God created Universe about 15 billion years ago in a violent explosion known as Big Bang.

After the
Big Bang the Universe started to expand. It contained only 90% Hydrogen and 10% Helium atoms in
gas form. Due to high pressure and temperature heavier elements started forming from Hydrogen and
Helium in a process known as Nucleosynthesis.Our Galaxy formed sometimes after the beginning of
Universe. Since our Galaxy took shape over 10 billion years ago stars have been forming continuously
Nucleosynthesis takes place inside the stars. In massive stars having mass of more than 4 Solar masses
formation of heavy elements takes place and nuclear burning known as Nucleosynthesis occurs in
which heavier fuels burns step wisely.
H He

C O Ne Si Fe

In the last Iron core formed which does not burn and release energy. Due to the collapse of Iron core
there occurs a large explosion known as Supernova (Death of massive Stars). In formation of Universe,
Galaxies and stars there takes place Nucleosynthesis process which obeys Einsteins theory E=mc 2.In
Supernova explosion Einsteins theory is not valid because of the greatest mass defect since for every
one kilogram of Hydrogen converted into Iron, 8 gram would be released in the form of energy Emc 2
(In Supernova explosion the destruction of Stars)
Research Problem:
Quantification of Supernova Emissions
Research Objectives:
1) Define Quantification of Supernova emissions.
2) Is it possible to Quantify Supernova emissions?
3) Why it is important to study Supernova emissions?
4) What is the Source term of Supernova emissions? (Give in detail)
5) What things are emitted in Supernova emissions?
6) How can we detect Supernova emissions?
7) What is the impact of Supernova emissions on Earth and Human beings?
8) What is the affect of Supernova emissions on other Planets and Stars?
9) What will be Sun become after Supernova explosion?
10) Why we can not Quantify Supernova emissions give reasons?
Quantification means the act of counting and measuring hence quantification of Supernova emission is
the act of counting and measuring Supernova emissions.
Quantification of Supernova emissions is not possible 1)because there is greatest mass defect 2)Due to
the absorption of Supernova emissions in interstellar cloud we can not quantify Supernova emission but
we Qualitatively analyze it.
It is important to study Supernova emissions because every thing on Earth can be affected by
Supernova emissions

The Source term is Supernova explosion.

Supernova explosion: A Supernova is a gigantic Stellar explosion that takes place at the end of a
massive star,s life cycle. Supernova explosion is the death of massive stars.
The two main categories of Supernova are Type1 and Type11 Supernova.
The two types of Supernovae are related but the explosion mechanism is different.
Type1 Supernova: Type1 Supernova is the explosion of a Star caused by transfer of matter to a White
dwarf from it,s companion star.Type1 Supernova occurs in binary stellar system in which one star is a
white dwarf. Matter is transferred to a white dwarf from it,s companion star raising the mass of White
dwarf above the Chandrasekhar limit and causing the star to collapse and may explode. Carbon and
Oxygen in the collapsing star will be compressed and heated,and although initially too cold to burn will
eventually reach their ignition temperature and begin Nuclear fusion. Carbon and Oxygen fuse to form
Silicon (12C+16O becomes 28Si) which in turn fuses into Nickel (2 28Si become Ni).The energy released
in the burning may enough to blow the entire star apart resulting in type 1 Supernova explosion. The
Nickel sprayed into space by the explosion is highly Radio active and rapidly decays into Cobalt which
finally decays to Iron 56Fe each decay adding additional energy to the out burst and Gamma rays
released. Type1 Supernova leaves no remnant Star .The brightening of the Supernova after the first few
weeks seems to have been caused by the decay of radioactive Nickel into Cobalt .Cobalt are also
unstable but they decay more slowly.Gamma rays from decay of Cobalt to Iron were detected. Cobalt
and Iron are clearly visible in the Infrared Spectra of the Supernova.Type1 Supernova leave only a
cloud of rapidly expanding gas rich in the left over Carbon and Oxygen plus the Silicon,Iron and other
elements made during the nuclear burning. Supernova Type1 contain no Hydrogen emission lines in
their spectra.Type1 Supernova arise from old low mass stars.It is 4 billion times more luminous than
the Sun, decline rapidly at first and then fade more slowly.This group can be sub grouped a,b or
c.Type1a Supernova shows strong Si11 lines,Type1b shows strong Helium and Type 1c shows the
absence of Helium lines. Type 1b and 1c are exclusive to late Type Spiral and Irregular galaxies and
have never been discovered in Elliptical galaxies. This give rise to the assumption that the Progenitors
for Type1b/c are from young short -lived massive Stars.
Type11 Supernova occurs when Iron core of a massive Star (More than 10 solar masses) collapses.Iron
is a dead end. Iron core can not burn and release energy.The Iron nucleus turns out to be the most
tightly bond of all nuclei .As a result attempting to fuse additional Protons or Neutrons to it weakens
the bonds and absorbs energy, rather than releasing it. Thus Nuclear fusion stops with Iron and a star
with an Iron core is out of fuel.Fuel exhaustion occurs a star core to shrink and heat. But in high mass
stars the shrinkage presses the Iron nuclei so tightly that a new reaction can occur. Protons and Electron
may themselves merge neutralizing their charge and becoming Neutron .The shrinking core is thus
transformed from a sphere of Iron into a sphere of Neutrons. Most of the pressure that supported the
core was supplied by Electrons but they have been absorbed by Proton. Thus,the Star,s core pressure
suddenly drops .Nothing remains to support the star and so its interior begins to collapse. However
because the matter is so dense,it,s force of gravity is immense and it crushes the core. In less than a
second,the core shrivels from an Iron ball the size of the Earth to a ball of Neutrons about 10
kilometers(about 6 miles) in radius. If a Neutron star more massive 2 to3 Solar masses the degenerate
neutrons would not be able to able to support the the weight and object would collapse into a black

