1 2 Peter Jude Richard B Vinson Richard F Wilson Watson E Mills PDF

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1 & 2 Peter, Jude
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Smyth & Helwys Bible Commentary: 1 & 2 Peter, Jude

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Vinson, Richard Bolling, 1957
1 & 2 Peter ; Jude / by Richard B. Vinson, Richard F. Wilson, and Watson Mills.
p. cm.(The Smyth & Helwys Bible commentary ; v. 29c)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-1-57312-565-9 (hardcover : alk. paper)
1. Bible. N.T. PeterCommentaries.
2. Bible. N.T. JudeCommentaries.
I. Wilson, Richard Francis, 1953
II. Mills, Watson E.
III. Title.
IV. Title: 1 and 2 Peter. V. Title: Jude.
BS2795.53.V56 2010
227'.92077dc22
2010032732
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SMYTH & HELWYS BIBLE COMMENTARY
1 & 2 Peter, Jude

Richard B. Vinson
Richard F. Wilson
Watson E. Mills
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PROJECT EDITOR
R. SCOTT NASH
Mercer University
Macon, Georgia
OLD TESTAMENT
GENERAL EDITOR
SAMUEL E. BALENTINE
Union Presbyterian Seminary
Richmond, Virginia
AREA
OLD TESTAMENT EDITORS
MARK E. BIDDLE
Baptist Theological Seminary
at Richmond, Virginia
KANDY QUEEN-SUTHERLAND
Stetson University
Deland, Florida
PAUL REDDITT
Georgetown College
Georgetown, Kentucky
Baptist Seminary of Kentucky
Lexington, Kentucky
NEW TESTAMENT
GENERAL EDITOR
R. ALAN CULPEPPER
McAfee School of Theology
Mercer University
Atlanta, Georgia
AREA
NEW TESTAMENT EDITORS
R. SCOTT NASH
Mercer University
Macon, Georgia
RICHARD B. VINSON
Salem College
Winston-Salem, North Carolina
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praise for the

smyth & Helwys Bible
Commentary Series
This is biblical commentary at its bestand most useful.
Tremper Longman III
Robert H. Gundry Professor of Biblical Studies
Westmont College
Rarely does one find a biblical commentary that is scholarly, indepth, insightful, theological, and relevanta masterpiece!
J. Randall OBrien
President
Carson-Newman College
The illustrations, sidebars, and tools are, as has become the standard
in the Smyth & Helwys commentary series, outstanding.
Nancy L. deClaiss-Walford
Associate Professor of Old Testament and Biblical Languages
McAfee School of Theology
This appealing commentary is beautifully produced, with photographs as well as pictures of art works. Here is a book that will
handsomely reward its readers in a variety of ways.
Donald A. Hagner
George Eldon Ladd Professor of New Testament
Fuller Theological Seminary
This fine commentary seeks to bridge the gap between the insights
of biblical scholars and lay readers. Along with interpretative insights,
it uses sidebars on contextual, cultural, and homiletic matters to lead
readers to connections with the contemporary church.
Robert Kysar
Professor Emeritus of Preaching and New Testament
Candler School of Theology, Emory University
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Contents
ABBREVIATIONS
xi
SERIES PREFACE
xv
xix
HOW TO USE THIS COMMENTARY
1 Peter
xxv
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
INTRODUCTION
29
OUTLINE OF 1 PETER
Called by God to Holiness
1 Peter 1
31
Stones, Sojourners, and Slaves
1 Peter 2
87
Conduct at Home and in the World
1 Peter 3
139
The End of Suffering
1 Peter 4
187
Closing Advice from Peter the Elder
1 Peter 5
227
251
BIBLIOGRAPHY
2 Peter
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
259
INTRODUCTION
261
OUTLINE OF 2 PETER
287
Conversional Knowledge of Jesus Christ

and the Demand for Character Development
2 Peter 1:1-11
289
Peters Testament and a Defense of Parousia,

