Joseph Waldman

Political Science 318

December 9th, 2015

TheOtherRwandanGenocide
OnApril7,2014,worldleadersgatheredattheKigaliGenocideMemorialCentre
inRwandatocommemoratethe20thanniversaryoftheRwandanGenocide.Inanaddress
tothepackedstadium,RwandanPresidentPaulKagamespokeontheimportanceof
rememberingtheliveslost.BehindthewordsNeverAgain,thereisastorywhosetruth
mustbetoldinfull,nomatterhowuncomfortable.1
Unfortunately,PresidentKagamescomfortingwordsaremarredbytheirstark
contrasttotheactionsofhisadministrationandtherebelmovementheonceled,the
RwandanPatrioticFront(RPF).DespiteattemptsbytheRPFcontrolledgovernmentto
castasidethecategoriesofHutuandTutsi,eventsduringthegenocidesimmediate
aftermathtelladifferentstory.In1996and1997,theforcesoftheRwandanPatriotic
Army(RPA)engagedinthesystematicmasskillingofHutusinneighboringDemocratic
RepublicofCongo,thenknownasZaire.Inmanycases,thesekillingsresembledthe
genocidethattheRPFhadendedjustafewyearsprior.Afterexaminingtheevidence,it
seemsclearthattheRwandanPatrioticArmycommittedgenocideagainstcivilianHutus
duringRwandasinvasionoftheDRC.However,unliketheHutugenocidaires,nearlyall
theperpetratorsofthisgenocidehaveyettofacejusticefortheircrimes.
AccordingtotheUNConventiononthePreventionandPunishmentoftheCrime
ofGenocide,genocideisdefinedasactscommittedwithintenttodestroy,inwholeorin
part,anational,ethnical,racialorreligiousgroupincludingkillingmembersofthe
1Kagame,Paul."20thCommemorationOfGenocideAgainstTheTutsi."20thCommemorationOf
GenocideAgainstTheTutsi.KigaliGenocideMemorialCentre,Kigali,Rwanda.7Apr.2014.Speech.

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grouporbringingaboutconditionsdesignedtocausethegroupsdestruction.2The2010
UNmappingreportdetailinghumanrightsviolationsintheDRCfrom19932003
determinedthatHutuciviliansintheDRCwouldindeedfitthedefinitionofanethnic
groupundertheGenocideConvention.3ThereslittledoubtthatHutucivilianswere
killedduringRwandasbloodyinvasionoftheDRC.Determiningwhetherthesekillings
amounttogenocideisfarmorecomplicated.Itrequiresexaminingthecontextofthe
Rwandaninvasion,thepatternofviolenceagainstHutus,andmostimportantlyofall,the
intentofthekillers.
JustliketheRwandanGenocide,thekillingofHutucivilianstookplaceduringan
armedconflictandinresponsetoaperceivedthreattotheregimeinpower.AstheTutsi
dominatedRwandanPatrioticFrontadvancedacrossRwandabringinganendtothe
genocide,membersoftheHutuRwandangovernment,30,000RwandanArmedForces
(FAR)soldiers,tensofthousandsofmilitiamen,andoveramillionHutuciviliansfled
theacrosstheborderintotheeasternDRC.4Rwandangovernmentandmilitaryofficials
toldHutuciviliansthattheRPFwouldmassacreanyonewhostayedbehind.5Theflood
ofrefugeescoalescedinovercrowdedrefugeecampsformedbyinternationalaid
organizationsneartheRwandanborder.ExFAR,Rwandangovernmentofficialsand
Interahamwemilitiausedsomethecampsastraininggroundstocontinuethefight
2"UNConventiononthePreventionandPunishmentoftheCrimeofGenocide."UnitedNations
AudiovisualLibraryofInternationalLaw.UnitedNations,n.d.Web.07Dec.2015.
3TheDemocraticRepublicoftheCongo19932003UNMappingReport.Rep.N.p.:UnitedNations,
August2010.Print.Page280.
4Stearns,JasonK.DancingintheGloryofMonsters:TheCollapseoftheCongoandtheGreatWarof
Africa.NewYork:PublicAffairs,2011.Print.Page41.
5Stearns,JasonK.DancingintheGloryofMonsters:TheCollapseoftheCongoandtheGreatWarof
Africa.NewYork:PublicAffairs,2011.Print.Page40.

