DCI ex y

Ut|x `|v b{zt{

Rules for Accented Syllables
1. The vareia, petast, or psfistn is placed on most accented syllables, but they
can only be used when the next character is a descending character.1 Which of these
three characters is used depends on if the following character has a different syllable
and how many descending characters follow. In general, when the next character
continues the same syllable, the vareia is used. When the next character begins a new
syllable, the petast is used. And when the accented syllable is followed by more than
one descending character, the psfistn is used, regardless of syllables:

ta___
ta
ta

ta
ta
ta

ta_____

2. Exceptions to rule #1:

a) A petast is used instead of a psfistn if the descending character that follows has a
different duration than the accented character:

In the following correct examples, a psfistn is used because the descending character
that follows has the same duration as the accented character:

b) A petast is also used when followed by one or more pairs of apstrophoses

preceded by a vareia:

ta
ta__
1

and

ta
ta__

See rule #69 for exceptions to this rule regarding the use of the vareia without a descending character.

Hourmouzios Hartophylax, though, consistently wrote the latter of the previous two
examples with an oligon instead of a petast:

ta
ta__

c) Likewise, the petast is used when followed by an apstrophos with a klsma that is
followed by another apstrophos:

and

d) However, a petast may not be used when an accented character held for two beats
is followed by only one descending character:

ta_____ ta___
or

ta_____

or

ta
ta__

or

ta
ta__

but not:

or

ta
ta__

ta______

(Wrong)*

The following common combination, though, is an exception to this rule:

e) An ascending character followed by a single apstrophos that continues the same

syllable cannot take a vareia if the apstrophos does not have a gorgn (or a digorgon
or a trigorgon). In order to emphasize that ascending character, it is written with a
petast instead of with a vareia. But to emphasize an ison or a descending character
under the same circumstances, a vareia is used.

ta___
ta

ta___
ta

ta________

(Correct)

ta___
ta

(Wrong)

ta___
ta

(Correct)

This rule was followed by most great music writers of the 19th century, including Gregorios the Protopsaltis,
Hourmouzios Hartophylax, Petros Ephesios, and Theodoros "Phokaeus." Stephanos the Lampadarios, however,
consistently made an exception to this rule when writing the following line:

-2-

ta___
ta

ta___
ta

ta
ta

or:

(Correct)

(Wrong)

3. Before a synechs elaphrn, an accented character will usually take either a petast or a
psfistn, depending on the syllables and the duration of the accented character:*

ta_____
ta

ta
ta__
ta

ta
ta__
ta

4. A petast cannot have a klsma when followed by two apstrophoses if the second of
the two apstrophoses has a gorgon, unless they are preceded by a vareia.

Correct

Wrong

Correct

5. The only instance of a psfistn not followed by at least two consecutive descending
characters is the following common line:

or:

6. A psfistn cannot be placed on a character followed by an elaphrn. However, a

petast can.

Wrong. It must be written instead as:

or as:

Wrong. It must be written instead as:

Gregory the Protopsaltis, Petros Ephesios, Theodoros "Phokeaus," and Ioannis the Lampadarios followed this
rule, but Hourmouzios Hartophylax and his student Stephanos the Lampadarios consistently wrote the second
example in this rule with a petast instead of a psfistn. However, this example is also found to be written
occasionally with neither a petast nor a psfistn but simply as an oligon.

-3-

Rules for Characters on the Upbeat

7. The antiknoma is placed beneath an oligon (with or without a gorgn) on the upbeat
and must be followed by a descending character. But an antiknoma is found on the
downbeat when it is beneath a character that also has an apl, in which case only one
descending character must immediately follow.

