Diesel Engine Technology

Four Stroke Diesel

A four-stroke engine (also known as four-cycle) is an internal combustion engine in
which the piston completes four separate strokesintake, compression, power, and
exhaustduring two separate revolutions of the engine's crankshaft, and one single
thermodynamic cycle.
The four strokes refer to intake, compression, combustion (power) and exhaust
strokes that occur during two crankshaft rotations per power cycle. The cycle begins
at Top Dead Centre (TDC), when the piston is farthest away from the axis of the
crankshaft. A stroke refers to the full travel of the piston from Top Dead Centre
(TDC) to Bottom Dead Centre (BDC).
1. INTAKE stroke: on the intake or induction stroke of the piston, the piston
descends from the top of the cylinder to the bottom of the cylinder,
increasing the volume of the cylinder. A mixture of fuel and air, or just air in a
diesel engine, is forced by atmospheric (or greater) pressure into the cylinder
through the intake port. The intake valve(s) then closes. The volume of
air/fuel mixture that is drawn into the cylinder, relative to the maximum
volume of the cylinder, is called the volumetric efficiency of the engine.
2. COMPRESSION stroke: with both intake and exhaust valves closed, the piston
returns to the top of the cylinder compressing the air or fuel-air mixture into
the combustion chamber of the cylinder head. During the compression stroke
the temperature of the air or fuel-air mixture rises by several hundred
degrees.
3. POWER stroke: this is the start of the second revolution of the cycle. While
the piston is close to Top Dead Centre, the compressed airfuel mixture in a
gasoline engine is ignited, usually by a spark plug, or fuel is injected into a
diesel engine, which ignites due to the heat generated in the air during the
compression stroke. The resulting pressure from the combustion of the
compressed fuel-air mixture forces the piston back down toward bottom dead
centre.
4. EXHAUST stroke: during the exhaust stroke, the piston once again returns to
top dead centre while the exhaust valve is open. This action expels the spent
fuel-air mixture through the exhaust valve(s).

Fuel injection is a system for admitting fuel into an internal combustion engine. It
has become the primary fuel delivery system used in automotive engines, having
replaced carburetors during the 1980s and 1990s. A variety of injection systems
have existed since the earliest usage of the internal combustion engine.

The primary difference between carburetors and fuel injection is that fuel injection
atomizes the fuel by forcibly pumping it through a small nozzle under high pressure,
while a carburetor relies on suction created by intake air accelerated through a
Venturi tube to draw the fuel into the airstream.
Modern fuel injection systems are designed specifically for the type of fuel being
used. Some systems are designed for multiple grades of fuel (using sensors to
adapt the tuning for the fuel currently used). Most fuel injection systems are for
gasoline or diesel applications.
Overhead camshaft commonly abbreviated to OHC, is a valvetrain configuration
which places the camshaft of an internal combustion engine of the reciprocating
type within the cylinder heads ('above' the pistons and combustion chambers) and
drives the valves or lifters in a more direct manner compared to overhead valves
(OHV) and pushrods.

A double overhead camshaft(DOHC) valvetrain layout (also known as 'dual overhead

camshaft') is characterised by two camshafts located within the cylinder head,one
operating the intake valves and one operating the exhaust valves. This design
reduces valvetrain inertia more than a SOHC engine, since the rocker arms are
reduced in size or eliminated. A DOHC design permits a wider angle between intake
and exhaust valves than SOHC engines. This can allow for a less restricted airflow at
higher engine speeds. DOHC with a multivalve design also allows for the optimum
placement of the spark plug, which in turn, improves combustion efficiency. Engines
which have more than one bank of cylinders (i.e. V6, V8 where two cylinder
banks meet to form a 'V') with two camshafts in total remain SOHC; unless each
cylinder bank has two camshafts these latter are DOHC, and are often known as
'quad cam'. The term 'twin cam' is imprecise, but will normally refer to a DOHC
engine.
In a direct injection engine, fuel is injected into the combustion chamber (as
opposed to fuel and air mixing before the intake valve).
In a common rail system, the fuel from the fuel tank is supplied to the common
header (called the accumulator). This fuel is then sent through tubing to the
injectors, which inject it into the combustion chamber. The header has a high
pressure relief valve to maintain the pressure in the header and return the excess
fuel to the fuel tank. The fuel is sprayed with the help of a nozzle that is opened and
closed with a needle valve, operated with a solenoid. When the solenoid is not
activated, the spring forces the needle valve into the nozzle passage and prevents
the injection of fuel into the cylinder. The solenoid lifts the needle valve from the
valve seat, and fuel under pressure is sent in the engine cylinder. Third-generation
common rail diesels use piezoelectric injectors for increased precision, with fuel
pressures up to 1,800 bar or 26,000 psi.

Direct fuel injection costs more than indirect injection systems: the injectors are
exposed to more heat and pressure, so more costly materials and higher-precision
electronic management systems are required. However, the entire intake is dry,
making this a very clean system.
Fuel Injectors
Simply put, fuel injectors deliver fuel into an engine's combustion chambers to be
burned. Fuel injectors have now entirely replaced carburetors, which was used for
fuel delivery for many years. Whereas carburetors essentially use vacuum to pull
fuel into the engine's combustion chambers, fuel injectors are part of a

computerized system that sprays fuel into the combustion chambers at regular
intervals.

A turbocharger, or turbo (colloquialism), from the Latin "turb, turbin-" ("a spinning
thing") is a forced induction device used to allow more power to be produced by an
engine of a given size. A turbocharged engine can be more powerful and efficient
than a naturally aspirated engine because the turbine forces more air, and
proportionately more fuel, into the combustion chamber than atmospheric pressure
alone.
Turbochargers were originally known as turbosuperchargers when all forced
induction devices were classified as superchargers; nowadays the term
"supercharger" is usually applied to only mechanically-driven forced induction
devices. The key difference between a turbocharger and a conventional
supercharger is that the latter is mechanically driven from the engine, often from a
belt connected to the crankshaft, whereas a turbocharger is driven by the engine's
exhaust gas turbine. Compared to a mechanically-driven supercharger,
turbochargers tend to be more efficient but less responsive. Twincharger refers to
an engine which has both a supercharger and a turbocharger.

Following is a step-by-step view of what happens when you start up a dieselpowered vehicle.
1. You turn the key in the ignition.
Then you wait until the engine builds up enough heat in the cylinders for
satisfactory starting. (Most vehicles have a little light that says Wait, but a sultry
computer voice may do the same job on some vehicles.) Turning the key begins a
process in which fuel is injected into the cylinders under such high pressure that it
heats the air in the cylinders all by itself. The time it takes to warm things up has
been dramatically reduced probably no more than 1.5 seconds in moderate
weather.
Diesel fuel is less volatile than gasoline and is easier to start if the combustion
chamber is preheated, so manufacturers originally installed little glow plugs that
worked off the battery to pre-warm the air in the cylinders when you first started the
engine. Better fuel management techniques and higher injection pressures now
create enough heat to touch off the fuel without glow plugs, but the plugs are still in
there for emissions control: The extra heat they provide helps burn the fuel more

efficiently. Some vehicles still have these chambers, others dont, but the results are
still the same.

Glow plugs provide extra heat to burn fuel more efficiently.

2. A Start light goes on.
When you see it, you step on the accelerator and turn the ignition key to Start.
3. Fuel pumps deliver the fuel from the fuel tank to the engine.
On its way, the fuel passes through a couple of fuel filters that clean it before it can
get to the fuel injector nozzles. Proper filter maintenance is especially important in
diesels because fuel contamination can clog up the tiny holes in the injector
nozzles.

A diesel fuel filter.

4. The fuel injection pump pressurizes fuel into a delivery tube.
This delivery tube is called a rail and keeps it there under constant high pressure of
23,500 pounds per square inch (psi) or even higher while it delivers the fuel to each
cylinder at the proper time. (Gasoline fuel injection pressure may be just 10 to 50

psi!) The fuel injectors feed the fuel as a fine spray into the combustion chambers of
the cylinders through nozzles controlled by the engines engine control unit (ECU),
which determines the pressure, when the fuel spray occurs, how long it lasts, and
other functions.

Anatomy of a fuel injector.

Other diesel fuel systems use hydraulics, crystalline wafers, and other methods to
control fuel injection, and more are being developed to produce diesel engines that
are even more powerful and responsive.

A common rail fuel injection system.

5. The fuel, air, and fire meet in the cylinders.
While the preceding steps get the fuel where it needs to go, another process runs
simultaneously to get the air where it needs to be for the final, fiery power play.
On conventional diesels, the air comes in through an air cleaner thats quite similar
to those in gas-powered vehicles. However, modern turbochargers can ram greater
volumes of air into the cylinders and may provide greater power and fuel economy

under optimum conditions. A turbocharger can increase the power on a diesel

vehicle by 50 percent while lowering its fuel consumption by 20 to 25 percent!
6. Combustion spreads from the smaller amount of fuel thats placed under
pressure in the precombustion chamber to the fuel and air in the combustion
chamber itself.
ARRANGEMENT OF CYLINDERS Engines are also classified according to the
arrangement of the cylinders. One classification is the in-line, in which all cylinders
are cast in a straight line above the crankshaft, as in most trucks. Another is the Vtype, in which two banks of cylinders are mounted in a V shape above the
crankshaft, as in many passenger vehicles. Another not-so-common
arrangement is the horizontally opposed engine whose cylinders mount in two
side rows, each opposite a central crankshaft. Buses often have this type of
engine. The cylinders are numbered. The cylinder nearest the front of an in-line
engine is numbered 1. The others are numbered 2, 3,4, and so forth, from the front
to rear. In V-type engines the numbering sequence varies with the manufacturer.
The firing order (which is different from the numbering order) of the cylinders is
usually stamped on the cylinder block or on the manufacturers nameplate.