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againsttheRPF.InthewordsofExFARofficerandkeygenocideorganizerColonel
ThonesteBagosora,theexiledRwandangovernmentplannedtowageawarthatwill
belongandfullofdeadpeopleuntiltheminorityTutsiarefinishedandcompletelyoutof
thecountry.6CongolesedictatorMobutuSeseSeko,alongtimeallyoftheoldregime,
gaveaidandsupporttotheexiledgovernmentofficialspreparingforaninvasionof
Rwanda.
ThenewRPFcontrolledRwandangovernmentsawthepresenceofgenocidaires
intheeasternDRCasamajorsecuritythreat.Adesireforrevengeagainstthemurderers
ofhundredsofthousandsofTutsifurthermotivatedthemtotakeaction.Withthe
internationalcommunityunwillingtohelpseparatecivilianHutusfromgenocidairesor
shutdownthemilitarizedrefugeecamps,RPFleadershipsawaninvasionoftheDRCas
theonlysolution.In1996,thenewRwandangovernmentalliedwithCongoleserebel
leaderLaurentDesireKabilaandthegovernmentsofUganda,BurundiandAngolato
invadetheDRCandtoppletheMobuturegime.AsKabilasrebelforces,knownasthe
AllianceofDemocraticForcesfortheLiberationoftheCongo(AFDL),advancedacross
thecountryside,theRPFsRwandanPatrioticArmycameintocontactwiththerefugee
campsandfleeingHutucivilians.Afterbreakinguptherefugeecampsalongthe
Rwandanborder,RPA/AFDLforcesallowedabout600,000refugeestoreenterRwanda.7
Hundredsofthousandsmorecontinuedtofleewestward.TheRPApursuedtheHutu
refugeesdeeperintotheDRC.Acrossthecountry,RPAtroopsmassacredmanyofthe
6Stearns,JasonK.DancingintheGloryofMonsters:TheCollapseoftheCongoandtheGreatWarof
Africa.NewYork:PublicAffairs,2011.Print.Page41.
7Straus,Scott.MakingandUnmakingNations:War,Leadership,andGenocideinModernAfrica.Ithaca:
CornellUP,2015.Print.

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Hutustheyencountered,usuallyregardlessoftheirage,sex,orinvolvementinthe
RwandanGenocide.
TheU.N.SecretaryGeneralsInvestigativeTeamdeployedshortlyafterthe
eventstheDRCfoundthatintheearlystagesoftheinvasion,theprimaryobjectiveofthe
RPAwastoreturntheHuturefugeestoRwanda,nottoexterminatethem.Whileviolence
againstcivilianHutusdidoccur,thepurposeofthisviolencewasultimatelytoforcethe
refugeestorelocate.AstheRPApursuedtherefugeesdeeperintotheDRC,thepatternof
violenceevolvedtobeindiscriminateandexterminatory.AlthoughattimestheRPA
forcesclaimedtobesearchingonlyforHutugenocidaires,thereportfoundthemajority
ofthevictimswerechildren,women,elderlypeopleandthesick,whoposednothreatto
theattackingforces.8The[AFDL/RPA]fighterstoldusthattheyonlykilledsoldiers
guiltyofmurderingmanyTutsipeopleinRwanda,recalledoneRedCrossworker.Yet
withmyownhandsIburiedsmallchildrenwhoseheadswerecrushedbyriflebutts.9
Perhapsmosttellingofall,inmanycasesevenCongoleseHutuswhohadneversetfoot
inRwandaweremarkedfordeath.MyparentswereCongolese,evenmygrandparents
wereCongolesewedon'tevenknowasingleplaceinRwanda[]oneHutusurvivor
orphanedbytheRPAtoldtheBBC.TheRwandanarmydoesn'tcarewhetheryou'rea
HutufromRwandaoraHutufromCongo,forthemit'sthesame.10
ItsverypossiblethatsomeRPAsoldierskilledtoexactrevengeforthedeathsof
8TheDemocraticRepublicoftheCongo19932003UNMappingReport.Rep.N.p.:UnitedNations,
August2010.Print.Page24.
9Stearns,JasonK.DancingintheGloryofMonsters:TheCollapseoftheCongoandtheGreatWarof
Africa.NewYork:PublicAffairs,2011.Print.Page159.
10Anonymous."CongoWitness:'KilledforBeingHutu'"Http://www.bbc.com.BBCNews,1Oct.2010.
Web.8Dec.2015.