Wrong. It must be written as:

or:

Correct

8. Two consecutive characters may not have an antiknoma.

Correct

Wrong

9. A one-beat petast may also be placed on the upbeat, as in the following examples:

all_________ th in - -

His mer - - cy__

h
+h h
th"
pa
a
nh

w
+w w
w tou
ou
Sw w
th
h
h

te
a
sa
a
a
te
e

Although some cite the last of the previous examples as an instance of a one-beat
petast placed on the upbeat, Georgios Hatzitheodoros believes that in such cases it
would be more correct to place the first petast on the downbeat by rearranging the
measures as follows:
te
a
sa
a
a
te
e

-4-

10. When several ascending characters are followed by a descending character that begins
a new syllable, the last ascending character is frequently written as an oligon with an
antiknoma or as an oligon followed by an ison with a gorgn and an omaln.

ta______

ta___________

ta_____________
ta__
11. The psfistn may also be found on the upbeat, as in the following example:

Bend_ down thine ear__ and at - tend
However, according to Konstantinos Panas,* this example would be more correctly
written as follows:

Bend_
down
thine
ear____
and
at -
tend
12. a) When the oligon is combined with a kntma to denote a jump of two, the kntma
is placed beside the oligon unless it is followed by a descending character, in which
case it is placed beneath the oligon.

b) However, when a jump of two is on the upbeat, the kntma is placed below the
oligon, even if it is not followed by a descending character.

c) But when a jump of two is held for two beats, the kntma is placed beside the
oligon (and the klsma is placed above the oligon) regardless of what character
follows.

d) However, when a jump of two is held for two beats and is modified by a psfistn,
the the kntma is always placed beneath the oligon.

, ., , ,
, , 1970, . 162.

-5-

e) When a jump of two has a dipl or a tripl, the kntma must be placed beside the
oligon, even if it is followed by a descending character.

13. When a jump of two is joined to an ison with an omaln, rule #12 does not apply, and
thus the kntma may be written either beside or beneath the oligon.

or:

or:

etc.

14. When an oligon is followed by an elaphrn that shares the same syllable, an
antiknoma is placed beneath the oligon.

ta_________________________________________________________

-6-

Rules for the Oligon

15. If the last of several ascending characters is held for two beats, it will be an oligon
when followed by only one descending character, but it will be a petast when
followed by more than one descending character.

ta
ta
ta___
ta
ta__

ta______ ta
ta
ta_____________
16. When an oligon has an ypsel and kentmata above it, the fthora is written beneath
them when it applies to the oligon (
) or above them when it applies to the

kentmata ( ). But when this combination has a psfistn, the fthora must be written

above it, in which case it could apply to either ( ).

17. When an apstrophos with a gorgn is between two oligons preceded by a vareia, the
apstrophos will take a sndesmos only if the second oligon is followed by a
descending character.

Correct
Correct

Correct

Correct

However, the following common combination is an exception to this rule:

18. In order to add intensity to an apstrophos or an ison that is not combined with another
symbol and followed by an ison, it is placed above an oligon (without a psfistn).
(This occurs rarely.)

-7-

19. The following combinations of characters must also be written with a sndesmos when
they share the same syllable:

etc.

20. When adding a psfistn to a descending character, an oligon must be inserted between
them for "support":

21. The following character combination is usually written with a psfistn:

Hourmouzios Hartophylax, though, consistently wrote this combination with an
antiknoma:

And in general, Hourmouzios preferred to use an oligon with an antiknoma, where
Gregorios the Protopsaltis and others would use kentmata above an oligon. He used:

instead of:

instead of:

instead of:

instead of:

instead of:

instead of:

etc.

-8-

etc.

Rules for the Kentmata

22. The kentmata never begin a new syllable (except in a krtma, i.e., terirem) and are
never placed on the downbeat.
23. When the kentmata are placed below the oligon, this character combination cannot
begin a new syllable (since the kentmata are executed first in this combination and
since the kentmata never begin a new syllable).

ta________

24. The kentmata cannot be followed by a synechs elaphrn or by an yporro with a

gorgn. For the same reason, kentmata above an oligon also cannot be followed by a
synechs elaphrn or by an yporro with a gorgn. In such a case, the kentmata must
be replaced by an oligon with a psfistn.

Wrong
Correct
Wrong
Correct

25. Kentmata with a gorgn must be changed into an oligon with a gorgn when followed
by a petast.

Wrong

Correct

26. To avoid having three kentmata in a row, the kentmata that would have been placed
after a kntma are replaced by an oligon:

Wrong
Correct
Correct

-9-

27. Kentmata are used between two isons or between an ison and an oligon, unless a
gorgn is used, in which case the oligon is used:

ta___
ta

ta___
ta

ta_____
ta

28. Note that in the previous examples, the kentmata are not written together with the ison
above an oligon. The kentmata are usually placed above an oligon only when
followed by a descending character, an ison with a klsma, or an ison with a psfistn,
but not when followed by an oligon with a psfistn:

29. Likewise, when a jump of two, four, or five is followed by kentmata and a descending
character, the kentmata are written above the oligon.