hole. The detection of the Neutrino blast confirms that collapsing core gave birth to the Neutron star.
Type 11 supernova become only 0.6 billion times more luminous than the Sun, and decline in a more
irregular way. The Type11 Supernova very strongly shows the presence of the element Hydrogen in
their Spectra and found in Spiral and Irregular Galaxies. Their Progenitors are also young, short lived
massive stars like the type 1b/c. The overall rate of Supernova in Milkyway Galaxy is about 1-2 per
Century most of which occur in Spiral arms or in galactic bulge.
Stellar Remnants: White Dwarfs, Neutron Stars and black holes are the remnants of Supernova
explosion.
A Type1 Supernova leaves no remnants.Type1 Supernova leaves only a cloud of rapidly expanding gas
rich in the left over Carbon and Oxygen plus the Silicon Iron and other elements made during the
nuclear burning.
White Dwarfs: A White Dwarf is a dense dying star that has collapsed to the size of Earth having low
luminosity and high surface temperature having mass equal to the Sun,s. White Dwarfs burn no
Nuclear fuel and shine by residual heat. They are the end stage of stellar evolution for stars like the
Sun. A White dwarf forms when a low-mass star (mass less than 10 Solar masses) expels its outer
layers to form a Planetary nebula shell and leaves its hot core exposed and its mass must be less than
the Chandrasekhar limit or it collapse having no fuel supply a White dwarf cools and grows dim. If a
White dwarf is in a binary system,it may accrete mass from its neighbor and explode either as a nova or
as a Type1 Supernova.
Type 11 Supernova results from the collapse of a massive star Iron core and which leaves a Neutron
star or Black hole. Type 11 Supernova are classified through the presence Hydrogen Balmer lines in
their Spectra.The Blue shifted absorption feature occurs due to material moving towards the observer.
Supernova Spectra exhibit emission that is generally blue shifted.

Neutron Stars Black Hole:.