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Tutsilovedonesduringthegenocide,buttheRPAsdisciplineandsuperiortraining
makesthisunlikelyastheprimarycauseoftheviolence.AsaBelgianmissionarywho
witnessedoneofthemassacreslatertoldajournalist,thesoldiersactedasiftheywere
justdoingtheirjob,followingorders.Theydidntseemoutofcontrol.11Oftentimes,the
massacreswerecarriedoutinthepresenceofhighrankingRPAofficersandRPFstate
authorities.RwandanGenocideexpertAlisonDesForgesbelievedtheRPAattemptedto
exterminateHutusintheDRCinordertopreventaHutudiasporathatwouldoneday
leadtoaninvasionofRwanda.RPAleadersmayhavefearedthatHuturefugeesandtheir
descendantswouldeventuallyreturntochallengetheregime,liketheTutsiswhoformed
theRPFhaddone.12JustastheRPFrecruitedsoldiersfromCongoleseandUgandan
Tutsipopulations,sotoocouldanewRwandanrefugeerebelmovementrecruitfrom
sympatheticCongoleseHutus.ThisfearwouldexplainwhytheRPAwouldattemptto
exterminatebothRwandanandCongoleseHutusalike.
TheRPAsmethodofkillingHutuciviliansbearsaneerieresemblancetothe
methodusedbyHutugenocidairestofindandexterminateRwandanTutsis.TheRPA
andtheirallieserectedbarriersatwhichHutucivilianscouldbeidentifiedbytheirname
orvillageoforigin,similartothewayHutumilitiasusedroadblockstoidentifyTutsisby
theirIDcards.JustlikeduringtheRwandanGenocide,muchofthekillingwasdone
usingprimitiveweaponsratherthanfirearms.TheUNmappingreportnotesthatthe
extensiveuseofedgedweapons(primarilyhammers)andthesystematicmassacreof
11Stearns,JasonK.DancingintheGloryofMonsters:TheCollapseoftheCongoandtheGreatWarof
Africa.NewYork:PublicAffairs,2011.Print.Page160.
12Stearns,JasonK.DancingintheGloryofMonsters:TheCollapseoftheCongoandtheGreatWarof
Africa.NewYork:PublicAffairs,2011.Print.Page160.

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survivors,includingwomenandchildren,afterthecampshadbeentakenshowthatthe
numerousdeathscannotbeattributedtothehazardsofwarorseenasequatingto
collateraldamage.13
RPAsoldiersoftendisguisedtheirintenttomassacreHuturefugeesbyinstructing
themtogatherforameetingtodiscusstheirrepatriationtoRwanda.CongoleseHutus
weretoldtheyweretomeetthenewlocalAFDLauthoritiesorreceivefood.Instead,
thosepresentfacedsummaryexecution.InmassacrenearthetownofMusekerainthe
easternDRC,300CongoleseHutuswerekilledoverthecourseofonemorningin
October1996.14Villagerswhosurvivedsaidthevictimswereledtwobytwointothe
villagemeetinghouse,whereRPAsoldierssystematicallymurderedthemwiththeirown
farmingimplements.Dozensofmassgravesfromsimilarmassacrescouldbefound
throughoutthearea.Asatestamenttothegrouptargetednatureoftheviolence,civilians
whomanagedtoconvincetheRPAthattheywerenotHutuswereallowedtoleave
beforethemassacres.
JustasHutuPowerhateradioattackedallTutsisasRPFsympathizersand
cockroaches,RPApropagandadeclaredallHutuscomplicitintheRwandanGenocide.
SocalledawarenessraisingspeechesmadebyAFDLandRPAauthoritiesassertedthat
anyHutustillpresentinZairemustnecessarilybeaperpetratorofgenocide,sincethe
realrefugeeshadalreadyreturnedtoRwanda.15Theseawarenessraisingspeeches
13TheDemocraticRepublicoftheCongo19932003UNMappingReport.Rep.N.p.:UnitedNations,
August2010.Print.Page281.
14Faul,Michelle."ASecondRwandanGenocideIsRevealedinCongo."Http://www.nbcnews.com.
NBCNews,10Oct.2010.Web.8Dec.2015.
15TheDemocraticRepublicoftheCongo19932003UNMappingReport.Rep.N.p.:UnitedNations,
August2010.Print.Page281.

