect to a horizontal conveyor
belt that is accelerating with 1 m s-2. What is the net force on the man? If the
coefficient of static friction between the mans shoes and the belt is 0.2, up to what
acceleration of the belt can the man continue to be stationary relative to the belt ?
(Mass of the man = 65 kg.)
112
PHYSICS
Fig. 5.18
5.26 A stone of mass m tied to the end of a string revolves in a vertical circle of radius R.
The net forces at the lowest and highest points of the circle directed vertically
downwards are : [Choose the correct alternative]
Lowest Point
5.27
5.28
5.29
5.30
5.31
(a)
mg T1
(b)
mg + T1
Highest Point
mg + T2
mg T2
2
1
(c)
mg + T1 (m v ) / R
mg T2 + (m v 21 ) / R
(d)
mg T1 (m v 21 ) / R
mg + T2 + (m v 21 ) / R
T1 and v1 denote the tension and speed at the lowest point. T2 and v2 denote
corresponding values at the highest point.
A helicopter of mass 1000 kg rises with a vertical acceleration of 15 m s-2. The crew
and the passengers weigh 300 kg. Give the magnitude and direction of the
(a) force on the floor by the crew and passengers,
(b) action of the rotor of the helicopter on the surrounding air,
(c) force on the helicopter due to the surrounding air.
A stream of water flowing horizontally with a speed of 15 m s-1 gushes out of a tube of
cross-sectional area 10-2 m2, and hits a vertical wall nearby. What is the force exerted
on the wall by the impact of water, assuming it does not rebound ?
Ten one-rupee coins are put on top of each other on a table. Each coin has a mass m.
Give the magnitude and direction of
(a) the force on the 7th coin (counted from the bottom) due to all the coins on its top,
(b) the force on the 7th coin by the eighth coin,
(c) the reaction of the 6th coin on the 7th coin.
An aircraft executes a horizontal loop at a speed of 720 km/h with its wings banked
at 15. What is the radius of the loop ?
A train runs along an unbanked circular track of radius 30 m at a speed of 54 km/h.
The mass of the train is 106 kg. What provides the centripetal force required for this
purpose The engine or the rails ? What is the angle of banking required to prevent
wearing out of the rail ?
Fig. 5.19
LAWS OF MOTION
113
Fig. 5.20
33
1
3
placed at 4 cm and 14 cm away from the centre of the record. If the co-efficient of friction
between the coins and the record is 0.15, which of the coins will revolve with the record ?
5.38 You may have seen in a circus a motorcyclist driving in vertical loops inside a deathwell (a hollow spherical chamber with holes, so the spectators can watch from outside).
Explain clearly why the motorcyclist does not drop down when he is at the uppermost
point, with no support from below. What is the minimum speed required at the
uppermost position to perform a vertical loop if the radius of the chamber is 25 m ?
5.39 A 70 kg man stands in contact against the inner wall of a hollow cylindrical drum of
radius 3 m rotating about its vertical axis with 200 rev/min. The coefficient of
friction between the wall and his clothing is 0.15. What is the minimum rotational
speed of the cylinder to enable the man to remain stuck to the wall (without falling)
when the floor is suddenly removed ?
5.40 A thin circular loop of radius R rotates about its vertical diameter with an angular
frequency . Show that a small bead on the wire loop remains at its lowermost point
for
g / R . What is the angle made by the radius vector joining the centre to
2g / R ? Neglect friction.