However, jumps of three, six, seven, etc. may not have the kentmata above the oligon,
since the kentmata woud be too close to the kntma and thus confusing.

Wrong

For this reason, when a jump of three is followed by kentmata and a descending
character, the kentmata are replaced by an oligon.

30. But when a jump of three is followed by kentmata and an ison that is stressed, the
kentmata are not changed into an oligon.

31. The kentmata must be placed on an oligon when they are modified by a gorgn and
preceded by an ison.

ta_______
ta
32. An apl (a dot) must be placed to the right of the gorgn in the following combinations:

- 10 -

33. The kentmata are not placed above an oligon when they are on the upbeat of a
digorgon or a trigorgon, even if they are followed by a descending character.

ta
ta________
ta ta_______
ta
34. The kentmata can be neither preceded nor followed by a character that has a gorgn.

glo - - - - - ry

Wrong

glo - - - ry

Correct

Wrong

Correct

35. According to some contemporary melodists, when kentmata need to be held for more
than one beat, they are followed by an ison and joined to it by an yphn.

ta______

36. When kentmata are placed above an oligon with a psfistn underneath, the effect of
psfistn applies to the kentmata. For this reason, this combination cannot have a
psfistn when followed by a single descending character or by a descending character
modified by a timeless character (e.g., vareia, antiknoma, etc.), since a psfistn
cannot be followed by only one descending character or by a timeless character.

ta ta___ ta

ta__

ta ta

ta ta ta

ta_________ ta__

ta ta ta
Wrong

37. When a single syllable ascends several notes in succession, oligons and kentmata
alternate, and the kentmata are placed below the oligons rather than above them.

ta
ta_______________

Correct

ta
ta_____________

Wrong

- 11 -

38. However, when the first descending character after a series of ascending characters has
the same duration as that of the ascending characters, the first kentmatas are not
written above oligons, but the last kentmata are written above an oligon with a
psfistn.

ta_____________________

The following example is also correct:

ta_________________________________________
39. Yet when there are two pairs of ascending characters with one syllable per pair, the
kentmata are not written together with the oligon.*

ta___
ta___
ta_____
40. The kentmata are never used after an apstrophos that has a gorgon (because of rule
#34).

Wrong
Correct

41. When the kentmata are placed beneath an oligon, any timeless character placed on this
combination modifies the oligon instead of the kentmata.

Although Hourmouzios Hartophylax followed this rule, Gregorios the Protopsaltis and Theodore "Phoakaeus"
did not. Instead they would put both kentmata above the oligons in this example.

- 12 -

Rules for the Klsma

42. The klsma must be positioned as follows in these character combinations:

(or

43. The klsma may be found either above or below the oligon for jumps of three and five,
but when an omaln is written beneath the oligon, the klsma must be written above the
oligon. Thus, all the following examples are correct:

44. When a klsma is added to a petast or to any combination containing a petast, the
klsma must be placed beneath the petast.

etc.

45. The apl is used instead of the klsma in the following circumstances:

46. An apstrophos takes an apl instead of a klsma when followed by a vareia.

but

Correct

Correct

47. When a two-beat ison (or oligon or apstrophos) is followed by an apstrophos with a
gorgn, the ison will be written with a klsma if the apstrophos has its own syllable.
Otherwise, the ison will be written with an apl and an antiknoma.

ta
ta

ta ta

ta
ta

ta___

ta__

ta__

48. The klsma is written above the elaphrn only when the elaphrn is not modified by a
timeless character (such as the petast or psfistn).

49. The klsma is always written above an apstrophos. But when an apstrophos is
modified by a psfistn, the klsma may be written either above or below.

or:

- 13 -

Rules for the Gorgn

50. The gorgn is always placed above compound symbols:

etc.

but it is usually placed below single symbols:

etc.*

However, it is always placed above the yporro, above the second of two
apstrophoses, and above an apstrophos preceded by a synechs elaphrn,
but not above an apstrophos preceded by an yporro:

The gorgon is also placed above single symbols when the preceding character is
modified by a timeless symbol (e.g., the antiknoma, petast, or vareia).