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oftenechoedtherhetoricofHutuPowerhateradio,incitingthelocalpopulationto
violenceagainsttheHuturefugeepigs.16
Despitetheevidencefromaccountsofthemassacres,theUNmappingreport
notestwoimportantproblemswithlabelingthekillingofHutusintheDRCasgenocide.
First,inorderforthekillingstoconstitutegenocide,theRPAmusthaveactedwiththe
intenttocausecompleteorsubstantialgroupdestruction.AccordingtotheUNreport,
factswhichtendtoshowthattheallegedperpetratorsparedthelivesofmembersofthe
groupwhomtheyhadthemeansandopportunitytokillmaymilitateagainstproofofa
clearintenttodestroythegroup.17EvenaftertheRPFsmassacres,severaltensof
thousandsofRwandanHuturefugees,manyofwhomhadsurvivedpreviousattacks,
wererepatriatedtoRwandawiththehelpofthe[AFDL/RPA]authorities.18
Additionally,whilst,ingeneral,thekillingsdidnotsparewomenandchildren,itshould
benotedthatinsomeplaces,atthebeginningofthefirstwar,Hutuwomenandchildren
wereinfactseparatedfromthemen,andonlythemenweresubsequentlykilled.19
AlthoughcasesinwhichRPAforcessparedHutuciviliansmakediagnosingthe
violencemorecomplex,theydonotrefutetheallegationsofgenocide.Aslegalprecedent
frompastgenocidecasesshows,theintentiontodestroyagroupinpartissufficientto
beclassifiedasacrimeofgenocideevenifthegroupdestructionislimitedtoa
16TheDemocraticRepublicoftheCongo19932003UNMappingReport.Rep.N.p.:UnitedNations,
August2010.Print.Page282.
17TheDemocraticRepublicoftheCongo19932003UNMappingReport.Rep.N.p.:UnitedNations,
August2010.Print.Pages284
18TheDemocraticRepublicoftheCongo19932003UNMappingReport.Rep.N.p.:UnitedNations,
August2010.Print.Pages284
19TheDemocraticRepublicoftheCongo19932003UNMappingReport.Rep.N.p.:UnitedNations,
August2010.Print.Pages284

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particulargeographicalarea.20In2007,theInternationalCourtofJusticeruledthatthe
massacreofabout8,000BosniakMuslimmenandboysnearthetownofSrebrenica
constitutedgenocidebecausetheBosnianSerbperpetratorsshowedspecificintentto
exterminatealargeportionoftheBosniakpopulationbasedonethnicity,despite
allowingthewomenandchildrentolive.21Underthisprecedent,themassacresofHutus
couldstillfallunderthedefinitionofgenocideeventhoughmanyHutuswerespared,as
longastheRPAintendedtodestroyalargeportionoftheHutupopulationintheDRC.
Indeed,theUNmappingreportfoundthatthesystemicnatureoftheviolence[points]to
circumstancesandfactsfromwhichacourtcouldinfertheintentiontodestroytheHutu
ethnicgroupintheDRCinpart,ifthesewereestablishedbeyondallreasonabledoubt.22
ThesecondmajorproblemdiscussedbytheUNmappingreportitispossibility
thattheRPAchosetomassacreHutusforreasonsotherthantheirethnicity.TheUN
SecretaryGeneralsInvestigativeTeamstoppedshortofdeclaringthemassacres
genocidebecausetheysawtheRPAsintentasexterminatory,butnotnecessarilybased
onethnicityalone.
[]Atsometimesandinsomeareas,theattacksonformercamppopulations
whichfledwestwardintotheinteriorofZairewerenotintendedtoforcethemto
returnbutsimplytoeliminatethem.Thereareatleasttwopossibleinterpretations
20TheDemocraticRepublicoftheCongo19932003UNMappingReport.Rep.N.p.:UnitedNations,
August2010.Print.Pages280.
21CaseConcerningApplicationOfTheConventionOnThePreventionAndPunishmentOfTheCrime
OfGenocide,BosniaAndHerzegovinav.SerbiaAndMontenegro.InternationalCourtOfJustice.27Feb.
2007.Print.
22TheDemocraticRepublicoftheCongo19932003UNMappingReport.Rep.N.p.:UnitedNations,
August2010.Print.Page280.

