The Syllabus!!!!

Students learn about:

1 The geographical setting
the geographical setting, natural features and resources of
ancient Sparta
significant sites: Sparta
2 Social structure and political organisation
the issue of Lycurgus (the Great Rhetra)
roles and privileges of the two kings
government: ephorate, gerousia, ekklesia
social structure: Spartiates, perioeci, inferiors, helots
role of the Spartan army
control of the helots: the military, syssitia, krypteia
artisans, helots
educational system: agoge
role and status of women: land ownership, inheritance,
education
3 The economy
land ownership: agriculture, kleroi, helots
technology: weapons, armour, pottery
economic roles of the periokoi (dwellers around) and helots
economic exchange: use of iron bars, trade
4 Religion, death and burial
gods and goddesses: Artemis Orthia, Poseidon, Apollo
myths and legends: Lycurgus and the Dioscuri
festivals: Hyakinthia, Gymnopaedia, Karneia
religious role of the kings
funerary customs and rituals
5 Cultural life
art: sculpture, painted vases, bone and ivory carving
architecture: Amyklaion, Menelaion, the Sanctuary of
Artemis Orthia
writing and literature: Alcman and Tyrtaeus
Greek writers views of Sparta: Herodotus, Thucydides,
Xenophon, Aristotle,
Pausanias, Plutarch
6 Everyday life
daily life and leisure activities
food and clothing
marriage customs

 occupations.
The geographical setting:
The geographical setting, natural features and resources of
ancient Sparta

Sparta was located in the southern part of the Peloponnesian

peninsula in an area called Laconia

It was surrounded on three sides by rugged mountains; Mt

Taygetus to the west, The Parnon ranges to the east and the
Arcadian mountains to the north. These provided natural
protection against invaders and foreign influences.

Sparta has a small population that controlled one of the

richest agricultural areas

The land produced crops including wheat, barley, grapes,

olives and figs

Animals produced meat, cheese, wool and leather

The Spartan port provided fish and shellfish, the main

mineral resource was iron ore as well as lead.
(In past papers there have been short answer
questions about the natural resources and
geographical features of Sparta)
Significant sites: Sparta

Sparta began as a combination of five villages

It was the leading power in its area but did not have grand
public buildings like Athens, being more like a network of rural
townships than a city

Sparta did not have any protection from walls, the mountain
ranges surrounding the area acted as a natural barrier against
foreign attack

The temples (Temple of Artemis Orthia, Shrine of Apollo)

were located away from the town centre

Social structure and political organisation:

(There have been questions in past papers in relation
to social structure and political organisation) The issue
of Lycurgus (the Great Rhetra)Lycurgus handed down the laws

of Sparta after consultation with the gods according to ancient

sources such as Herodotus and Aristotle. His initiatives
represent a series of changes to the Spartan way of life that
occurred over a period of time. These changes and reforms
introduced by Lycurgus were in the form of a great Rhetra
which is a pronouncement that reflects the oral tradition of
the Spartans and their laws. The great Rhetra is significant
because it is the foundation document of the Spartan
constitution. It limits the powers of the two kings and is
concerned with the establishment of the Gerousia.
Herodotus states... Lycurgus changed all the laws and
made sure these should not be transgressed. He established
military organisation as well as the ephors and the Gerousia.
Sparta as a result of these changes became a well ordered
state and a temple dedicated to Lycurgus was built
Plutarch considers...the most important change that
Lycurgus made was the establishment of the council of elders
(Gerousia) and his redistribution of the land
The reforms that Lycurgus made covered all aspects of
Spartan life including the economic, political and social. He
aimed to restore a good order and good government within
Sparta emphasised by duty, obedience to the laws and the
military way of life.
Roles and privileges of the two kings:

There were two kings always in rule from the Agiad and
Eurypontid families

According to Herodotus they had a number of roles to fulfil

including; commander in chief of the Spartan army, a member
of the Gerousia, judge, lawgiver and to supervise the
maintenance of roads.