51. A gorgn cannot be put on a petast or on an oligon that has a psfistn. Thus, none of
the following characters can have a gorgn:

52. An exception to the previous rule is the gorgn that is placed above an oligon that is
above kentmata and a psfistn:

53. A gorgn may be placed together with a dipl only on an apstrophosnot on an

elaphrn or a hamel.

Correct

Wrong. It must be written instead as:

Wrong. It must be written instead as:

The example of an oligon with a gorgn above it in rule #8 is an exception to this rule. This exception can easily
be justified on the grounds that the oligon was really a compound character until its antiknoma was removed.

- 14 -

Rules for the Vareia

54. Two apstrophoses in a row usually take a vareia if they share the same syllable, even
if the syllable is not accentuated.

ta__
55. Likewise, an ison followed by a single apstrophos that shares the same syllable is also
preceded by a vareia, even if the syllable is not accentuated. The apstrophos may also
have an apl and a gorgn

ta___

ta___

ta___

56. However, when successive apstrophoses do not have one syllable for each pair, the
vareias are not used:

ta
ta
ta
ta__
57. Likewise, when two or more pairs of apstrophoses have one syllable per pair, a vareia
is placed before each pair.

ta__

ta
ta__
ta__
ta___
ta
58. Pairs of an ison followed by an apstrophos are also preceded by vareias if the pairs
share the same syllable.

ta___
ta___
ta___

or

ta__

ta___

but:

ta____
ta__

59. A vareia is also placed before a pair of apstrophoses that continue the syllable of a
petast with a klsma.

ta______
ta______
60. But if in the previous example the second apstrophos has its own syllable, a vareia
may not be used.

ta___
ta
ta___
ta
- 15 -

61. Furthermore, vareias are not used before pairs of apstrophoses if there is a single
apstrophos after those pairs of apstrophoses.

ta__

ta
ta__
ta__
ta
ta___
62. Vareias are also not used when successive apstrophoses do not have one syllable for
every two apostophoses.

ta
ta______
ta
63. A vareia must precede the last of two apstrophoses when there are many of them in a
row, if they share the same syllable.

ta ta______

ta
ta__
ta
ta___
ta
ta ta__
64. Also, the vareia cannot be used after a character that has a psfistn. Therefore, the
following combinations:

ta_____

ta______

ta______

Correct

god -
ly__

god -
ly__

god -
ly__

Correct

di - vine_

Correct

may be accentuated with a psfistn beneath the oligon when all four characters share
one syllable or when the first two characters are associated with an accented syllable:

This combination is written with a vareia when the first two characters are not associated with an accented syllable and the apstrophoses have a different syllable:

di - vine_
di - vine_

But these characters are never written with both a vareia and a psfistn:

- 16 -

Wrong

65. Similarly, the vareia cannot be used after a character that has an antiknoma.

Correct

Wrong. It is written instead as:

66. A petast with a klsma is followed by a vareia when followed by two apstrophoses
sharing the same syllable. But when three apstrophoses follow the petast, the vareia
is omitted.

ta
ta__

ta
ta
ta__

ta
ta__
ta
ta__
ta

67. In the following common phrase, the vareia is used, even when the character following
it is not associated with an accented syllable:

di -
-
vine
68. However, when the characters in the previous example are associated with three
syllables, the vareia is changed to a petast (and the yporro changes to a synechs
elaphrn).

heav
- en -
-
-
ly

or:

heav --
en -
-
-
ly

69. In the following examples with an omaln, a vareia must precede the first character.
Notice that when a character preceded by a vareia is followed by an omaln, it is not
required that a descending characters follows.

etc.

The previous examples may also have gorgns on them:

- 17 -

etc.