Neutron Star :Neutron star is a very dense compact star composed almost entirely of tightly packed
neutrons with density 1016 to1018 Kg /m3 and having radius about 10 Km. A rapidly rotating Neutron
star is known as Pulsar. Many or most Neutron stars are Pulsars. As the Neutron star rotates it emits
beams of radiation that sweeps around the sky. The mechanism that produces the beams involves the
spinning Neutron star and its magnetic field generates powerful electric fields and field causes the
production of electron-Positron pairs. As the charged particles are accelerated through the magnetic
field also known as Synchrotron radiation they emit Photons in the direction of their motion which
produces powerful beams of electromagnetic radiation. A young Neutron emits powerful beam of
radiation. Older Neutron star rotates too slowly to generate detectable Radio beams. While a beam
points roughly towards Earth we detect a pulse. If beam is pointed towards up,we detect no energy.
Most Pulsars have rotating period of to13 seconds. The fastest spinning Pulsar spins 642 times every
second. Only about 950 years old the Crab Pulsar is so powerful it emits Photons of Radio
infrared,visible X- ray and Gamma ray wavelength. Neutron stars in binary system sometimes emit
intense X ray binaries.

Orbiting X ray telescopes have observed a number a number of Supernova remnants. Because human
eyes can not see X-rays,the ,the X-ray images are produced as false color maps. These X-rays are
Synchrotron radiation from gas at very high temperature so the X-rays shows where the gas is
hottest.This often outlines a shell where the expanding Supernova remnants is colliding with the
interstellar medium.Supernova remnants are not empty however X-ray observation reveal that they
are filled with the high temperature gas. Radio images of Supernova remnants reveal that they are
emitting Synchrotron radiation.
Black hole: If the remnant core has more than about 5 Solar masses. They may form Black holes. Black
hole is an object whose gravitational attraction is so strong that its escape velocity equals the speed of
light preventing light or any radiation or material body from leaving its surface. If a Black hole has a
companion star we may able to see x-rays from an accretion disk as gas from the neighbor fall towards
the hole.The Gamma ray bursters appear to be produced by the merger of two Neutron stars or by
Hypernovae. Although the Hypernova may produce no Supernova explosions it can emit jet of Gamma
rays. Over the past decade,long duration gamma-ray(GRBs) including the sub class of X-ray
flashes(XRFs) have been revealed to be a rare variety of type 1bc Supernova. Although all these events
result from the death of massive stars the electromagnetic luminosities ofGRBs and XRFs exceed those
of ordinary type 1bc Supernovae by many orders of magnitude. The essential Physical process that
causes a dying star to produce GRBs or XRFs and not just a Supernova is still unknown. This event is a
hundred times less energetic but ten times more common then Cosmological GRBs. This suggest that
the production of relativistic ejecta is Key physical distinction between GRBs or XRFs and ordinary
Supernova while the nature of the central engine (black hole or magnetar may distinguish typical bursts
from low luminosity,spherical events like XRF 060218.
Emissions of Supernova explosion: Gamma rays,Neutrinos,Energetic particles and X-rays are
emissions of Supernova explosions.
Gamma rays:Gamma rays have wavelength even shorter than X-rays and that means they have even
higher energies they are produced by the hottest and most violent objects in the Universe exploding
stars,Neutron stars and Black hole. They can not be focused or detected as X-rays can. Also Gamma
rays are high energy Photons. In addition Gamma rays are almost totally absorbed by our atmosphere.
So Gamma ray telescopes must observe from orbit. NASA has operated three important Gamma-ray
telescopes aboard satellites. The 17-ton Ray observatory was launched April 1991.At 10 to 50 times the
sensitivity of any previous Gamma-ray telescope. The discovery of bright Gamma-ray emission
coincident with Supernova remnant(SNR) W51C reported using the Large Area Telescope(LAT) on
board the Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope W51C is a middle aged remnant(~10 4 yr) with intense
Radio Synchrotron emission in its shell and known to be interacting with a molecular cloud . The
Gamma ray emission is spatially extended broadly consistent with the Radio and X -ray extent of
SNRW51C. The observed Gamma rays can be explained reasonably by a combination of efficient
acceleration of Nuclear Cosmic rays at Supernova shock and shock cloud interactions. The decay of
neutral Pi measons produced in hadronic collisions provides a plausible explanation for the Gamma ray
emission.