As members of the Gerousia, they could initiate laws and

policy

The kings were not above the law despite the power and
status they had

Their decisions had to be ratified by the ekklesia

According to Herodotus they had certain privileges including;
they were the chief priests of Zeus, at public dinners they

were served first, seats were reserved for them at public

games and whilst at war they were given a bodyguard of 100
men
Government: ephorate, gerousia, ekklesia

The Spartans believed that Lycurgus incorporated the best

parts of other systems of government into the new Spartan
system of government.

It was a mixed constitution with elements of democracy,

oligarchy and monarchy

The state was governed by a council of elders (Gerousia)

that initiated legislation and were essentially the law makers

There were two kings always, as members and leaders of the

Gerousia and commanders of the army ably assisted by the
ephors who were elected to supervise the kings and oversee
the administration of laws.

The ekklesia was an assembly of Spartiates that elected the

ephors and the Gerousia
Ephorate

Five ephors were elected they had to be Spartiates over 30

years of age, they held their position for one year and
counterbalanced the power held by the Gerousia and the
kings

They were the overseers and controlled every aspect of

Spartan life including the supervision of the two kings whom
they could charge with treason or acting against the state.

They convened meetings of the Gerousia and the assembly,

oversaw the education system and the secret police, heard
cases, controlled the army and could banish foreigners from
Sparta.
As Xenophon states... The ephors on behalf of the state,
the king for himself would take an oath that stated I will reign
according to the established laws of the state The oath of the
state is while you abide by your oath, we will keep the
kingship unshaken
As Aristotle states... The Ephorate, has supreme authority
in the most important matters and supreme jurisdiction in
cases of importance
As Xenophon states... so the ephors have the power to
fine anyone, the right to secure payment on the spot and the

right to dismiss office holders, imprison them and put them

on trial, if they detect irregularity in ones behaviour they
would punish it
As Plutarch states...the institution of the ephors reinforced
the constitution rather than weakened it
Gerousia

A council of 30 members, made up of two kings and 28 men

who were over 60 and voted in for life

Their responsibility was to initiate the Spartan laws and

policies which were conservative, in the aim of maintaining
the structure and safety of Spartan society

They acted as a court for criminal proceedings involving the

perioikoi and discussed matters of state with foreign
embassies

Their policies and proposals were put to vote in the ekklesia

to ratify the legislation

In order for a king to make policy or laws they needed the

Gerousia and the ekklesia to ratify it first.
Aristotle states... as long as they are respectable men and
trained in virtue they would benefit the state, it is doubtful
though whether they should possess for life jurisdiction in
cases of importance
Ekklesia

an assembly involving Spartiates over 30 in the government

of their state

they elected the ephors and members of the Gerousia

they voted on laws and proposals of the Gerousia and the

kings

responsible for passing measures such as appointments of

commanders, decisions about war and resolutions for
problems

they were not the law makers only law ratifiers

The Gerousia could overturn decisions of the ekklesia if they

thought they hadnt voted correctly or made the right
decision.

The ephors had the power to dominate the ekklesia

Thucydides states... They make their decisions by
acclamation, not by voting

KINGS: (Agiad and Eurypontid), Held the priesthoods,

Commanded the army, Oversaw the adoption of orphans and
the marriage of heiresses
EPHORATE: (5 ephors elected annually), Most powerful
group in government, Oversaw the activities of the kings,
Exercised control over all aspects of Spartan life
GEROUSIA: (28 members over 60 plus 2 kings), Elected
for life, a conservative body, Guardians of Spartan
security, Initiator of Spartan policies and laws
EKKLESIA: (Spartiates over 30) Elected the ephors and
members of the Gerousia, Voted on proposals and the
laws created by the Gerousia, Could not debate and voted
by acclamation.
Social Structure:
Spartiates:

A Spartan citizen was an equal (Spartiate). They had Spartan

parents, had completed the stage of the education system,
were over 30 and contributed to the syssition

They were given an allotment of land (Kleros) and helots to

farm it. The Kleros provided the food for the family who
contributed to the syssition (communal meal)

The Spartans had to conform to strict social behaviour,

obeying the laws of state and their superiors

Those who disobeyed lost their citizenship and were shamed

and excluded from Spartan society.
Perioikoi

Known as the dwellers around about that lived in villages

and towns outside of Sparta.