70. The vareia is used when writing analytically the following klsmas:

71. The vareia is also used before with characters having a dipl or a tripl and a
sndesmos.

ta___

ta___

72. Similarly, when an ison (or an oligon) with an antiknoma and an apl (

needs to be held for a longer time, the ison is written instead with a vareia and a
sndesmos:

ta___

ta___

ta____
or:

ta____

73. However, neither a vareia nor a sndesmos is used in the previous combinations of
characters if the descending character has its own syllable.

ta ta
74. A vareia is not placed before an ison followed by a synechs elaphrn or before an ison
followed by a character that begins a new syllable.

ta_________
ta

Correct.

ta_
ta______
ta

Correct.

ta_______
ta
ta

Correct.

ta__________
ta__

Wrong:

ta_________
ta

Wrong:

ta_
ta_______
ta

Wrong:

ta________

ta
ta

Wrong:

ta________
ta__

Correct.

- 18 -

75. When a character has an apl and an antiknoma, a vareia and a petast must be added
to it when the half-beat apstrophos following it is followed by two ascending
characters (or by an ison and an ascending character) if the character after the half-beat
apstrophos is for one beat:

Because of this rule, the following examples cannot be written with a vareia and a
petast (and do not have a vareia), since the half-beat apstrophos is not followed by
two ascending characters, the first of which being for one beat:

The same rule applies also for ascending characters:

The following combination is an exception to this rule:

etc.

76. When a petast has an antiknoma beneath it, they must be preceded by a vareia.

- 19 -

etc.

Rules for the Omaln

77. An oligon with a klsma can take an omaln if followed by an apstrophos with a
klsma or by an apstrophos and kentmata.

78. When an oligon (or an ison) with a klsma is followed by a single apstrophos with a
klsma, the oligon will take an omaln, unless the melody does not call for emphasis or
roughness.

ta___

ta
ta

ta_______________________

79. But if the apstrophos is not for two beats, the klsma may be removed from the oligon
and instead an ison is joined to it with an omaln. A vareia may precede the oligon.

ta_____
ta__

or:

ta_____
ta__

80. An oligon with an omaln may also be followed by a single one-beat apstrophos.

ta___________________________
81. When a two-beat oligon is followed by a single apstrophos with a klsma or a dipl
before a martyria (i.e., at a medial or final cadence), the oligon will have an omaln
beneath it, even if that syllable is not accented.

82. Likewise, an omaln will be used in the above example when there is a descending
character after the martyria. But if there is no martyria, the omaln becomes a
psfistn.

- 20 -

83. A two-beat petast cannot be followed by only one descending character. In such
instances, the petast is rewritten as an oligon with a vareia followed by an ison with an
omaln.

Or- tho- dox

Wrong.

It must be written instead as:

or as:

- 21 -

Or tho- dox

Or- thodox

Rules for the Yporro and the Synechs Elaphrn

84. The use of an yporro with a gorgn, a synechs elaphrn, or two apstrophoses
depends on the syllables:

ta___
ta

ta__

ta
ta
ta

85. The yporro is placed on an oligon when followed by an ison (this occurs rarely) unless
it is joined to the ison with a sndesmos.

86. An yporro followed by kentmata will not have an oligon beneath them when an
ascending character follows the kentmata.

87. When an ascending character without a klsma is followed by an yporro with a

gorgn or a synechs elaphrn, the ascending character must be an oligon with a
psfistn beneath it or a petast, regardless if that syllable is accentuated and regardless
if it is on the downbeat or the upbeat.

88. However, a psfistn may not be placed beneath the oligon in the following line:

89. Also, a petast is used instead of an oligon for a character with a klsma before an
yporro. But if the yporro is followed by a descending character, the petast must
become an oligon with a psfistn.

Correct
Wrong
Correct
Correct

- 22 -

90. Similarly, an yporro with a digorgon followed by an apstrophos cannot be preceded

by a petast. Instead, an oligon with a psfistn is used.

Wrong
Correct

91. A character with a klsma followed by a synechs elaphrn must have a petast:

92. An ascending character preceded by an yporro with a digorgon is written as an oligon

unless it is followed by a note held for two beats, in which case it is written as
kentmata.

ta_______
ta

ta_____
ta

93. A fthora goes above the yporro if it applies to the first apstrophos ( ), but it goes

beneath the yporro if it applies to the second apstrophos ( ).

94. An yporro with a gorgn is usually followed by kentmata, not by an oligon.

95. However, the oligon is used after an yporro with a gorgn instead of the kentmata
when the character after the yporro is for more than one beat or is modified by a
timeless symbol (such as the antiknoma) or when the character after the yporro is
followed by an ison.