Prophecy, and the Master
2 Peter 1:122:3a
309
The Certainty of Judgment
2 Peter 2:1-22
327
Reminders, Encouragements, and Defenses
2 Peter 3:1-18
347
BIBLIOGRAPHY
363
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Jude
INTRODUCTION
369
OUTLINE OF JUDE
373
The Epistle Jude
375
BIBLIOGRAPHY
403
INDEX OF MODERN AUTHORS FOR 1 PETER
405
INDEX OF MODERN AUTHORS FOR 2 PETER
407
INDEX OF MODERN AUTHORS FOR JUDE
409
INDEX OF SIDEBARS AND ILLUSTRATIONS FOR 1 PETER
411
INDEX OF SIDEBARS AND ILLUSTRATIONS FOR 2 PETER
413
INDEX OF SIDEBARS AND ILLUSTRATIONS FOR JUDE
415
INDEX OF TOPICS FOR 1 PETER
417
INDEX OF TOPICS FOR 2 PETER
421
INDEX OF TOPICS FOR JUDE
425
INDEX OF SCRIPTURES
427
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Dedication
To Diane
R.V.

For
The Seekers Class
First Baptist Church of Christ at Macon
aujxavnete pavnte~ hJmei`~ ejn cavriti kai; gnwvsei
tou` kurivou hJmw`n kai; swth`ro~ jIhsou`
Cristou`.
R.W.
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ABBREVIATIONS USED IN
THIS COMMENTARY
Books of the Old Testament, Apocrypha, and New Testament are generally
abbreviated in the Sidebars, parenthetical references, and notes according to
the following system.
The Old Testament
Genesis
Exodus
Leviticus
Numbers
Deuteronomy
Joshua
Judges
Ruth
12 Samuel
12 Kings
12 Chronicles
Ezra
Nehemiah
Esther
Job
Psalm (Psalms)
Proverbs
Ecclesiastes
or Qoheleth
Song of Solomon
or Song of Songs
or Canticles
Isaiah
Jeremiah
Lamentations
Ezekiel
Daniel
Hosea
Joel
Amos
Obadiah
Jonah
Micah
Gen
Exod
Lev
Num
Deut
Josh
Judg
Ruth
12 Sam
12 Kgs
12 Chr
Ezra
Neh
Esth
Job
Ps (Pss)
Prov
Eccl
Qoh
Song
Song
Cant
Isa
Jer
Lam
Ezek
Dan
Hos
Joel
Amos
Obad
Jonah
Mic
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Abbreviations
Nahum
Habakkuk
Zephaniah
Haggai
Zechariah
Malachi
Nah
Hab
Zeph
Hag
Zech
Mal
The Apocrypha
12 Esdras
Tobit
Judith
Additions to Esther
Wisdom of Solomon
Ecclesiasticus or the Wisdom
of Jesus Son of Sirach
Baruch
Epistle (or Letter) of Jeremiah
Prayer of Azariah and the Song
of the Three
Daniel and Susanna
Daniel, Bel, and the Dragon
Prayer of Manasseh
14 Maccabees
12 Esdr
Tob
Jdt
Add Esth
Wis
Sir
Bar
Ep Jer
Pr Azar
Sus
Bel
Pr Man
14 Macc
The New Testament

Matthew
Mark
Luke
John
Acts
Romans
12 Corinthians
Galatians
Ephesians
Philippians
Colossians
12 Thessalonians
12 Timothy
Titus
Philemon
Hebrews
James
12 Peter
123 John
Jude
Revelation
Matt
Mark
Luke
John
Acts
Rom
12 Cor
Gal
Eph
Phil
Col
12 Thess
12 Tim
Titus
Phlm
Heb
Jas
12 Pet
123 John
Jude
Rev
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Abbreviations
Other commonly used abbreviations include:
AD
BC
C.
c.
cf.
ch.
chs.
d.
ed.
eds.
e.g.
et al.
f./ff.
gen. ed.
Gk.
Heb.
ibid.
i.e.
LCL
lit.
n.d.
rev. and exp. ed.
sg.
trans.
vol(s).
v.
vv.
Anno Domini (in the year of the Lord)