They had reasonable freedom in comparison to the helots

and lived in communities in Laconia

They played an important economic role in Spartan society

working in trades, businesses and professions whilst
manufacturing goods such as furniture and providing the army
with armour and weapons

They were given protected by the Spartans in return for

goods and services

They did not have full rights in society subjected to Spartan

demands

They would serve in the army when required

If it wasnt for the contribution of the perioikoi then Spartan

society would not have lasted as long as it did, as they were
integral in providing manufactured commodities and
strengthening the army with their contribution.
Helots:

The original inhabitants of Laconia and Messenia who were

made slaves by the Spartans, known as the inferiors

They worked on the land for the Spartans under the control
of the state to follow the military way of life

They could not be bought and sold and could only be freed
by the state

With each land allotment came helots assigned to the land,

they were under the demands of the master of the Kleros

They were sometimes used as soldiers to assist the army if

they were low on numbers

There were messenian and laconian helots, messenian helots

were exploited and posed threats to Spartan society through
revolts, the laconian helots were cooperative and loyal to
Sparta

They worked hard under constant intimidation through

violence and threats of murder
Thucydides states... the Spartans constantly base their
decisions with a view to precautions against the helots
Control of the helots: the military, syssitia, krypteia

Herodotus estimated that the helots outnumbered the

Spartiates 7 to 1

Their large population posed to be a constant threat with

rebellions on several occasions at the same time Sparta was
facing other problems such as military wars or earthquakes

The ephors would declare war on the helots annually to

justify their enslavement and to train Spartans in the act of
torturing and killing off helots

The syssitia was the Spartan mess group that each

Spartiate had to contribute to as part of the military way of
life

They were often murdered by the krypteia a secret police

that played an important role in controlling the helots and
eliminating the threat.

As Plutarch states... by day members of the krypteia

scattered into obscure places where they hid themselves and
rested, by night they would kill any helots they caught making
their way through the fields in doing so eliminating the
sturdiest and best helots
Educational system: agoge

The system of education (agoge) taught Spartan males

discipline and values of society including obeying the law,
comradeship, bravery and self sacrifice

Through the harsh training of the agoge Spartan citizens

would be given the mental and physical attributes needed to
preserve and defend their society

They were taught to read and write as well as being

physically educated through athletic activities and military
skills.
As Plutarch states... he (Lycurgus) bred up his citizens in a
way that they neither would nor could live by themselves,
they were to make themselves one with the public good
Timeline of a spartiates life

Birth (inspected by government officials, if unsatisfactory

left to die)

0-6 (lived at home with family and nursed by a helot)

7-12 (entered the education system, supervised by an eiren,

and were taught poetry, dance and athletics whilst
participating in community events and keeping contact with
family)

12-18 (endurance is encouraged, expected to steal food if

hungry, led a life with the bare minimum, education and
physical training continues and loyalty is emphasised and
obedience is expected through discipline)

18-20 (military training intensifies, could become an eiren

and join the krypteia to control the helots as well as apply for
the syssition, could serve in battle but not in the front line)

24-30 (received armour, continued military training now as

a full time soldier and could serve in the front line)

30 (became a Spartiate or equal with voting rights, could

live at home and could grow hair long)

30-60 (continued military service)

60+ (could retire, live at home and join the Gerousia)

Role and status of women: land ownership, inheritance,

education

Spartiate women born of Spartan parents were not citizens

but played an important role in society enjoying social and
economic status

Spartan girls were as well fed as boys and publicly educated,

encouraged to be active and athletic, in essence they enjoyed
more personal freedom than other Greek women

They could inherit and control property and they could act
without the supervision of males