96. The psfistn is not placed under the ison when followed by an yporro or a synechs
elaphrn unless the ison is associated with an accentuated syllable:

- 23 -

97. However, the psfistn and the petast may be used as follows with the yporro:

98. When an yporro with a digorgon is preceded either by an ascending character, it is

written as a petast or as an oligon with a vareia, unless the yporro is followed by an
apstrophos, in which case a psfistn is used. (see rule #90).

also

and

etc.

99. When an yporro or a synechs elaphrn is preceded by a character with a klsma and
followed by a descending character, the character with the klsma cannot take a
petast, but it may take a psfistn.

100. The yporro never has its own syllable, except in a krtma (terirem).

e rre
rem
101. An apstrophos followed by an yporro may not be preceded by a petast, unless the
petast has a klsma.

Correct

Correct
Wrong*

102. If an yporro with an apl is followed by an apstrophos with a gorgon that continues
the same syllable, an antiknoma must be placed beneath the yporro. However, if
there is a dipl or tripl instead of the apl, then a sndesmos is used instead of an
antiknoma.

Correct
Correct

Hourmouzios Hartophylax, however, frequently wrote this combination of characters.

- 24 -

103. An ison or apstrophos with a klsma that is followed by an yporro with a gorgn
will be preceded by a vareia in the following cadences:

104. A vareia is not placed before an apstrophos (that does not have a klsma) followed
by an yporro. An exception to this rule is the following phrase encountered in
papadik (slow) melodies:

Yet the following similar phrases do not have a vareia before the initial apstrophos:

105. Two descending characters in rapid succession (either due to a digorgon or because of
the quick tempo) that share the same syllable are not written with apstrophoses but
with an yporro.

Correct
Wrong
Correct

Wrong

Correct

106. The duration of an yporro is extended by adding an apl, dipl, or a tripl. An

yporro can only have a klsma when it is combined with a petast or a psfistn.

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It is important for one learning Byzantine music orthography to be aware that several
printed books containing music in Byzantine notation contain orthographical errors. For
example, the following publications are known to have mistakes:
Books with Little Regard for Orthographical Rules:
, , , 1914 ( Brookline, 1956).
Books with Frequent Orthographical Mistakes:
, , , 1884, 1886.
Books with Several Orthographical Mistakes:
, , , 8 .
, , , , 8
, 1955-2003.
Books with ccasional Orthographical Mistakes:
, , , 1969.
, , , 1931, 2 .
, , , 2002.

The most reliable books for perfect orthography are those with music written by the three
teachers or their immediate disciples. The following is a partial list of such publications. Most
of these books have been reprinted in recent years. Information about ordering them is
available online at: http://www.stanthonysmonastery.org/music/ByzBooks.pdf
, , 1820.
, , 1824.
, 1825.
, , 1831.
, , 1832.
, , 1835.
(not ),
, 4 , 1850-1851. (the "Papadik" by Gregorios the Protopsaltis)
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This list of orthography rules was compiled by Hieromonk Ephraim and is available online at:
http://www.stanthonysmonastery.org/music/ByzOrthography.pdf A translation of this document in
Greek is at: http://www.stanthonysmonastery.org/music/ByzOrthographyGreek.pdf If you notice any
corrections or additions that could be made, please contact us at: byzmusic@yahoo.com
The characters in this document were written using our "EZ" Byzantine music font package that is
available for free at: http://www.stanthonysmonastery.org/music/ByzMusicFonts.html This elegant
font package is complete with instructions, examples, and drop caps. It also contains the ancient
symbols that Simon Karas recommended reintroducing. But the major advantage of these fonts is that
they come with macros that automatically polish the relative character positions and can instantly make
the appropriate characters red, resulting in a very professional look without tedious manual polishing.
***
All these orthography rules (except for rules #2e, #6, #12, #13, #19, #43, #44, #50, #52, #64, #68,
#75, #104, and #105, which were surmised from personal observations) were compiled from the
following books:
, , 1814, , 2003.
, , , , 1881.
, , , , , 1906.
, , - , , 1940.
, ., , , , , 1970.
, , , , , , 1986.
, ,
, , 1842.
, , - , , , 2004.
, ., , , , 2002.

Orthography Rules
last updated: June 17, 2008

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