Diesel engines have several advantages over other internal combustion engines:

They burn less fuel than a petrol engine performing the same work, due to
the engine's higher temperature of combustion and greater expansion ratio.
Gasoline engines are typically 30% efficient while diesel engines can convert
over 45% of the fuel energy into mechanical energy.
They have no high voltage electrical ignition system, resulting in high
reliability and easy adaptation to damp environments. The absence of coils,
spark plug wires, etc., also eliminates a source of radio frequency emissions
which can interfere with navigation and communication equipment, which is
especially important in marine and aircraft applications.

The life of a diesel engine is generally about twice as long as that of a petrol
engine due to the increased strength of parts used. Diesel fuel has better
lubrication properties than petrol as well.
Diesel fuel is distilled directly from petroleum. Distillation yields some
gasoline, but the yield would be inadequate without catalytic reforming,
which is a more costly process.
Diesel fuel is considered safer than petrol in many applications. Although
diesel fuel will burn in open air using a wick, it will not explode and does not
release a large amount of flammable vapor. The low vapor pressure of diesel
is especially advantageous in marine applications, where the accumulation of
explosive fuel-air mixtures is a particular hazard. For the same reason, diesel
engines are immune to vapor lock.
For any given partial load the fuel efficiency (mass burned per energy
produced) of a diesel engine remains nearly constant, as opposed to petrol
and turbine engines which use proportionally more fuel with partial power
outputs.
They generate less waste heat in cooling and exhaust.
Diesel engines can accept super- or turbo-charging pressure without any
natural limit, constrained only by the strength of engine components. This is
unlike petrol engines, which inevitably suffer detonation at higher pressure.
The carbon monoxide content of the exhaust is minimal, therefore diesel
engines are used in underground mines.
Biodiesel is an easily synthesized, non-petroleum-based fuel (through
transesterification) which can run directly in many diesel engines, while
gasoline engines either need adaptation to run synthetic fuels or else use
them as an additive to gasoline (e.g., ethanol added to gasohol).

The characteristic noise of a diesel engine is variably called diesel clatter, diesel
nailing, or diesel knock. Diesel clatter is caused largely by the diesel combustion
process; the sudden ignition of the diesel fuel when injected into the combustion
chamber causes a pressure wave. Engine designers can reduce diesel clatter
through: indirect injection; pilot or pre-injection; injection timing; injection rate;
compression ratio; turbo boost; and exhaust gas recirculation (EGR). Common rail
diesel injection systems permit multiple injection events as an aid to noise
reduction. Diesel fuels with a higher cetane rating modify the combustion process
and reduce diesel clatter. CN (Cetane number) can be raised by distilling higher
quality crude oil, by catalyzing a higher quality product or by using a cetane
improving additive.
A combination of improved mechanical technology such as multi-stage injectors
which fire a short "pilot charge" of fuel into the cylinder to initiate combustion
before delivering the main fuel charge, higher injection pressures that have
improved the atomisation of fuel into smaller droplets, and electronic control (which
can adjust the timing and length of the injection process to optimise it for all speeds

and temperatures), have partially mitigated these problems in the latest generation
of common-rail designs, while improving engine efficiency.
Reduction Gears
Reduction gears are rather simple, one small gear, driven by the engine, driving a
large gear which is connected to the propeller shaft. The ratio of teeth between the
smaller and larger gears is the ratio of reduction. Example: take a small gear with
25 teeth and make it turn a big gear with 100 teeth. One revolution of the big gear
means that the small gear has turned four times which gives us a 4:1 mechanical
advantage, also know in gears as 4:1 reduction.

The larger reduction gears are usually as simple as two gears, with one input and
one output. With the increase use of controllable pitch propellers, which allows the
prime mover to rotate at a given and steady speed, some features have been added
to the larger marine reduction gears. Taking advantage of the power already being
developed by the main engine. This allows the whole operation of the ship to be
more efficient and perhaps have less equipment to accomplish the same work as
before. Hydraulics system on large fishing boats are a good example, also shaft
generators are another.
On smaller reduction gears, like those found on tugs, yachts, fishing vessels, etc.
they always had more features than just two gears. For example many small gears
will feature a built in clutch, they also have reverse and the thrust bearing is built
into the gear. In contrast, a coastal freighter may have an independent clutch,
reduction gear, thrust bearing, and obtain reverse by using a controllable pitch
system.
Gears are generally helical cut gears. This allows for high power to be transmitted
but still maintain low noise levels. Gears are usually trouble free in their
operations as long as their lubricating oil is sufficient, cool and appropriately suited
for the function of the gear. Some problems can arise when the built in function
such as thrust bearing and clutch packs deteriorate and their waste contaminates
the oil. Deterioration of the oil cooler - heat exchanger - can also be a source of oil
contamination. These problems can be mitigated by scheduled preventive
maintenance such as daily checks and oil sampling.

Marine Diesel Cooling Water System

Although there is an abundance of free sea water available, marine diesel engines
do not use it directly to keep the hottest parts of the engine cool. This is because of
the corrosion which would be caused in the cooling water spaces, and the salts
which would be deposited on the cooling surfaces interfering with the heat flow.
Instead, the water circulated around the engine is fresh water (or better still,
distilled water) which is then itself cooled using sea water. This fresh water is
treated with chemicals to keep it slightly alkaline (to prevent corrosion) and to
prevent scale formation. Of course, if distilled water, which some ships can make
from sea water using evaporators, is used then there is a reduced risk of scale
formation.

The cooling water pump which may be engine driven or be a separate electrically
driven pump pushes the water around the circuit. After passing through the engine,
where it removes the heat from the cylinder liners, cylinder heads, exhaust valves
and sometimes the turbochargers, it is cooled by seawater and then returns to the
engine. The temperature of the cooling water is closely controlled using a three way
control valve. If the water is allowed to get too cold then it will cause thermal
shocking which may lead to component failure and will also allow water and acids to
condense on the cylinder bores washing away the lubricating film and causing
corrosion. If it gets too hot then it will not remove the heat effectively causing
excessive wear and there is a greater danger of scale formation. For this reason the
cooling water outlet temperature is usually maintained at about 78-82C. Because it
is at a higher temperature than the cooling water used for other purposes (known
as the LT cooling), the water for cooling the engine is known as the HT (High
Temperature) cooling water.
Cooling can be achieved by using a dedicated cooler or by mixing in some of the
water from the LT cooling circuit. The LT cooling water is then cooled in the sea
water coolers. The temperature is controlled using cascade control which monitors

both the inlet and outlet temperatures from the engine. This allows a fast response
to any change in temperature due to a change in engine load.
To make up for any leaks in the system there is a header tank, which automatically
makes up any deficiency. Vents from the system are also led to this header tank to
allow for any expansion in the system and to get rid of any air (if you are familiar
with a domestic central heating system then you will see the similarities). The
header tank is relatively small, and usually placed high in the engine room. It is
deliberately made to be manually replenished, and is fitted with a low level alarm.
This is so that any major leak would be noticed immediately. Under normal
conditions, the tank is checked once per watch, and if it needs topping up, then the
amount logged.
The system will also contain a heater which is to keep the cooling water hot when
the engine is stopped, or to allow the temperature to be raised to a suitable level
prior to starting. Some ships use a central cooling system, whereby the same
cooling water is circulated through the main engine(s) and the alternator engines.
This system has the advantage whereby the engines which are stopped are kept
warm ready for immediate starting by the engines which are running.
A fresh water generator (FWG) which is used to produce fresh water from sea water
is also incorporated.
A drain tank has been included. This is for when the engine is drained down for
maintenance purposes. Because of the quantities of water involved and the
chemical treatment, it is not economically viable or environmentally responsible to
dump the treated water overboard each time. This way the water can be re used.

This system shows a typical

cooling water circuit for a single medium speed engine with an engine driven main
pump and an electrically driven auxiliary circ pump and heater for keeping the
engine warm when stopped.

In this diagram a simple

circulation system for an engine. It is similar to the main diagram, but this time a
dedicated HT cooler is used.
Fuel Oil Supply System
The fuel oil system for a diesel engine can be considered in two partsthe fuel
supply and the fuel injection systems. Fuel supply deals with the provision of fuel oil
suitable for use by the injection system.
Fuel oil supply for a two-stroke diesel engine
A slow-speed two-stroke diesel is usually arranged to operate continuously on heavy
fuel and have available a diesel oil supply for manoeuvring conditions.