(also commonly referred to as CE = the
Common Era)
Before Christ
(also commonly referred to as BCE =
Before the Common Era)
century
circa (around that time)
confer (compare)
chapter
chapters
died
edition or edited by or editor
editors
exempli gratia (for example)
et alii (and others)
and the following one(s)
general editor
Greek
Hebrew
ibidem (in the same place)
id est (that is)
Loeb Classical Library
literally
no date
revised and expanded edition
singular
translated by or translator(s)
volume(s)
verse
verses
Selected additional written works cited by abbreviations include the following. A

complete listing of abbreviations can be referenced in The SBL Handbook of Style
(Peabody MA: Hendrickson, 1999):
AB
ABD
ACCS
ANF
ANTC
BA
BAR
CBQ
HTR
Anchor Bible
Anchor Bible Dictionary
Ancient Christian Commentary on
Scripture
Ante-Nicene Fathers
Abingdon New Testament Commentaries
Biblical Archaeologist
Biblical Archaeology Review
Catholic Biblical Quarterly
Harvard Theological Review
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Abbreviations
HUCA
ICC
IDB
JBL
JSJ
JSNT
JSOT
KJV
LXX
MDB
MT
NASB
NEB
NICNT
NIV
NovT
NRSV
NTS
OGIS
OTL
PRSt
RevExp
RSV
SBLSP
SP
TDNT
TEV
WBC
Hebrew Union College Annual

International Critical Commentary
Interpreters Dictionary of the Bible
Journal of Biblical Literature
Journal for the Study of Judaism in the
Persian, Hellenistic, and Roman Periods
Journal for the Study of the New Testament
Journal for the Study of the Old Testament
King James Version
Septuagint = Greek Translation
of Hebrew Bible
Mercer Dictionary of the Bible
Masoretic Text
New American Standard Bible
New English Bible
New International Commentary on the
New Testament
New International Version
Novum Testamentum
New Revised Standard Version
New Testament Studies
Orientis graeci inscriptiones selectae
Old Testament Library
Perspectives in Religious Studies
Review and Expositor
Revised Standard Version
Society of Biblical Literature Seminar
Papers
Sacra pagina
Theological Dictionary of the
New Testament
Todays English Version
Word Biblical Commentary
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SERIES PREFACE
The Smyth & Helwys Bible Commentary is a visually stimulating and
user-friendly series that is as close to multimedia in print as possible.
Written by accomplished scholars with all students of Scripture in
mind, the primary goal of the Smyth & Helwys Bible Commentary is
to make available serious, credible biblical scholarship in an accessible
and less intimidating format.
Far too many Bible commentaries fall short of bridging the gap
between the insights of biblical scholars and the needs of students of
Gods written word. In an unprecedented way, the Smyth & Helwys
Bible Commentary brings insightful commentary to bear on the lives
of contemporary Christians. Using a multimedia format, the volumes
employ a stunning array of art, photographs, maps, and drawings to
illustrate the truths of the Bible for a visual generation of believers.
The Smyth & Helwys Bible Commentary is built upon the idea that
meaningful Bible study can occur when the insights of contemporary
biblical scholars blend with sensitivity to the needs of lifelong students of Scripture. Some persons within local faith communities,
however, struggle with potentially informative biblical scholarship for
several reasons. Oftentimes, such scholarship is cast in technical language easily grasped by other scholars, but not by the general reader.
For example, lengthy, technical discussions on every detail of a particular scriptural text can hinder the quest for a clear grasp of the
whole. Also, the format for presenting scholarly insights has often
been confusing to the general reader, rendering the work less than
helpful. Unfortunately, responses to the hurdles of reading extensive
commentaries have led some publishers to produce works for a
general readership that merely skim the surface of the rich resources
of biblical scholarship. This commentary series incorporates works of
fine art in an accurate and scholarly manner, yet the format remains
user-friendly. An important facet is the presentation and explanation of images of art, which interpret the biblical material or illustrate
how the biblical material has been understood and interpreted in the
past. A visual generation of believers deserves a commentary series
that contains not only the all-important textual commentary on
Scripture, but images, photographs, maps, works of fine art, and
drawings that bring the text to life.
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Series Preface
The Smyth & Helwys Bible Commentary makes serious, credible