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oftheintenttoeliminatetheRwandanHutusremaininginthecountry:either
therewasadecisiontoeliminatethemratherthanrepatriatethem,forwhatever
reason,ortherewasadecisiontoeliminatethembecausethebreakingupofthe
campsineffectseparatedthegoodHutusfromthebad:thosewhohadlittle
involvementinthe1994genocideagainstTutsishadreturnedandthosewhofled
ratherthanreturnwerethosewhohadparticipatedinorsupportedthe
genocide.23
IntheviewoftheUNSecretaryGeneralsInvestigativeTeam,iftheRPAtargetedonly
theHutustheybelievedtobegenocidairesorgenocidairesupporters,thenthekillings
wouldnotmeettheUNscriteriaforgenocide.IftheHutucivilianswerekilledbased
solelyontheirethnicity,thenitsuggeststhattheRPAhadgenocidalintent.
InansweringthequestionofwhetherHutuciviliansweretargetedbasedontheir
ethnicityalone,themassacreofCongoleseHutusseemstobethesmokinggun.Ifthe
RPAindeedtargetedCongoleseHutuswiththeknowledgethattheywerenotrefugees,
thentheirintentcouldnotsimplyhavebeentoeliminateonlythesocalledbad
RwandanHutus.Thekillingswouldinsteadresembleagenocidebaseduponanethnic
category,justlikethegenocidethattookthelivesofhundredsofthousandsofRwandan
Tutsis.
SinceRwandasinvasionoftheDRC,PresidentPaulKagamehascontinuedto
claimthatthemajorityofthosekilledbytheRPAweregenocideperpetrators.Multiple
23TheDemocraticRepublicoftheCongo19932003UNMappingReport.Rep.N.p.:UnitedNations,
August2010.Print.Pages283284.

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studiesbyinternationalorganizationshaveshownthissimplywasntthecase.Although
theprecisenumberofvictimsisdifficulttocalculate,studiesconsistentlyestimatethat
tensofthousandsofHutucivilianswerekilledinthecourseoftheconflict.24UN
investigationsofthewarintheDRChaverepeatedlyhighlightedsignificantevidenceof
genocide,buthaveultimatelydeclinedtopassfirmjudgmentonwhatoccurred.In1997,
ajointmissionauthorizedbytheUNCommissiononHumanRightsreportedsomeof
[the]allegedmassacrescouldconstituteactsofgenocide.However,thejointmission
cannotissueaprecise,definitiveopiniononthebasisoftheinformationcurrently
availabletoit.25
InAugust2010,theissuewasrevivedwhenaprematurelyleakeddraftoftheUN
mappingreportrockedtheinternationalcommunityandmadeheadlinesacrosstheworld.
ThereportsconclusionsinfuriatedPresidentKagameandtheRPFcontrolledRwandan
government,whothreatenedtowithdrawRwandantroopsfromtheAfricanUnion
missioninDarfurorevenleavetheUNaltogether.26Inresponse,theUNbackeddown
andweakenedthereportsoriginallanguage.Onesectionthatspokeofdamning"
reportsof"systematicandwidespreadattacks"that"couldbeclassifiedascrimesof
genocide"waschangedtoreferto"apparent"attacksthat"couldbecharacterizedas
crimesofgenocide".27
24TheDemocraticRepublicoftheCongo19932003UNMappingReport.Rep.N.p.:UnitedNations,
August2010.Print.Pages279.
25TheDemocraticRepublicoftheCongo19932003UNMappingReport.Rep.N.p.:UnitedNations,
August2010.Print.Pages279.
26Stearns,Jason."BombshellUNReportLeaked:'CrimesofGenocide'againstHutusinCongo."The
ChristianScienceMonitor.TheChristianScienceMonitor,26Aug.2010.Web.07Dec.2015.
27Fessy,Thomas."UNReportSaysDRCongoKillings'mayBeGenocide'BBCNews."BBCNews.
BBC,1Oct.2010.Web.07Dec.2015.