In the system shown in Figure , the oil is stored in tanks in the double bottom from
which it is pumped to a settling tank and heated. After passing through centrifuges
the cleaned, heated oil is pumped to a daily service tank. From the daily service
tank the oil flows through a three-way valve to a mixing tank. A flow meter is fitted
into the system to indicate fuel consumption. Booster pumps are used to pump the
oil through heaters and a viscosity regulator to the engine-driven fuel pumps. The
fuel pumps will discharge high-pressure fuel to their respective injectors.
The viscosity regulator controls the fuel oil temperature in order to provide the
correct viscosity for combustion. A pressure regulating valve ensures a constantpressure supply to the engine-driven pumps, and a pre-warming bypass is used to
heat up the fuel before starting the engine. A diesel oil daily service tank may be
installed and is connected to the system via a three-way valve. The engine can be
started up and manoeuvred on diesel oil or even a blend of diesel and heavy fuel
oil. The mixing tank is used to collect recirculated oil and also acts as a buffer or
reserve tank as it will supply fuel when the daily service tank is empty.
The system includes various safety devices such as low-level alarms and remotely
operated tank outlet valves which can be closed in the event of a fire.
Below is fuel oil supply system used for small marine diesel engines.

Importance & Factors Affected in Engine Performance

Whether used for continuous or intermittent service, diesel engines require
maintenance if they are to perform as intended. This guide is intended for reference
for high and medium speed diesel engines using 1-D and/or 2-D diesel fuel, and sets
forth some important points to be observed.
Fuel & Fuel Oil System
Diesel engines can burn a wide range of fuels, depending on their design. Over the
life of an engine, fuel represents about 75% of the total operating cost. Moreover, if
fuel quality is not maintained, it can cause premature engine failure or decreased
performance. The suitability and condition of fuel for diesel engines is frequently
overlooked as a maintenance item. There are several important aspects to be
checked:
1. Know Your Fuel Quality
Engine performance specifications for diesel engines are based on a specific fuel
type (basis fuel). The grades commonly available for use in medium and high speed
diesels are shown in the table below. When considering engine output, it is always

necessary to know the properties of the fuel being burned and how it compares to
the basis fuel named in the performance specifications.

In addition to the performance consequences of using an off-specification fuel, there

are mechanical risks. Lighter fuels may reduce the life expectancy of fuel system
components because its low viscosity will reduce lubricity. Heavier fuel can reduce
the life of cylinder liners and rings due to increased combustion chamber deposits.
If it is necessary to correct the density of fuel, it must be done by blending existing
stock with a heavier/lighter grade to achieve the desired characteristic. NEVER
reduce fuel with alcohols or gasoline NEVER add gasoline or alcohol to diesel fuel for
any reason. Damage to the fuel injection system will occur. Furthermore, such a
mixture can create an explosive mixture (gasoline) in the tank or will result in
stratification (alcohols).
2. Age of Fuel
Diesel fuel is more prone to oxidation than is gasoline. It must never be kept in
storage for more than 12 months. Arrangements should be in place to either
consume the fuel or rotate it to oil burner stock.

3. Cetane number
This index ranks fuel as to its propensity to ignite from pressure and heat. Low
cetane number fuels will suffer from delayed ignition, and can cause starting
difficulty and engine knock. Engine damage can result. White smoke and odor
during cold weather starts indicate low cetane fuel.
A guideline for minimum cetane index is 40 for all engines. Although some precombustion chamber engines will run on cetane index 35 fuel, a cetane index of
greater than 40 is a good rule to observe for any diesel engine. Always follow the
recommendations of the engine manufacturer!
4. Cleanliness
Diesel fuel injection systems depend on small flow passages and very close
clearances. They cannot tolerate impurities in the fuel. This means that the fuel

filters must be maintained per the manufacturers published schedule or more

frequently if the condition of fuel stocks require it. All filters must be at least of the
same quality as original equipment.
Air filters are equally important to the longevity of an engine. They serve to trap
abrasives before they can enter the engine combustion chambers. Lack of proper
air filtration will cause rapid wear of rings, pistons, and liners. Change air filters at
least as often as the manufacturer recommends, and use a replacement filter of at
least original equipment quality. If unusually dusty conditions prevail, air filter may
require more frequent replacement or cleaning.
Coolant & Cooling System
The cooling system of a diesel engine must be capable of continuously removing
about 30% of the heat released by combustion of its fuel without overheating.
Assuming a reasonably clean cooling system, this is usually not a problem. In
addition to coolant level, there are several items which should be checked:
Coolant Level
Coolant level is critical to proper operation of a cooling system. If coolant level falls
to the point where air is drawn into the cooling jackets, cooling capacity will be
reduced, and serious mechanical damage, including cavitation corrosion, will result.
Always check coolant level.
Coolant Composition
Engine coolant is generally a mixture of ethylene or propylene glycol base
antifreeze and water. The freezing point of the mixture will depend on the relative
amount of glycol used. It is important to use the best available water blended with
not more than 60% ethylene glycol base antifreeze or 50% propylene glycol base
antifreeze.
It is equally important never to use water alone as an engine coolant. (Water is
corrosive at engine operating temperatures.)
Recommended additives and inhibitors
Engine manufacturers will usually provide detailed guidance as to additives
necessary to prevent corrosion or to provide supplemental lubrication of cooling
system components. It is very important that the recommended concentrations of
these not be exceeded. High concentrations can cause precipitation of solids, and
can cause damage to seals and other internal parts. On the other hand, low
concentration of coolant additives can cause cavitation pitting on the water side of
the cylinder liners.

Sometimes, engine manufacturers will supply special filters which dispense

additives into the coolant (Controlled release filters). If an engine is fitted with these
filters, then it is very important that additional additives NOT be separately installed
in the coolant. Conversely, if chemistry is controlled by specific additives then
controlled release filters must NOT be used.
Cooling System Integrity
No check of the cooling system is complete unless it is reasonably apparent that the
system is tight and free of air. Induction of air into a cooling system for whatever
reason is a serious matter, since it can cause internal cavitation and spot corrosion
in the water jackets, especially on higher temperature parts, such as the cylinder
sleeves.
Particular attention should be paid to engines having silicone hose packages as the
hoses will not adhere to the engine connections. Only constant tension spring
clamps should be used to attach these hoses and their integrity should be routinely
checked
If there is any doubt about system integrity, the engine manufacturer should be
consulted, and further tests should be performed until such doubt is resolved.
LUBRICATION
Engine lubrication is perhaps the single most important element of a good
maintenance program. Engine oil lubricates moving parts; it provides corrosion
protection; it absorbs and neutralizes contaminants; it serves as a coolant; and it is
a sealant. Through regular oil and filter changes, the oil removes foreign matter
from the engine, contributing to internal cleanliness and minimizing wear.
Engine lubricating oils are prepared from either petroleum or synthetic stocks, and
are formulated with a number of additives which provide or modify certain
characteristics of the base stock. Among these are detergents, alkalinity agents,
oxidation inhibitors, dispersants, and anti-wear agents. These additives, or the
additive package, are what gives the engine oil its desirable qualities, and the
exhaustion of the additives, as well as the accumulation of combustion products are
the life limiting elements of the oil charge.

ENGINE OIL TESTING

Engines which represent a significant investment and which perform critical
functions should be on a program of regular oil testing. Test results will confirm the

condition of the lubricating oil charge and will provide important information on
internal engine condition as well.
Oil analysis can detect contaminants such as diesel fuel, soot, coolant, salt, airborne
sand, dirt or dust, and, trace wear metals from internal components. We
recommend oil analysis as part of every PM program for diesel engines
Oil testing should include the following analyses:
1. Chemical and physical testing to ascertain presence of contaminants (water, fuel,
antifreeze, etc.)
2. Wear analysis to identify wear components in the oil.
3. Oil condition analysis to quantify soot, sulfur, nitration, and oxidation products in
the oil.
4. Total Base Number - is an index of the sulfur by-product neutralization capacity of
the engine oil. Since virtually all diesel fuels contain some sulfur, and since engine
oils contain additives intended to neutralize the sulfur compounds produced by
combustion, this index provides a convenient way of judging the extent to which
that neutralization capacity has been depleted.
5. Ash of Sulfated Ash Content - Virtually all oils will leave a non-combustible
residue if burned. That incombustible residue, if excessive, can build up in some
high temperature areas within the engine, and they can be troublesome. Again, the
engine manufacturer will usually have good advice to offer regarding maximum ash
in engine oils, and their recommendations should be followed.
Valve Resistance
The exhaust valve consists of a valve housing and a valve spindle. The valve
housing is of cast iron and arranged for water cooling. The housing is provided with
a bottom piece of steel with stellite welded onto the seat. The spindle or valve stem
is made of heat resistant steel with stellite welded on to the seat. The housing is
provided with spindle guide or valve guide. The exhaust valve housing is connected
to the cover with studs and nuts tightened by a hydraulic jack. The exhaust valve is
opened hydraulically and closed by a set of helical springs. The hydraulic system
consists of a piston pump mounted on the roller guide housing, a high pressure
pipe, and a working cylinder on the exhaust valve. The piston pump is activated by
the cam on the shaft.
The exhaust valve is subjected to hot gases, and the temperature resistance of its
seat and body is therefore crucial. In new designs, Nimonic valves combined with
proper seat cooling have yielded excellent service behavior and long life times.
When exhaust valves are not centered in the combustion chamber, heating will not

be symmetrical on the valve lid. For this reason, an automatic rotating device may
be fitted causing the valve to rotate slowly, thereby avoiding localized heating.