They were valued as the mothers of warriors being fit to

ensure healthy offspring and future Spartan soldiers

The objective of marriage was to produce children, who

became the property of the state

Women were responsible for the upbringing of children in

their early years

Were known for natural beauty, grace and strength

Xenophon states... Spartans value motherhood so highly
that there were only two ways a Spartan could receive their
name on a gravestone, death in battle or death in childbirth

Despite the high status given to motherhood, women had

low birth rates due to some not wanting to devote their lives
to raising children

They could own property as they wished some became quite

wealthy

Spartan daughters inherited land, some receiving small

shares or inheriting the entire estate

Throughout marriage, the land was in the possession of the

woman

They had an important role in managing the household, the

land and the helots

The management of the estates was important in producing

a contribution to the syssition which was a citizenship
requirement

Women had a genuine interest in taking care of the Kleros

for this reason in accordance to the military way of life
Aristotle believes... That a weakness of Spartan
society was its uneven distribution of property with
women owning most of the land

The economy
Land ownership: agriculture, kleroi, helots
The land was divided into allotments and then distributed
among Spartan citizens and the perioikoi
The state gave each Spartiate a Kleros as part of their
citizenship where helots would work on the land, the land
was given to the males but the women often oversaw the
running and supervision of it
The aim of allocating land was to free the Spartiates from
the need to work so they could follow the military way of
life and serve the state and to ensure wealth amongst
Spartan citizens

The land would provide produce to allow the Spartiates to

make their contribution to the syssition and maintain their
citizenship; Spartans who were unable to contribute to the
syssition lost their citizenship.
Therefore inequality in land allotments would cause
reduction in Spartan citizens
Aristotle states... Lycurgus, wanting to have many
Spartans as he could, encouraged citizens to have large
families, yet it is obvious that if there were many children,
the land would be distributed as it is
Technology: weapons, armour, pottery
The Spartan soldiers were equipped with high quality
weapons and armour made from bronze. Their armour and
weapons were manufactured by the perioikoi.
Armour consisted of a helmet, breastplate, greaves and a
shield. Weapons included a spear and a sword.
Pottery was popular in Greece and exported widely. Clay in
supply was plentiful
Vessels made from clay were hand built decorated with
painted motifs or scenes
Economic roles of the perioikoi (dwellers around) and
helots
The Spartan economy was very much dependant on the
roles of the perioikoi and the helots

The perioikoi were the professionals, merchants, and trade

and craft workers in Sparta. They monopolised all trades,
businesses and professions. They could use monetary
currency and manufactured goods such as furniture,
armour and weapons
The helots were the property of the state, attached to
their land allotments and could not be owned by
individuals neither bought nor sold; only freed at the
discretion of the government.
The helots looked after the land freeing Spartiates from
working so they could contribute to the syssition as part of
their citizenship
From what was produced by the helots was used to trade
with the perioikoi in exchange for manufactured goods
Economic exchange: use of iron bars, trade
Sparta did not use metal coins for currency exchange,
using iron bars which symbolised a transaction rather than
acting as cash. Plutarch informs us that Spartan iron
money could not be used anywhere else
The use of iron bars restricted hoarding of money. This
restricted the Spartans ability to buy luxuries and
imported goods from outside of Sparta
Despite restrictions on currency, they had ways of
accumulating wealth.
Ancient sources refer to Spartans accused of bribery as a
way of accumulating wealth
Trade in bronze and pottery was conducted by the
perioikoi, who unlike the Spartiates were allowed gold and
silver thus the monetary wealth in the Spartan state was
perioikoi possession.
The main exports which Sparta traded included wool,
wine, oil, pottery and bronze.