X- rays: These Photons can be produced only by High-energy processes .So we see them coming from
very hot region in stars and from violent events such as matter smashing into a Neutron star. Focusing
X-ray is difficult because the higher energy X-ray Photons do not reflect off conventional mirrors but
rather penetrate into the mirrors. The optics in Chandra are especially designed mirrors in which the Xray Photons graze the surface of the mirrors at very small angles. Under these circumstances the
Photons are reflected to form an image. Just as CCD chip records visible light Photons the detector in
Chandra has been designed to absorb and record X-rays Photons to produce an X-rays image. Chandra
can detect X-ray emitting objects 50 times fainter than any previous X -ray telescope and can resolve
details 10 times smaller. The X-ray emissions contains information on the Supernova (e.g
type,explosion,energy,mass and composition of ejecta and on the nature of the ambient medium (e.g
uniform Stellar wind).
Energetic particles: Cosmic rays are extremely energetic particles (85% Protons) traveling at nearly the
speed of light that enter the Earth,s atmosphere from space. Some rays are emitted by the Sun, but most
come from more distant sources perhaps exploding Supernovas. Cosmic rays however are not really
rays they are subatomic particles. Almost no Cosmic rays reach the ground but they do smash into gas
atoms in the upper atmosphere and fragments of these collisions shower on us day and night our entire
lives. We can,t be sure where Cosmic rays come from. Because they are atomic particles with electric
charges they are deflected by the magnetic field spread through our galaxy and that means we can,t tell
where they are coming from. The space between the stars is a glowing fog of Cosmic rays.
Radio Detection of Cosmic Rays:Air shower emit a coherent Radio pulse in the forward direction. The
dominant emission mechanism is the deflection of electrons and positrons in the shower by the
geomagnetic field.
Neutrino: Neutrino is a neutral massless atomic particle that travels at or nearly the speed of light. The
theory predicts that 99 percent of the energy released in the collapse will appear as Neutrinos. A
Supernova emits more than just visible light, most of the energy of its blast is carried by a burst of
Neutrinos, the same tiny penetrating particles generated in the Sun as it converts Hydrogen into
Helium. Just as Sun,s Neutrinos escape freely into space so the Supernova,s Neutron escape as well. A
pulse of such neutrinos was detected in February 1987 when a Supernova SN 1987A below up in the
large Magellanic cloud. Neutrinos more than one trillion of them passed through us, and if one
happened to collide with an electron in our eye ball, it would have a tiny flash of light.
Affect of Supernova emissions on Earth:
Over all effect of a GRB on the Earth: We begin with depletion of Ozone which results from catalytic
reactions with Nitrogen oxide compound NOY most importantly NO2 and NO. These compounds are
created when Gamma-ray dissociate and ionize N2 in the Stratosphere which reacts rapidly with O 2 to
form NO. Catalytic reactions then proceed to develop O3 through the cycle.
1) NO+O3 NO2+O2
2) NO2+O NO+O2
3) O3+O

O2+O2

NO2 is a brown gas. This may lead to climate cooling due to decrease in surface heating. NO 2 this may
be significant for climate cooling since it would lead to reduction in melting of Polar ice during
summer.
Gamma rays dissociate and ionize N2 in the Stratosphere which reacts rapidly with O2.
The net result is NO2. This may lead to climate cooling due to decrease in Surface heating.
The primary effect is generation of Nitrogen Oxide compounds which deplete Ozone.The destruction
of Stratospheric Ozone depletion leads to an increase in Solar UVB radiation at the surface hence Solar
UVB penetrate more effectively to the ground. The UVB flux enhances DNA demage especially in
Simple life forms such as Phytoplankton.
Cosmic rays,s affect on Earths Upper Atmosphere :
Cosmic rays from Supernova explosion do not reach the ground, but they do smash into gas atoms in
the upper atmosphere and fragments of these collisions shower down on us day and night our entire
life.The Cosmic rays effect on terrestrial processes such as electrical phenomena lightning discharges
cloud formation and cloud coverage,temperature variation space weather phenomena Earth,s climate
and the effects GCRs on human health.All these observation are directly related to climate variation on
short terms as well as long term.
Affect of X-rays on Earth: Ozone and ordinary Oxygen in atmosphere block completely X-rays so Xrays do not reach the ground.
Affect of Neutrinos on Earth : Neutrinos are massless highly penetrating particles travelling at nearly
speed of light comes to earth harm lessly and about 1 trillion of them passes through us every time.
The affect of Supernova Emissions on Planets and Stars:
The explosion creates free neutrons that rapidly combine with atoms in the star to build up heavy and
rare element such as Gold,Platinum and Uranium. Due the absorption of Supernova emissions in
Interstellar cloud the Interstellar gas is thereby enriched in heavy element form new generations of
Stars .The atoms needed to build the rock of Planet and bones of living creatures were supplied to
Interstellar gas from Supernova explosion.
QN) what will be the Sun become after a Supernova explosion?
Ans) Once our Sun has consumed all the Hydrogen fuel in its core, it too will reach the end of its
life. Astronomers estimate this to be 7 billion years from now. For a few million years it will expand
into a red giant. Puffing away its outer layers. Then it,ll collapse down into a White Dwarf and slowly
cool down to the background temperature of Universe.