Material Properties:

High tensile strength and creep resistance properties.

Resistance at high temperature properties.

Resistance to high temperature corrosion.

Exhaust Valve Improved Design

1. Bore cooling for efficient cooling systems (as low as 327 oC at full load).
2. Valve rotational mechanism.
3. Heat and corrosion resistance material used.
4. Hydraulic push rod with controlled valve landing speed.
5. Air spring (or increasing number of springs with improved material) to reduce
valve bouncing.
6. Guide bush is sealed by pressurized air.
7. For less obstruction of gases, use valve seat angle 30 o instead of 45o.
Cause of Exhaust Valve Burning
1. Continuous overloading of engine or particular unit causing high exhaust
temperature.
2. Poor combustion (or after burning) of fuel due to dirty fuel injectors, incorrect
fuel injection pressure, incorrect fuel temperature, late fuel injection timing,
air starvation, water or impurities in fuel.
3. Valve not closing properly due to incorrect tappet clearance or starvation of
closing air supply.
4. Insufficient cooling water supply may cause the valve to overheat.
5. Hot corrosion due to bad quality fuel, which contains high vanadium sodium
etc.
6. Unstable material used.
Indication of Exhaust Leaking

Indicates high exhaust temperature in that unit.

Indicates low compression pressure and low peak pressure in the indicator
diagram. Low compression pressure and low peak pressure can be caused of
shortage of air supply also, but in that case scavenge air or turbocharger air
pressure will increase abnormally.

Exhaust Valve Failure

Exhaust Valve Failure

Stress on Exhaust Valve
1. Thermal stress 3 times greater than mechanical stress.
2. Thermal stress in radial direction greater than axial direction.
3. Largest mechanical stress at the flame face center.
4. Highest thermal hoop stress in lid.
5. Largest mechanical stress in the radial direction along the bend radius
circumferentially.
6. Maximum combined stress at the valve neck points.
Stress Failures
1. Circumferential and radial cracks around head radius.
2. Breaking at the neck.
3. Radial crack at the seat.
4. Dishing in the head.
5. Cracking at the frame face.
Exhaust Valve Problems

1. Burning due to high temperature use bore cooling.

Use valve rotational mechanism.

Use Nimonic material.

2. Seat trumping and wear.

3. Valve bouncing

Use air and hydraulic actuator.

Or increase number of spring with improved material.

4. Hot corrosion and erosion at the valve seat and its underside.
5. Possibility of scaling due to poor water treatment.
6. Thermal stress due to heating and cooling.
7. Cracking at the seat and center of the flame face.
8. Breaking at the valve neck.
Pumping Loss
The major cause of loss of efficiency at low power is "pumping loss". How is an Otto
cycle engine designed for a peak power of 108 hp persuaded to run at an output of,
say, 10 hp? The answer is that the flow of air into the cylinders is restricted by
closing a "throttle" valve. This forces the engine to drag the air through a narrow
opening, creating a partial vacuum in the inlet manifold. As the air entering the
cylinder during the intake stroke is below atmospheric pressure, there is less of it. A
smaller amount of fuel is injected and the resulting smaller fuel/air "charge" causes
the engine to run at low power, as desired. But, as well as having this intended
effect, maintaining the partial vacuum in the inlet manifold wastes energy. As the
piston moves down during the intake stroke, normal pressure below it and a partial
vacuum above cause drag on the crankshaft's rotation. This does also reduce
power output, which is what we want, but at the expense of wasted fuel, which we
want to avoid. Note that cars suffer from pumping losses even at highway speeds.
The throttle is really only opened right up when accelerating or climbing hills.
Interestingly, diesel engines do not have this problem because there is no throttle.
Low power is achieved by simple injecting less fuel. This is one of the reasons why
diesel engines achieve higher efficiency. This technique cannot easily be used by
gasoline engines because the burn temperature becomes too high and damages the
cylinder

Residual Gases - the gases that remain in the cylinder of an internal-combustion

engine after the exhaust stroke has been completed. Residual gases contain
combustion products and nitrogen. Before combining with the incoming fuel-air
mixture, residual gases have a temperature between 700 and 800C. They
constitute from 8 to 15 percent of the weight of fresh charge in the cylinder. The
contents of cylinders in an idling engine have the maximum possible proportion of
residual gases25 percent. For every percent of weight of the mixture of fresh
charge and residual gases that is contributed by the residual gases, the air-fuel
mixture is warmed by 8 to 10C. As compression in the cylinder increases, both the
absolute and relative amounts of residual gases in the cylinder decrease.
Troubleshooting Cooling System Leaks
When you find a leak in your engine's cooling system, you must decide whether to
handle it yourself or to take it to a professional. The following sections cover the
different types of leaks and give you a few pointers to help you decide:
Radiator leaks: If the radiator is leaking badly, go to a reliable radiator shop. If they
say its cheaper to replace it than to repair it, do so.
Leaks in the engine-block core plugs: On the sides of some engine blocks are little
circular depressions called core plugs or freeze plugs. If you see leaks or rusty
streaks leading away from the core plugs on your engine block or signs that leaks
from them have dried, and youve been losing liquid lately, you may need to have
the core plugs replaced. Your best bet is to seek professional help on this one.

Check the core plugs on the sides of the

engine block.
Internal leaks: Sometimes a leak right under the cylinder head can be the result of
an ill-fitting head gasket or the fact that the bolts that hold the cylinder head on the
engine block are too loose or too tight. If you try to tighten these bolts yourself, you
may damage the gasket if you dont have a torque wrench. The best thing to do is
to get professional help here. If a mechanic only has to tighten the bolts, the cost
should be minimal, whereas replacing the head gasket is much more expensive.

The head gasket lies between the cylinder

head and the engine block.
With todays aluminum cylinder heads, its quite possible that your cylinder head
may have small cracks that are allowing coolant to leak internally. If this is the case,
usually youll notice thick, white smoke from the tailpipe and/or engine oil that looks
like a mocha milkshake when you inspect the oil dipstick. Also, vehicles with
automatic transmissions have a transmission cooler inside the radiator that can
leak. When it leaks, coolant mixes with the transmission fluid, making the
transmission fluid on the dipstick look like a strawberry milkshake. Both problems
require professional help.
Leaky water pump: Often, a water pump thats about to break down sends out noisy
warning signals and then starts to leak before it fails completely. On some overhead
cam engines, the water pump is behind the timing cover and is driven by the timing
belt, making inspection difficult. Leave those to a professional. If the water pump on
your vehicle is visible, you can check your pump by looking around it for leaks or
signs of rust or corrosion around the seals.
If the pump is leaking in the front where it rotates with the belt, the pump probably
needs to be replaced. If the leak is around the gasket that lies between the water
pump and the engine, you may be able to stop it by tightening the bolts that hold
the water pump in place. If tightening the bolts doesnt do the job, then you
probably need a new pump.
Locating leaks by pressure-testing the cooling system: If you cant locate the source
of a leak and your vehicle is regularly losing liquid from the cooling system, drive to
your service station and ask the attendants to pressure-test your cooling system.
The test involves very little time or labor, so a friendly technician may do the test
free of charge. While youre at it, have the technician pressure-test the radiator
pressure cap as well.
Testing & Testing Instruments

A tachometer (revolution-counter, Tach, rev-counter, RPM gauge) is an instrument

measuring the rotation speed of a shaft or disk, as in a motor or other machine.[1]
The device usually displays the revolutions per minute (RPM) on a calibrated
analogue dial, but digital displays are increasingly common.

Compression Pressure Tester

Compression testing on your marine engine should be performed every time a tuneup is done as part of preventative maintenance. By performing a compression test,
internal engine malfunctions, such as bad valves, piston rings or excessive carbon
buildup, can be detected before mechanical problems develop at sea. It benefits the
boat owner to be aware of these problems so they can make an informed decision
whether to invest in repairs or sell the boat.
Engine compression is checked in different ways for different marine engines.
Compression can be tested in two ways. The first method involves using a manual,
handheld compression gauge. Always run the marine engine up to operating
temperature before beginning the compression test, to ensure that the oil has been
warmed up. A cold engine never, ever tests correctly.
Immediately disconnect the ignition module, coil and disconnect the fuel-injection
system, then open the throttle to full open position to ensure the engine gets
adequate air intake and insert the compression tester into one cylinder spark plug
hole at a time. Crank the engine over continually for at least five to 10 full
revolutions to obtain an accurate reading on the compression tester. If any cylinder
compression reading varies 10 percent or more, a problem may exist in one or more
cylinders. If the variance is greater than 10 percent, use an electronic engine
analyzer (specialized testing equipment)to further diagnose the problem. If all
cylinder readings are within 10 percent of each other, compression test results are
optimal.

Pyrometer
A pyrometer is a non-contacting device that intercepts and measures thermal
radiation, a process known as pyrometry. This device can be used to determine the
temperature of an object's surface.