Religion, death and burial

Gods and goddesses: Artemis Orthia, Poseidon, Apollo

Apollo was worshipped at a sanctuary containing a statue

of him armed with a bow and spear
Artemis Orthia was a combination of two deities. Artemis
was a goddess of fertility, women, childbirth and protector
of children of whom Spartan women worshipped. Orthia
was an earlier goddess that not much is known of. The
sanctuary of Artemis Orthia resided outside of Sparta
Poseidon was featured in and worshipped through bronze
reliefs in the temple of Athena
Myths and legends: Lycurgus and the Dioscuri
Sparta was the home of Helen of Troy and her famous twin
brothers Castor and Pollux known as the Discouri.
Lycurgus the lawgiver was a legendary figure who
received worship

Festivals: Hyakinthia, Gymnopaedia, Karneia

Religious festivals were an important part of Spartan life.
They were undertaken as a way of honouring the gods and
reinforcing Spartan values (religious, political and social)
Ancient sources reveal that attendance at festivals
prevented Spartans from going to battle
The inferiors were excluded from festivals and if attended
were to endure humiliation
The Hyakinthia festival includes rites of sorrow and
mourning in Hyakinthos honour. It was a day of ritual grief
where offerings were placed followed by rejoicing in
honour of Apollo, in essence it was combination of
mourning the dead and thanksgiving for life
The Gymnopaedia festival involved gymnastic displays,
athletics and musical events. Lycurgus emphasised social
obedience at this festival and those who did not follow the
standards were excluded
The Karneia was an important festival that celebrated
the early history of Sparta; during it Spartans could not be
in wars or battles. Men would dine together and take part
in competitions for the athletic similar to that of the
agoge.
Religious role of the kings:

The kings in their religious role would be to serve as chief

priests at festivals and reinforce the religious, political and
social values of Spartan society.
Funerary customs and rituals:

There is little physical evidence uncovered about Spartan

funerary customs.
According to Plutarch... Lycurgus decided that only
men who died in battle and women died of childbirth
should be given marked graves, perhaps suggesting they
were the most noblest and courageous of Spartiates.
The Spartan burials and mortuary temples were allowed
within the city unlike Athens
Spartans appear to have practised simple burial customs
Warriors could be buried on the battlefield
The funerary rituals would be; laying the body, the
procession and the burial and eleven days of mourning
Spartans were encouraged to view death as normal and
familiar

Cultural life
art: sculpture, painted vases, bone and ivory carving
Sculpture
Laconian bronze was highly value and often given as gifts
Reliefs made out of bronze depicted scenes from legend
and mythology which decorated temples
Some examples of Spartans sculpture include bronze
figures of Spartan girls dancing or running as well as
Spartan hoplites adorned with a full helmet and long,
groomed hair
At least nine sculptors in Sparta are known to modern
historians
Painted vases
Pottery was popular and had been found throughout the
Greek world
The painted scenes on pottery featured Spartan activities
including banquets, festivals, rituals and processions

Pottery was so popular because of its subject matter,

depicting scenes of mens activities such as hunting and
fighting
Ivory carving
There were skilled carvers in Sparta who made objects
from ivory and bone
Most ivory carvings have been found at the sanctuary of
Artemis Orthia more so than anywhere else in Greece; one
carving shows the figure of Artemis Orthia welcoming
soldiers home in a ship.
Architecture: Amyklaion, Menelaion, the Sanctuary of
Artemis Orthia

There are little remnants of Spartan buildings left today

however there is evidence of small distinctive buildings

The details from these buildings suggest that Sparta was

influenced by Greece in their architecture as seen through the
construction of columns in buildings

Buildings in Sparta included tombs, temples, public buildings

and monuments

There are several key buildings that have been recorded in

Sparta including;
1 Temples to Artemis Orthia
2 The Amyklaion (the most important building in Lacedaemon
built in the 6th century BC)
Writing and literature: Alcman and Tyrtaeus