biblical scholarship more accessible to a wider audience. Writers
and editors alike present information in ways that encourage
readers to gain a better understanding of the Bible. The editorial
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informative and pleasing to the eye. Our writers are reputable
scholars who participate in the community of faith and sense a
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community.
The Smyth & Helwys Bible Commentary addresses Christians and
the larger church. While both respect for and sensitivity to the
needs and contributions of other faith communities are reflected in
the work of the series authors, the authors speak primarily to
Christians. Thus the reader can note a confessional tone
throughout the volumes. No particular confession of faith guides
the authors, and diverse perspectives are observed in the various
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scholarly tools available and expresses the results of their studies in
commentary and visuals that assist readers seeking a word from the
Lord for the church.
To accomplish this goal, writers in this series have drawn from
numerous streams in the rich tradition of biblical interpretation.
The basic focus is the biblical text itself, and considerable attention
is given to the wording and structure of texts. Each particular text,
however, is also considered in the light of the entire canon of
Christian Scriptures. Beyond this, attention is given to the cultural
context of the biblical writings. Information from archaeology,
ancient history, geography, comparative literature, history of religions, politics, sociology, and even economics is used to illuminate
the culture of the people who produced the Bible. In addition, the
writers have drawn from the history of interpretation, not only as it
is found in traditional commentary on the Bible but also in literature, theater, church history, and the visual arts. Finally, the
Commentary on Scripture is joined with Connections to the world
of the contemporary church. Here again, the writers draw on scholarship in many fields as well as relevant issues in the popular
culture.
This wealth of information might easily overwhelm a reader if
not presented in a user-friendly format. Thus the heavier discussions of detail and the treatments of other helpful topics are
presented in special-interest boxes, or Sidebars, clearly connected to
the passages under discussion so as not to interrupt the flow of the
basic interpretation. The result is a commentary on Scripture that
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Series Preface
focuses on the theological significance of a text while also offering

the reader a rich array of additional information related to the text
and its interpretation.
An accompanying CD-ROM offers powerful searching and
research tools. The commentary text, Sidebars, and visuals are all
reproduced on a CD that is fully indexed and searchable. Pairing a
text version with a digital resource is a distinctive feature of the
Smyth & Helwys Bible Commentary.
Combining credible biblical scholarship, user-friendly study features, and sensitivity to the needs of a visually oriented generation
of believers creates a unique and unprecedented type of commentary series. With insight from many of todays finest biblical
scholars and a stunning visual format, it is our hope that the Smyth
& Helwys Bible Commentary will be a welcome addition to the
personal libraries of all students of Scripture.
The Editors
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HOW TO USE
THIS COMMENTARY
The Smyth & Helwys Bible Commentary is written by accomplished
biblical scholars with a wide array of readers in mind. Whether
engaged in the study of Scripture in a church setting or in a college or
seminary classroom, all students of the Bible will find a number of
useful features throughout the commentary that are helpful for
interpreting the Bible.
Basic Design of the Volumes
Each volume features an Introduction to a particular book of the