Vacuum Gauge
Gauge pressure usually refers to the pressure difference between ambient,
atmospheric pressure and the pressure in a vessel or line. A gauge pressure of zero
would mean that the vessel or line was at atmospheric pressure. Normally the
pressures of interest are ABOVE atmospheric so the gauge pressure is positive.
Vacuum gauge pressure measures how far BELOW atmospheric pressure a vessel or
line is. As such vacuum gauge pressure may be measured as a negative number - or
for convenience it may be reported as a positive number with the caveat that it is
"vacuum gauge pressure", meaning that the reported pressure is how far
atmospheric pressure is above the pressure in the vessel or line.
Vacuum Gauge
Though little understood, the vacuum gauge is probably the best single indicator of
your engine's health you can get.

A Little Background
When your car is idling-whether it's fuel injected or carbureted-the throttle plate or
plates are restricting the amount of air the engine can breathe in. The pistons are
attempting to "suck" the mixture past the throttle. (Of course, in reality, it is
atmospheric pressure that is attempting to "push" air into the engine as the pistons
travel downward on their intake strokes.) When throttle is closed, vacuum is high in
the intake manifold, from the throttle plate(s) to the combustion chambers. By
contrast, at wide open throttle there is relatively little restriction to outside air
entering the intake manifold, so vacuum in the manifold is very low.
A vacuum gauge reads pressure differences from atmospheric pressure, so the
reading is zero in our "normal" sea of air. By convention, vacuum gauges in the US
read "inches of Mercury."
Reading the Gauge
Unlike a fuel gauge, the vacuum gauge will keep you entertained with its
instantaneous, wide-ranging movements.
When you floor the accelerator pedal, you can watch manifold pressure (another
word for vacuum) swing from strongly negative to nearly zero (atmospheric
pressure). When your engine is "on the overrun," like using engine braking down a
steep hill at high RPM, you'll see really high vacuum readings. Naturally,
turbocharged and supercharged will show very different results, with readings
swinging into the positive at high speed. IAP's vacuum gauge is not designed for
turbo or supercharged vehicles. Your vacuum gauge is also a sort of "poor man's"
fuel mileage indicator; when vacuum is low, you are burning more fuel.
Absolute readings are not as useful as changes over time. That is, if you establish
baseline readings under a variety of circumstances, you will know what to look for if
your engine begins to deviate. Everything else aside, a high vacuum reading tends
to indicate a healthy engine.
Having said this, we can make generalities about the readings you can expect. Note
that engines with performance camshafts tend to read lower vacuum. Readings are

also lower at higher altitudes; the rule of thumb is approximately 1 inch of mercury
for every 1,000 feet of altitude gain.
The following readings will not apply to turbocharged engines, or cars with a
separate venturi for each cylinder (like Weber DCOE or Dellorto carbs). All readings
are inches of mercury (in. Hg.).

Stethoscopes
Some engine sounds can be easily heard without using a listening device, while
others may be impossible to detect unless amplified. Stethoscopes help you locate
the source of engine noise quickly. A trained technician will listen for trouble by
tracing the sound of flowing water, oil, gas or steam, allowing him or her to identify
piston slap, worn gears, faulty valves, water pump failure, damaged gaskets and/or
defective bearings.

The procedure using a stethoscope is fairly simple use the metal prod to trace the
sound until it reaches its maximum intensity. Once the precise spot is determined,
the sound can be better evaluated. Better results may be obtained with an
electronic listening device, which allows the user to tune into the noise.
Stethoscopes and electronic listening devices can be obtained from your mobile tool
distributor or from most retailers, jobbers and tool and equipment suppliers.
Caution: Since abnormal engine noises must be detected when the engine is
running, be careful when listening for noises around moving belts and pulleys. Also,
keep the stethoscope or electronic probe away from moving parts. You could be
injured if the stethoscope or hose is pulled inward or flung out by these moving
parts.
COMMON ENGINE NOISES
Main or Thrust Bearing Noise: A loose crankshaft main bearing produces a dull,
steady knock, while a loose crankshaft thrust bearing produces a heavy thump at
irregular intervals. The thrust bearing noise might only be audible on very hard
acceleration. The Fix: To correct this problem, replace the bearings or crankshaft.
Piston Pin Knock: This is a sharp, metallic rap that can sound more like a rattle if all
the pins are loose. It occurs in the upper portion of the engine and is most notable
when the engine is idling and is hot. Piston pin knock sounds like a double knock at
idle speeds. Its caused by a worn piston pin, piston pin boss, piston pin bushing or
lack of lubrication. The Fix: To correct this problem, either install oversized pins,
replace the boss or bushings, or replace the piston.
Piston Slap: This sound is commonly heard when the engine is cold and often gets
louder when the vehicle accelerates. When a piston slaps against the cylinder wall,
the result is a hollow, bell-like sound. Piston slap is caused by worn pistons or
cylinders, collapsed piston skirts, misaligned connecting rods, excessive piston-tocylinder wall clearance or lack of lubrication, resulting in worn bearings. The Fix:
Replacing the pistons, reboring the cylinder, replacing or realigning the rods or
replacing the bearings will correct this problem.

Ring Noise: This sound can be heard during acceleration as a high-pitched rattling
or clicking in the upper part of the cylinder. It is usually caused by worn rings or
cylinders, broken piston ring lands, or insufficient ring tension against the cylinder
walls. The Fix: Ring noise is corrected by replacing the rings, pistons or sleeves, or
reboring the cylinders.

Ridge Noise: This sound is less common, but very distinct. As a piston strikes the
ridge at the top of the cylinder, the result is a high-pitched rapping or clicking noise
that becomes louder upon acceleration.
The Fix: There may be more than one reason for the ridge interfering with the rings
travel. If new rings were installed without removing the old ridge, the new rings will
contact the ridge and make the noise. Or, if the piston pin is very loose or the
connecting rod has a loose or burned out bearing, the piston will go high enough in
the cylinder for the top ring to contact the ridge. In order to eliminate ridge noise,
remove the old ring ridge and replace the piston or piston pin.
Rod-Bearing Noise: The result of loose or worn connecting rod bearings will cause a
noise at idle, as well as at speeds above 35 mph. Depending on how worn the
bearings, the noise can range from a light tap to a heavy knock or pound. Rod
bearing noise is caused by a worn bearing or crankpin, a misaligned rod, or lack of
lubrication. The Fix: Service or replace the crankshaft, realign or replace the
connecting rods and replace the bearings.
Rumble & Thump Noises: A loose vibration damper will cause a heavy rumble or
thump in the front of the engine that is more apparent when the vehicle is
accelerating from idle under load or is idling unevenly. A loose flywheel causes a
heavy thump or light knock at the rear of the engine, depending on the amount of
play and the type of engine. The Fix: Both of these problems are corrected either by
tightening or replacing the damper or flywheel.
Tappet Noise: This noise is characterized by a light, regular clicking sound that is
more noticeable when the engine is idling. It is the result of too much clearance in
the valve train. The clearance problem area is located by inserting a feeler gauge
between each lifter and valve, or between each rocker arm and valve tip, until the
nose subsides. Tappet noise can be caused by improper valve adjustment, worn or
damaged parts, dirty hydraulic lifters or lack of lubrication. The Fix: To correct the
noise, adjust the valves, replace any worn or damaged parts, or clean or replace
lifters.

Torque Meter Wrench

A torque wrench is a tool used to precisely apply a specific torque to a fastener such
as a nut or bolt. It is usually in the form of a socket wrench with special internal
mechanisms. It was invented by Conrad Bahr in 1918 while working for the New

York City Water Department. It was designed to prevent overtightening bolts on

water main and steam pipe repairs underground.
A torque wrench is used where the tightness of screws and bolts is crucial. It allows
the operator to measure the torque applied to the fastener so it can be matched to
the specifications for a particular application. This permits proper tension and
loading of all parts. A torque wrench measures torque as a proxy for bolt tension.
The technique suffers from inaccuracy due to inconsistent or uncalibrated friction
between the fastener and its mating hole. Measuring bolt tension (bolt stretch) is
more accurate but often torque is the only practical means of measurement.

Valve Spring Tester

A valve spring tester consisted of some means of measuring the force applied to
compress the spring, and a means of measuring the "deflection" or compression of
the spring. A typical automotive spring tester was a benchtop item. It used a rack
and pinion type of press with a dial indicator to measure deflection of the spring.
The bottom of the press was a "load cell"- a small piston in a cylinder. This was filled
with oil and connected to a pressure gauge. The gauge face was graduated to read
in pounds of force rather than "psi", based on piston area.
In recent years, fuel injection has become standard equipment on most new
vehicles. Although far more reliable and efficient than carburettors, fuel injection
systems have their own unique problems. In many cases, fuel injection problems
can be linked to blocked or sticky fuel injectors. Testing fuel injectors was once a
complicated and inaccurate procedure, but, with the Fuel Injector & Harness Tester,
you can now quickly and easily locate any malfunctioning fuel injector without
removing it from the vehicle.