Sparta had strong oral traditions known for its festivals

featuring singing and dancing

Music and poetry were an integral part of a Spartans

education and the syssition was a place where stories were
told

Kings, commanders and magistrates were literate

Plutarch informs us that Spartans were taught as much

reading and writing as was required

Private reading was not encouraged as it was thought that

this would generate different opinions and ideas that would
clash with the state

Fragments of poems written by Tyrtaeus and Alcman provide

information of early Spartan society

Tyrtaeus wrote poetry about warfare and sprit to inspire

fellow Spartans. He praises the qualities of the ideal warrior,
their courage, physical strength, speed, beauty and
eloquence. His poems also refer to the helots and their
revolts against the Spartiates.
Alcman wrote romantic poetry revealing aspects of Spartan
social life, which conveyed a different picture of the society in
comparison to Xenophon and Herodotus. He wrote choral
pieces for festivals as well as hymns and poems writing about
themes such as the beauty of nature, love and marriage. His
poems are evidence of Spartan religious ceremonies
Greek writers views of Sparta: Herodotus, Thucydides,
Xenophon, Aristotle, Pausanias, Plutarch
Herodotus... Fighting singly they are as good as any, but
fighting together they are the best soldiers in the world. They
are free, yes, but not entirely free, for they have a master and
that master is law, which they fear, whatever this master
commands they do (praises the Spartan army)
Xenophon... I must admire Lycurgus and hold him to be one
of the wisest; he brought his fatherland (Sparta) to the
pinnacle of prosperity (admired the Spartan state and their
education system)
Aristotle... And so long as they were at war, their power was
preserved and they had attained empire they fell, they never
engaged in any employment higher in war (comments on the
Spartan constitution)
Thucydides... If Lakedaimon was laid waste and there
remained only the foundations of the temples and public
buildings, people would find it difficult to believe that the
power of Sparta had deserved its reputation(describes Sparta
from personal observations)
Plutarch...Lycurgus, stands in rank of glory high above the
founders of all other Greek states, his laws were excellent in
producing courage and justice for all (provides background
and explanations of early Sparta and the Lycurgus reforms
and institutions)
Polybius... The kingship was guarded from arrogance and
the commoners feared the elders who the best citizens

selected to ensure justice (attributes Romes greatness to its

mixed constitution)
Pausanias... (Describes buildings and monuments from
earlier times which is a contrast to Thucydides who claims
there was no significant temples or public buildings in Sparta)

Everyday life
Daily life and leisure activities
Athletic competitions held during festivals promoted fitness,
teamwork and discipline

The festivals provided an opportunity for the community to

socially bond, dance, feasting, drinking and for ritual

Hunting was popular for men as it provided for the syssition

and a way of exercise and social bonding

Both men and women engaged in chariot racing and used

horses for hunting and recreation

Spartan women had an abundance of leisure time,

participating in athletics and chariot races
Food and clothing

The diet was nutritious and basic. Most food came from what
was produced from the land including radishes, celery, beans,
olives, barley, wine, cheese, fruit and bread and
supplemented by meat produced from animals that were
killed.

Depictions of women suggest clothing was similar to what

the Greek citizens wore. They often adorned a peplos which
allowed freedom of movement or tunics

Most depictions of men show them in battle dress or in a

tunic
Marriage customs

Marriage was undertaken for procreation rather than

romance. Spartan girls would marry according to Plutarch
when they were in their prime and fully matured

There is little known about Spartan marriage practises,

evidence suggests that arrangements were made between
families in secrecy

Marriage by capture was practised which was where a man

would choose a bride and carry her off with women having
little choice, mothers had some say in whom their daughter
would marry
The Spartans ensured that marriage in its practise was often
to ensure a steady birth rate. Children were regarded as the
property of the state rather than their parents. Therefore it
was important that healthy children were produced
Occupations

All Spartiates were full time soldiers. Some filled roles of

government officials

Spartan women played an important role in managing the

Kleros and supervising the helots

The perioikoi were the craft workers, manufacturers,

fisherman and traders. Perioikoi women were involved in craft
and production of textiles

The helots were the workers on the land, as the domestic

servants and nurses of Spartiate families their skills and
talents were not realised or allowed to be demonstrated.
1 Agricultural, commercial and domestic occupations (farmers,
fisherman, bakers and servants)
2 Craftsmen (painters, potters, bronze makers, sculptors, textile
workers)
3 Government and military roles (Kings, soldiers, officials,
ephors)