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Legalminutiamatterslittleforthemen,women,andchildrenburiedinmass
gravesintheCongo.Althoughitsunlikelythattheperpetratorsofthemassacresinthe
DRCwithseetheirdayincourtanytimesoon,overwhelmingevidenceshowsthatthe
RPAdidinfactcommitgenocide.AstheUNmappingreportnotes,thesekillings
werentjustisolatedincidentsintheheatofbattle.Theseweresystematic,organized
massacresofciviliansoftenwiththeconsentofotherstateauthorities,orevendrivenby
them.28Althoughitsimportantnottofallintothetrapofdeclaringfalseequivalency
betweenthe800,000TutsisandmoderateHutuskilledinRwandaandthetensof
thousandsofHutukilledintheDRC,itremainstruethatonlyonesetofvictimshas
receivedanythingclosetopropercommemoration.
IntheyearssincetheRwandaninvasionoftheDRC,PresidentPaulKagameand
theRPFhavereceivedinternationalpraisefortheirworktorebuildRwandaand
eliminatethecategoriesofHutuandTutsifromcivilsociety.Today,Rwandaisoneof
thefastestgrowingeconomiesinAfricaandhasmadeimpressivestridesinhealthcare,
education,andgenderequality.FormerPresidentBillClintonevenhailedPresident
Kagameasoneofthegreatestleadersofourtime.29Aninternationalcriminaltribunal
hasindictednearly100people,overwhelminglyHutus,fortheirrolesintheRwandan
Genocide.Anestimated1.9millionpeoplehaveappearedbeforeinformallocalcourts.30
InRwanda,the1994genocideisreferredtoasagenocideagainstTutsis,withthe
28TheDemocraticRepublicoftheCongo19932003UNMappingReport.Rep.N.p.:UnitedNations,
August2010.Print.Pages285
29Sundaram,Anjan."Rwanda:TheDarlingTyrant."POLITICOMagazine.Politico,Mar.Apr.2014.
Web.08Dec.2015.
30Bowcott,Owen."RwandaGenocide:TheFighttoBringthePerpetratorstoJustice."
Http://www.theguardian.com.TheGuardian,2Apr.2014.Web.8Dec.2015.

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subsequentviolenceagainstHutusconvenientlyforgotten.Inthemeantime,theDRC
continuestobeplaguedbyaseeminglyneverendingconflict,therootsofwhichcanstill
betracedbacktotheRwandaninvasion.FriendsandrelativesoftheRPAsHutuvictims
liveonknowingthemurdersoftheirlovedonesremainunpunished.UntilRPFleaders,
includingPresidentKagame,areheldaccountablefortheRPAsactionsduringthe1996
1997invasionoftheDRC,thestoryofreconciliationinpostGenocideRwandawill
remainastoryofvictorsjustice.
WorksCited
Kagame,Paul."20thCommemorationOfGenocideAgainstTheTutsi."20th
CommemorationOfGenocideAgainstTheTutsi.KigaliGenocideMemorialCentre,
Kigali,Rwanda.7Apr.2014.Speech.
TheDemocraticRepublicoftheCongo19932003UNMappingReport.Rep.N.p.:
UnitedNations,August2010.Print.Page280.
Stearns,JasonK.DancingintheGloryofMonsters:TheCollapseoftheCongoandthe
GreatWarofAfrica.NewYork:PublicAffairs,2011.Print.
Straus,Scott.MakingandUnmakingNations:War,Leadership,andGenocidein
ModernAfrica.Ithaca:CornellUP,2015.Print.
Anonymous."CongoWitness:'KilledforBeingHutu'"Http://www.bbc.com.BBCNews,
1Oct.2010.Web.8Dec.2015.
Faul,Michelle."ASecondRwandanGenocideIsRevealedinCongo."
Http://www.nbcnews.com.NBCNews,10Oct.2010.Web.8Dec.2015.
CaseConcerningApplicationOfTheConventionOnThePreventionAndPunishmentOf
TheCrimeOfGenocide,BosniaAndHerzegovinav.SerbiaAndMontenegro.
InternationalCourtOfJustice.27Feb.2007.Print.
Stearns,Jason."BombshellUNReportLeaked:'CrimesofGenocide'againstHutusin
Congo."TheChristianScienceMonitor.TheChristianScienceMonitor,26Aug.2010.
Web.07Dec.2015.

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Fessy,Thomas."UNReportSaysDRCongoKillings'mayBeGenocide'BBC
News."BBCNews.BBC,1Oct.2010.Web.07Dec.2015.
Sundaram,Anjan."Rwanda:TheDarlingTyrant."POLITICOMagazine.Politico,Mar.
Apr.2014.Web.08Dec.2015.
Bowcott,Owen."RwandaGenocide:TheFighttoBringthePerpetratorstoJustice."
Http://www.theguardian.com.TheGuardian,2Apr.2014.Web.8Dec.2015.