Injector Harness Tester

The Fuel Injector & Harness Tester is a hand-held device used to check the function
of fuel injectors and their associated wiring harnesses on most vehicles. The tests
for clogged or leaking fuel injectors by using a single, half-second pulse. Multiple 5millisecond pulses are used to test for sticky or sluggish fuel injectors. By using a
fuel pressure gauge (optional) and comparing fuel pressure differences as each fuel
injector is pulsed, faulty injectors can quickly be identified. In addition, the Fuel
Injector & Harness Tester is able to test fuel injection wiring harnesses for faulty
wiring and connectors.
Formulas Applied to Internal Combustion Engine
Horsepower (hp) is the name of several units of measurement of power, the rate at
which work is done. The most common conversion factor, especially for electrical
power, is 1 hp = 746 watts. The term was adopted in the late 18th century by
Scottish engineer James Watt to compare the output of steam engines with the
power of draft horses. It was later expanded to include the output power of other
types of piston engines, as well as turbines, electric motors and other
machinery.The definition of the unit varied between geographical regions. Most
countries now use the SI unit watt for measurement of power.
Indicated horsepower (ihp) is the theoretical power of a reciprocating engine if it is
completely frictionless in converting the expanding gas energy (piston pressure
displacement) in the cylinders. It is calculated from the pressures developed in the
cylinders, measured by a device called an engine indicator hence indicated
horsepower. As the piston advances throughout its stroke, the pressure against the
piston generally decreases, and the indicator device usually generates a graph of
pressure vs stroke within the working cylinder. From this graph the amount of work
performed during the piston stroke may be calculated. It was the figure normally
used for steam engines in the 19th century but is misleading because the actual
power output may only be 70% to 90% of the indicated horsepower.
Volumetric efficiency
Volumetric efficiency is a ratio or percentage of what quantity of air-fuel mixture
enters actually the cylinders during suction process to the actual capacity of the
cylinder under static conditions. Your engine will not use the full volume 100%
because of friction losses and leakage. Volumetric efficiency above 100% can be
reached by using forced supercharging or turbocharging.
This formula is written as :

Volumetric efficiency is affected by the following points:

1- Engine speed Volumetric efficiency is inversely proportional to rpm. where
increasing engine speed, it leads to decreasing volumetric efficiency. (you can
conclude it from the previous equation)
2- Atmospheric pressureVolumetric efficiency is directly proportional to Patm. For
example: when your vehicle is running over the mountains, the atmospheric
pressure decreases and thus the volumetric efficiency decreases. (you can conclude
that from the previous equation).
3- Atmospheric temperature Volumetric efficiency is inversely proportional to
Tatm.Increasing atmospheric temperature will decrease density of air, mass flow
rate and volumetric efficiency.
4- Compression ratio The engine that has higher CR, the lower volumetric efficiency
will be, so volumetric efficiency of diesel engine is lower than petrol engine.
5- Intake and exhuast valve geometry , size , lift ,and timing in four stroke engine or
intake and exhaust port design in 2-stroke engine.
One of the most important things to remember when calculating piston
displacement is that, you are measuring VOLUME.

To calculate your engines displacement use this formula:

Piston Displacement

= x (radius)2 x stroke x number of cylinders

= 3.14

radius = bore/2

stroke = the distance from TDC to BDC

number of cylinders = the number of cylinders in the engine

Here is an Example:
This engine has:

Bore= 80mm

Stroke = 90mm

Number of Cylinders = 1

Radius = Bore/2

= 80 2

= 40mm
Piston Displacement = x (radius)2 x stroke x number of cylinders

3.14 x (40)2 x 90 x

3.14 x

1600mm x 90

452 160 mm3

x 1

You will notice that you answer is in mm3 . Engines are usually give a size of
displacement in cm3 or commonly referred to as CC's. To convert your answer to
CC's, divide your answer by 1000. In this example, you would have 452 160mm3
1000 giving you an answer of 452.16 cm3 or 452.16 cc. This engine has a
displacement of 452.16 cm3 or 452.16 cc.

Often larger engines have their displacements measured in litres. To get this
measurement, divide you answer that is in cm3 or cc's by 1000. In this example,
you would have 452.16cm3 1000 giving you an answer of 0.452 Litre or 0.452 L.
This engine has a displacement of 0.452 Litres or 0.452 L.
Here is One More Example:
This engine has:

Bore= 87.5 mm

Stroke = 91.4 mm

Number of Cylinders = 2

Radius = Bore/2

= 87.5 2

= 43.75 mm

Piston Displacement = x (radius)2 x stroke x number of cylinders

=

3.14 x (43.75)2 x 91.4 x

3.14 x

1 098 656.5 mm3

1099 cm3

1.100 litres (L)

1914mm x 91.4

x 2

or

or

This engine is a 1.100 litre two cylinder

engine.

Power
BHP = PLAN/33,000
P is brake mean effective pressure, in PSI
L is piston stroke, in feet
A is the area of one piston, in square inches
N is the number of power strokes per minute

Piston Speed
Cm = .166 x L x N
Cm is mean piston speed, in feet per minute
L is stroke, in inches
N is crankshaft speed, in RPM

Brake Mean Effective Pressure (BMEP)

2-Stroke BMEP = (HP x 6500)/(L x RPM)

4-Stroke BMEP = (HP x 13000)/(L x RPM)

L = Displacement in Liters
i.e., 80 cc = .08 Liters
1 ci. = 16.39 cc

Fundamentals of Electricity
In order to understand even the simplest concepts of electronics, you must first
understand what electricity is. After all, the whole purpose of electronics is to get
electricity to do useful and interesting things.

The concept of electricity is both familiar and mysterious. We all know what
electricity is, or at least have a rough idea, based on practical experience. In
particular, consider these points:

We are very familiar with the electricity that flows through wires. That electricity
comes from power plants that burn coal, catch the wind, or harness nuclear
reactions.

It travels from the power plants to our houses in big cables hung high in the air or
buried in the ground. Once it gets to our houses, it travels through wires through
the walls until it gets to electrical outlets. From there, we plug in power cords to get
the electricity into the electrical devices we depend on every day.

We know that electricity isn't free.

We know that electricity can be stored in batteries. When the batteries die, all
their electricity is gone.

We know that some kinds of batteries are rechargeable, which means that when
they've been drained of all their electricity, more electricity can be put back into
them by plugging them into a charger, which transfers electricity from an electrical
outlet into the battery.

We know that electricity can be measured in volts. Household electricity is 120

volts (abbreviated 120 V). Flashlight batteries are 1.5 volts. Car batteries are 12
volts.

We also know that electricity can be measured in watts. Incandescent light bulbs
are typically 60, 75, or 100 watts. Compact fluorescent lights (CFLs) have somewhat
smaller wattage ratings. Microwave ovens and hair dryers are 1,000 or 1,200 watts.

We also may know that there's a third way to measure electricity, called amps. A
typical household electrical outlet is 15 amps (abbreviated 15 A).

And finally, we know that electricity can be very dangerous.

But, what is electricity really? Lets start with three very basic concepts of
electricity: namely, electric charge, electric current, and electric circuit.

Electric charge refers to a fundamental property of matter that even physicists

don't totally understand. Suffice it to say that two of the tiny particles that make up
atoms protons and electrons are the bearers of electric charge. There are two
types of charge: positive and negative. Protons have positive charge, electrons have
negative charge.

Electric current refers to the flow of the electric charge carried by electrons as
they jump from atom to atom. Electric current is a very familiar concept: When you
turn on a light switch, electric current flows from the switch through the wire to the
light, and the room is instantly illuminated.

Electric current flows more easily in some types of atoms than in others. Atoms
that let current flow easily are called conductors, whereas atoms that don't let
current flow easily are called insulators.

An electric circuit is a closed loop made of conductors and other electrical

elements through which electric current can flow. For example, a very simple
electrical circuit consists of three elements: a battery, a lamp, and an electrical wire
that connects the two.

Circuits can get much more complex, consisting of dozens, hundreds, or even
thousands or millions of separate components, all connected with conductors in
precisely orchestrated ways so that each component can do its bit to contribute to
the overall purpose of the circuit. But all circuits must obey the basic principle of a
closed loop.

All circuits must create a closed loop that provides a complete path from the
source of voltage (in this case, the battery) through the various components that
make up the circuit (in this case, the lamp) and back to the source (again, the
battery).
DC GENERATOR PRINCIPLE
A dc generator changes mechanical energy into electrical energy. It furnishes
electrical energy only when driven at a definite speed by some form of prime
mover, such as a diesel engine or a steam turbine.
DC generators are used principally in electrical systems for mobile equipment. They
are also used in power plants supplying dc power for factories and in certain railway
systems. DC power is used extensively in communication systems and for battery
charging and electroplating operations.

DC GENERATOR COMPONENTS
The essential parts of a dc generator are illustrated in 1 and 2. The member that
spins is called the rotor. The rotor is a cylindrical, laminated iron core that's
mechanically coupled to the drive shaft of the generator. An armature winding is
embedded in the slots on the surface of the rotor. The armature windings have
voltage induced into them as it spins past the field poles. The windings are actually
coils of wire in a series of loops that terminate at the copper segments of the
commutator.
A commutator consists of a series of copper segments which are insulated from one
another and the shaft. The commutator turns with the shaft and the armature
windings. The commutator is used to change the ac voltage induced in the armature
windings to dc voltage at the generator output terminals. Carbon brushes pressing
against the commutator segments connect the current to the external load circuit.