IN THE LAST I WOULD LIKE TO SAY THAT FROM MY OPINION THE

QUANTIFICATION OF SUPERNOVA EMISSIONS IS NOT POSSIBLE BECAUSE
THERE ARE TWO REASONS.
1) In Supernova explosion Einstein,s theory is not valid.
E mc2
Because there is greatest mass defect in conversion of Hydrogen into Iron
E mc2
2) Due to the absorption of Supernova emission in interstellar cloud.

WE CAN NOT QUANTIFY SUPERNOVA EMISSION BUT WE QUALITATIVELY

ANALYZE IT.

SUMMARY:
THE AIM OF THIS STUDY IS TO INVESTIGATE THE IMPACT OF SUPERNOVA
EMISSION FLUX OVER TERRESTRIAL VARIABILITY LIKE DEPLETION OF OZONE
AND IONOSPHEREIC INTERRUPTION.

References:
Books:
1) EXPLORATIONS BY THOMAS T. ARNY
AN INTRODUCTION TO ASTRONOMY
Published by Mc Graw-Hill
Mc Graw- Hill Companies, Inc, 1221
Avenue of the Americas,New york
3rd edition up dated 2004
2) Astronomy by DINAH L. MOCHE
Published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc,
Hoboken,New Jersey
Printed in the United States of America
Sixth Edition 2004
3) Astronomy Structure of The Universe by A,E Roy(Third Edition)
Published under the Adam Hilger
Imprint by10p Publishing Ltd
Techno House, Redcliffe Way,
Bristol BS1 6NX, England
335 East 45th Street,New York,
NY 10017-3483, USA
Printed in Great Britain by
JW Arrow Smith Ltd, Bristol
4) The Cosmic Voyage
By WILLIAM K. HART MANN
Wadsworth Publishing Company
Belmont,California
A Division of Wadsworth,Inc,
Printed in the United States of America
1990 by Wadsworth Publishing Company
5) FOUNDATIONS OF ASTRONOMY
Seventh Edition

MICHAEL.A. SEEDS
(2003)
THOMSON
BROOKS/ COLE-THOMSON
Learning
511 Forest Lodge Road
Pacific Grove,CA 93950 USA

Research papers:
1) Cosmic rays Non relativistic Shocks of young Supernova remnants in Kinetic Simulation
2) Scholarly Articles for Quantification of Supernova Emission
3) New Journal of Physics (Gamma-ray bursts and terrestrial planetary atmosphere)
4) Gamma and Neutrino Radiation Dose from Gamma Ray bursts and Nearby Supernova
5) Toward a Comprehensive Global Electric Model .Atmospheric conductivity and its variability in
CESMI (WACCM) Model Simulation.
6) Thermal X-Ray EMISSION and Cosmic -ray production in Young Supernova remnant
7) Analysis of blue -shifted emissions peaks in type11 Supernova
8) Fermi LAT Discovery of extended Gamma- ray emission in the Direction of Supernova remnants
W51C