Cutaway view of a direct-current generator: reaction-type brush holders; field coils;

frame yoke; outer bearing cap inspection plates; armature coils; armature tooth
laminations; field poles; commutator end brackets

Motor action opposing generator driving force

The armature windings generate voltage by cutting a magnetic field as the

armature rotates. This magnetic field is established by electromagnets mounted
around the periphery of the generator. The electromagnets, called field poles, are
arranged in a definite sequence of magnetic polarity; that's , each pole has a
magnetic polarity opposite to that of the field poles adjacent to it. Electrical current
for the generator field circuit's usually obtained from the generator itself.
When a generator feeds a load circuit, current passing through the armature sets up
a magnetic field around the armature. This field reacts with the main field flux. The
result is a force that attempts to turn the armature in a direction opposite to that in
which it's being driven (This effect is known as the motor effect of generators). The
force of this reaction is proportional to the current in the armature and accounts for
the fact that more mechanical power is needed to drive a generator when electrical
energy is taken from it.
PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION OF AC GENERATOR (ALTERNATOR)

A basic generator consists of a magnetic field, an armature, slip rings,

brushes and a resistive load
The magnetic field is usually an electromagnet. An armature is any number of
conductive wires wound in loops which rotates through the magnetic field
For simplicity, one loop is shown. When a conductor is moved through a
magnetic field, a voltage is induced in the conductor
As the armature rotates through the magnetic field, a voltage is generated in
the armature which causes current to flow
Slip rings are attached to the armature and rotate with it
Carbon brushes ride against the slip rings to conduct current from the
armature to a resistive load

Section 3: The Charging System

3.1--An Overview of the Charging System

The Charging system is an important part of the electrical system. It provides

electrical current for the lights, the radio, the heater, the engines electrical systems,
and other electrical accessories. It also maintains the batteries in a charged state,
recharging them as necessary. In order to properly service the charging system, you
need to understand how it operates. The charging system has three main
components: the alternator, the voltage regulator, and the batteries.
The alternator generates electrical power to run accessories and to recharge the
batteries. It is normally driven by a belt located off the crankshaft. Mechanical
energy from the crankshaft is converted by the alternator into electrical energy for
the batteries and accessories. The voltage regulator acts as an electrical traffic cop
to control alternator output. It senses when the batteries need recharging, or when
the vehicles electrical needs increase, and adjusts the alternators output
accordingly.
The batteries are a reservoir of chemical electrical power. Their primary purpose is
to crank the engine. They also supply power to vehicle accessories when the
electrical load is too great for the alternator alone.

The Primary Causes of Charging System Malfunction

Before discussing the preventive maintenance and diagnostic procedures for the
charging system, were going to cover certain environmental and product application
factors that can cause the charging system to malfunction.
Excessive heat. An alternator can become damaged if it operates too long at
excessive temperatures. Damaging heat levels are generated in two ways: when the
alternator becomes dirty either externally or internally restricting its ability to
dissipate heat from its external surface or not allowing air to pass through the unit,
and when air ducts and heat shields are not replaced after the alternator has been
serviced.
Dirt and dust. Charging system components operate less efficiently when buildup of
dirt particles form around wire and cable connection points. Dirty connection points
impair the flow of electrical current.
Vibration. If charging system components are poorly or loosely mounted to the
vehicles frame, the resulting vibration can damage sensitive internal components.
A loosely mounted component will also diminish the performance of the important
belt drives. This is very important on high powered engines.
Preventive Maintenance Procedures
The object of preventive maintenance is to identify and correct the potential
problems before they occur.

There are three preventive maintenance procedures that can greatly enhance the
efficiency of the charging systems functions. These three procedures also represent
the initial steps you should take when fully diagnosing (i.e. troubleshooting) a
problem in the vehicles charging system. The three preventive maintenance
procedures are as follows:
Clean alternator and connection points. Insure that all alternator surfaces are clean
to the point that they do not have a buildup of dirt, grease or dust. Air flow
passages must also be clear so that air can easily pass through the unit. All
connection points must be clean and free from corrosion.
Component mounting brackets. As mentioned previously, you need to make sure
that the charging system components are securely mounted to their applicable
brackets; the brackets, in turn, need to be bolted securely to the engine. Again, if
charging system components are poorly or loosely mounted, damaging vibration
and diminished belt drive performance are the result.
Tension and condition of belts. You need to also check the belt for proper tension.
Caution: be sure the engine is turned off. A loose belt will slip on the pulley and fail
to turn the alternators rotor. Check belt tension with cricket belt tension gauge.

Refer to vehicle manufacturer's specifications for proper belt tension. Before you
adjust it, however, tilt the belt and inspect it for glazing, cracks, or dryness. A worn
or damaged belt should be replaced.
If the belt is in satisfactory condition, use a belt tension gauge and check the
results, see Figure 12. Different belt systems use different gauges. Use proper
tensioning gauge for your application. Then adjust the tension according to the
manufacturers specifications.
If you replace a worn or damaged belt, the new belt should be checked for proper
tension as well. A new belt loses 60% of its tension in the first few hours of
operation. So it needs to be tested under heavy load, and then retensioned. After a
new belt is installed, run the engine - with every accessory turned on - for 15
minutes (this puts a heavy load on the belt). Then check the belt tension again and
adjust it if needed. Please note that belts on high amperage output alternators may
need retensioning twice after installation. Further note that if the vehicle has a multi
belt drive, the belts need to be matched. Finally, in most cases and on most
vehicles, belt tension should be tested every 10,000 miles.
Diagnostic / Troubleshooting Procedures
Timely preventive maintenance of the charging system should keep it running
smoothly. However, when a problem does occur, effective diagnostic (i.e.
troubleshooting) procedures will help you locate and correct the problem quickly
and economically. In performing any diagnostic procedure, refer to the safety
information section in the Introduction section 1.6.
Any discussion about the electrical system must begin with the batteries. Before
you begin analyzing the charging system, you must be sure the batteries have been
properly tested and are at least 75% charged. Otherwise, any electrical tests you
conduct on the charging system will be inaccurate. (Please refer to Section Two of
this manual for procedures on testing and charging batteries).

Were now going to show you how to perform four different tests specifically related
to the charging system.
Alternator Performance Test. Connect voltmeter to alternator terminals and
ammeter to alternators positive output cable, per Figure 13. Make sure ammeter is
at least 6 inches (15 cm) away from alternator to eliminate the possibility of faulty
readings. Make sure voltage is present at alternators output terminals. Start engine
and run it at 1500 RPMs (operating RPM). Check that all vehicle loads are turned off
and reading on ammeter is less than 20 amps. If ammeter reading is greater than
20 amps double check that all vehicle loads are turned off and that batteries are
fully charged. Record voltage on voltmeter. Reading should be between 13.8 & 14.4

v for a 12 volt system, 27.8 & 28.4 v for 24 volt systems. If the voltage is not within
these ranges then try adjusting the regulator if available. If the regulator can not be
adjusted alternator is defective.

`
Alternator performance test under load
Alternator Performance Test Under Load. Keep engine running at 1500 RPM
(operating RPM) and meters are connected per Figure 13. Turn on vehicle loads until
75% of the alternators rated output is achieved on ammeter display. Record voltage
on voltmeter. Compare reading to that taking during the Alternator Performance
Test. If alternator voltage drops more than .5 volts for a 12 V system and .7 volts for
a 24 V system then alternator is defective. An alternative method of putting load on
an alternator is with a carbon pile tester. Connect carbon pile tester across
batteries. Adjust carbon pile until desired reading is obtained on ammeter. Record
voltage on voltmeter and shut off vehicle.

Alternator Cable Test. To test the positive cable connect the ammeter to the positive
cable from the alternator. Make sure the ammeter is at least 6 inches (15 cm) away
from the alternator to eliminate the possibility of faulty readings. Connect the
voltmeters negative lead to the positive terminal of the alternator and the positive
lead to the positive terminal on the battery, see Figure 14. Start engine and set
engine RPM to 1500 RPMs (operating speed). Turn on vehicle loads until 75% of
alternators rated output is achieved on ammeter display. If necessary use a carbon
pile tester to apply load on alternator. Record voltage on voltmeter. If reading is

greater than .25 volts in a 12 volt circuit or .50 volts in a 24 volt circuit check all
wire connections and cable connections. If reading is less than .25 volts in 12 volt
circuit and .50 volts in a 24 volt circuit cables are good. Turn off vehicle loads and
shut off engine. To test the negative cable move voltmeters negative lead to the
negative terminal of the battery and the positive lead to the negative terminal of
the alternator, see Figure 15. Run test again. Use Figure 16 for recommended wire
sizes for any cable repairs.

Positive cable test

Negative cable test

Alternator Replacement
In the event that all of the diagnostic / troubleshooting procedures point to a faulty
alternator, you'll need to select a new alternator. Its amperage capacity rating must
support the vehicles intended application, or load and duty cycle.
If the vehicle has had a history of charging problems and you've eliminated failure
in the system, you may want to reevaluate the capacity of the alternator.
MARINE POLLUTION
Marpol 73/78 is the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution From
Ships, 1973 as modified by the Protocol of 1978. ("Marpol" is short for marine
pollution and 73/78 short for the years 1973 and 1978.)
Marpol 73/78 is one of the most important international marine environmental
conventions. It was designed to minimize pollution of the seas, including dumping,
oil and exhaust pollution. Its stated object is: to preserve the marine environment
through the complete elimination of pollution by oil and other harmful substances
and the minimization of accidental discharge of such substances.
The original MARPOL Convention was signed on 17 February 1973, but did not come
into force due to a lack of ratifications. The current convention is a combination of
1973 Convention and the 1978 Protocol. It entered into force on 2 October 1983. As
of May 2013, 152 states, representing 99.2 per cent of the world's shipping
tonnage, are parties to the convention.

All ships flagged under countries that are signatories to MARPOL are subject to its
requirements, regardless of where they sail and member nations are responsible for
vessels registered under their respective nationalities.
Marpol contains 6 annexes, concerned with preventing different forms of marine
pollution from ships:
Annex I - Oil
Annex II - Noxious Liquid Substances carried in Bulk
Annex III - Harmful Substances carried in Packaged Form
Annex IV - Sewage
Annex V - Garbage
Annex VI - Air Pollution
A State that becomes party to Marpol must accept Annex I and II. Annexes III-VI are
voluntary annexes.
Annex 6 April 1987. As of October 2009, 150 countries representing almost 99.14%
of the world's tonnage had become party to Annexes I and II.
Annex III entered into force on 1 July 1992 and (as of October 2009) 133 countries
representing over 95.76% of the world's tonnage had become party to it.
Annex IV entered into force on 27 September 2003 and (as of October 2009) 124
countries representing over 81.62% of the world's tonnage had become party to it.
Annex V entered into force on 31 December 1988 and (as of October 2009) 139
countries representing over 97.18% of the world's tonnage had become party to it.
Annex VI entered into force on 19 May 2005 and (as of October 2009) 56 countries
representing over 46% of the world's tonnage had become party to it.

RESPONDING TO EMERGENCIES
Emergency Operations
REPORTING AND ALERTING
Emergency Notification
In case of an emergency, external notification should be made as soon as possible
in order to inform anybody who may be able to assist the ship. The extent of
notification depends on the situation, the criticality and the time available, as
evaluated by the ship's management.
Beside the Company, the following organizations may also have to be notified either
directly or from the Company office :

Ship owner (especially if the ship is in management)

Local vessel agent

Port authorities

Local rescue centre

USCG

Local authorities

P&I Club local agent

Classification society

Hull underwriter

etc.

IMPORTANT NOTE
Always inform your company of the local organizations you contacted, so that the
Company may inform the organization's head office. In practice it has been
experienced that the head office was not informed (or informed too late) of a
casualty by their local agent.
If a casualty occurs after the company's office hours check for who to be contacted
in their private home and if arrangements have been made with a radio station in or
near the company's head office.
Radio stations may be contacted via different ways:

directly

via other coastal stations (check Admiralty List of Radio Signals)

by Satcom

by phone, fax, telex if available, e-mail if available.

Most radio stations can connect the vessel with the shore staff of the company.
The vessel has to indicate the correspondent request and will pass immediately
following information:

name ship

local time o/b

name captain (or representative)

position

next port of call

eta

vessel's way of calling

possibilities to re-contact the vessel

message

REPORTING REQUIREMENTS
On Board Rescue Actions
For any accident, one will have to rely on the board resources in the initial phase of
bringing the condition back to normal. Provided an efficient on board emergency
preparedness, these resources may prove sufficient, e.g. for minor fires, personnel
injuries, rescue actions in tanks or holds, etc.
Initial Check list

Emergency alarm sounded?

All concerned notified of site of accident ?

Ventilation, fire doors, watertight doors closed ?

Deck lighting switched on ?

Vessel position available in radio room ?

Satellite terminal and other distress transmitters (GMDSS) updated ?

References

IMDGC-Manual

Shipboard Management Manual

Emergency Contingency Plan

Fire Control Plan

Safety Manual

ICS Bridge Procedures Guide

Safety Poster regarding enclosed holds

Any other relevant and useful literature

Even when the situation may appear controllable, alerting and communication with
external resources should be initiated.
Reporting
Reporting to the company should be performed at earliest convenience, to the
extent as described previously.
Distress alerting / search and rescue
When the ship is in distress, when difficulties are not mastered without assistance,
and when conditions occur which may constitute a danger to others, distress
alerting should be given.
Initial check list

DF bearing of distress message taken ?

Distress message re-transmitted ?

Continuous listening watch on all distress frequencies maintained ?

Merchant Ship SAR Manuals (MERSAR) consulted ?

Communication established between surface units and SAR

aircraft on 2182 kHz and / or Channel 16 ? (Check also for local distress
frequencies and/or channels)

Position, courses and speeds of other assisting units plotted ?

Radar made available for locating survival craft transponder signal ?

References

Merchant Ship SAR Manual

Shipboard Management Manual

ICS Bridge Procedures Guide

Safety manual

Muster alarm list

Emergency Contingency Plan, Chapter 7.

Reporting
In a distress situation, the Company will be notified by, and stay in communication
with the Rescue Centre.
Valuable if not necessary information to be given to the Company include weather
conditions, extent and means of evacuation, missing or injured personnel, ship's
course, speed etc., other vessels involved, organisations notified, as well as any
assistance required by the company.
We insist on the fact that all measures and/or actions taken MUST be
recorded in the log book
Emergency Man Overboard Maneuvering Execution
A man overboard rescue turn is a sailing maneuver usually implemented
immediately when it is learned that there is a man overboard. To maneuver closer to
the person's location, implementations of the principles described are: the quick
turn (also known as the Q-turn or the figure eight turn), the Anderson turn, the
Williamson turn, and the Scharnow turn.
The quick turn is the traditional response to a man overboard emergency on a
sailboat. Despite many new approaches, it is still a robust strategy and often the
best method. Certainly when the crew is short handed, or when the vessel is in
heavy weather, the quick turn method has a lot of merit because it avoids a jibe.
The quick turn is essentially a figure eight. On a sailboat it consists of the following
steps:
1.
2.
3.
4.

Change course to a beam reach and hold for 15 seconds

Head into the wind and tack, leave the jib fluttering
Veer off until the boat is at a broad reach
Turn upwind until the vessel is pointing at the victim; at this point the vessel
should be on a close reach.

5. Slacken the mainsail until the vessel comes to a stop with the victim in the
lee side of the boat

Quick Turn Sample

Anderson turn is a maneuver used to bring a ship or boat back to a point it

previously passed through, often for the purpose of recovering a man overboard, an
emergency situation in almost all circumstances. The Anderson turn is most
appropriate when the point to be reached remains clearly visible. For other
situations, a Scharnow turn or a Williamson turn might be more appropriate. Both
will require more time before returning to the point in question.
1. If the turn is in response to a man overboard, stop the engines.
2. Put the rudder over full. If in response to a man overboard, put the rudder
toward the person (e.g., if the person fell over the starboard side, put the
rudder over full to starboard).
3. When clear of the person, go all ahead full, still using full rudder.
4. After deviating from the original course by about 240 degrees (about 2/3 of a
complete circle), back the engines 2/3 or full.
5. Stop the engines when the target point is 15 degrees off the bow. Ease the
rudder and back the engines as required.
6. If dealing with a man overboard, always bring the vessel upwind of the
person. Stop the vessel in the water with the person well forward of the
propellers.

The Williamson turn is a maneuver used to bring a ship or boat under power back
to a point it previously passed through, often for the purpose of recovering a man
overboard. It was named for John Williamson, USNR, who used it in 1943. However,
according to Uncommon Carriers by John McPhee, the maneuver was originally
called the "Butakov pipe" and was used in the Russo-Japanese War as a way of
keeping guns at the same distance from an enemy.
The Williamson turn is most appropriate at night or in reduced visibility, or if the
point can be allowed to go (or already has gone) out of sight, but is still relatively
near. For other situations, an Anderson turn (quickest method) or a Scharnow turn
might be more appropriate. The choice will in large part depend on prevailing wind
and weather conditions. It was also used by U.S. Navy nuclear submarines to clear
their sonar dead zones.
1. Put the rudder over full.
2. If in response to a man overboard, put the rudder toward the person (e.g., if
the person fell over the starboard side, put the rudder over starboard full).
3. After deviating from the original course by about 60 degrees, shift the rudder
full to the opposite side.
4. When heading about 20 degrees short of the reciprocal, put the rudder
amidships so that vessel will turn onto the reciprocal course.
5. Bring the vessel upwind of the person, stop the vessel in the water with the
person alongside, well forward of the propellers
If dealing with a man overboard, always bring the vessel upwind of the person. Stop
the vessel in the water with the person well forward of the propellers.

The Scharnow turn is a maneuver used to bring a ship or boat back to a point it
previously passed through, often for the purpose of recovering a man overboard. It
was developed by and named for Ulrich Scharnow.
The Scharnow turn is most appropriate when the point to be reached is significantly
further astern than the vessel's turning radius. For other situations, an Anderson
turn or a Williamson turn might be more appropriate.
1. Put the rudder over hard. If in response to a man overboard, put the rudder
toward the person (e.g., if the person fell over the starboard side, put the
rudder over hard to starboard).
2. After deviating from the original course by about 240 degrees, shift the
rudder hard to the opposite side.
3. When heading about 20 degrees short of the reciprocal course, put the
rudder amidships so that vessel will turn onto the reciprocal course.
If dealing with a man overboard, always bring the vessel upwind of the person. Stop
the vessel in the water with the person well forward of the propellers.