Bible, providing a brief guide to information that is necessary for
reading and interpreting the text: the historical setting, literary
design, and theological significance. Each Introduction also includes
a comprehensive outline of the particular book under study.
Each chapter of the commentary investigates the text according to
logical divisions in a particular book of the Bible. Sometimes these
divisions follow the traditional chapter segmentation, while at other
times the textual units consist of sections of chapters or portions of
more than one chapter. The divisions reflect the literary structure of a
book and offer a guide for selecting passages that are useful in
preaching and teaching.
An accompanying CD-ROM offers powerful searching and
research tools. The commentary text, Sidebars, and visuals are all
reproduced on a CD that is fully indexed and searchable. Pairing a
text version with a digital resource also allows unprecedented flexibility and freedom for the reader. Carry the text version to locations
you most enjoy doing research while knowing that the CD offers a
portable alternative for travel from the office, church, classroom, and
your home.
Commentary and Connections
As each chapter explores a textual unit, the discussion centers around

two basic sections: Commentary and Connections. The analysis of a
passage, including the details of its language, the history reflected in
the text, and the literary forms found in the text, are the main focus
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How to Use This Commentary
of the Commentary section. The primary concern of the

Commentary section is to explore the theological issues presented
by the Scripture passage. Connections presents potential applications of the insights provided in the Commentary section. The
Connections portion of each chapter considers what issues are relevant for teaching and suggests useful methods and resources.
Connections also identifies themes suitable for sermon planning and
suggests helpful approaches for preaching on the Scripture text.
Sidebars
The Smyth & Helwys Bible Commentary provides a unique hyperlink format that quickly guides the reader to additional insights.
Since other more technical or supplementary information is vital
for understanding a text and its implications, the volumes feature
distinctive Sidebars, or special-interest boxes, that provide a wealth
of information on such matters as:
Historical information (such as chronological charts, lists of kings
or rulers, maps, descriptions of monetary systems, descriptions of
special groups, descriptions of archaeological sites or geographical
settings).
Graphic outlines of literary structure (including such items as
poetry, chiasm, repetition, epistolary form).
Definition or brief discussions of technical or theological terms
and issues.
Insightful quotations that are not integrated into the running text
but are relevant to the passage under discussion.
Notes on the history of interpretation (Augustine on the Good
Samaritan, Luther on James, Stendahl on Romans, etc.).
Line drawings, photographs, and other illustrations relevant for
understanding the historical context or interpretive significance
of the text.
Presentation and discussion of works of fine art that have
interpreted a Scripture passage.
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Each Sidebar is printed in color and is referenced at the

appropriate place in the Commentary or Connections section with a
color-coded title that directs the reader to the relevant Sidebar. In
addition, helpful icons appear in the Sidebars, which provide the
reader with visual cues to the type of material that is explained in
each Sidebar. Throughout the commentary, these four distinct
hyperlinks provide useful links in an easily recognizable design.
Alpha & Omega Language
This icon identifies the information as a language-based tool that

offers further exploration of the Scripture selection. This could
include syntactical information, word studies, popular or additional uses of the word(s) in question, additional contexts in which
the term appears, and the history of the terms translation. All nonEnglish terms are transliterated into the appropriate English
characters.
Culture/Context
This icon introduces further comment on contextual or cultural

details that shed light on the Scripture selection. Describing the
place and time to which a Scripture passage refers is often vital to
the task of biblical interpretation. Sidebar items introduced with
this icon could include geographical, historical, political, social,
topographical, or economic information. Here, the reader may find
an excerpt of an ancient text or inscription that sheds light on the
text. Or one may find a description of some element of ancient
religion such as Baalism in Canaan or the Hero cult in the Mystery
Religions of the Greco-Roman world.
Interpretation
Sidebars that appear under this icon serve a general interpretive

function in terms of both historical and contemporary renderings.
Under this heading, the reader might find a selection from classic
or contemporary literature that illuminates the Scripture text or a
significant quotation from a famous sermon that addresses the
passage. Insights are drawn from various sources, including
literature, worship, theater, church history, and sociology.
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Additional Resources Study
Here, the reader finds a convenient list of useful resources for

further investigation of the selected Scripture text, including
books, journals, websites, special collections, organizations, and
societies. Specialized discussions of works not often associated
with biblical studies may also appear here.
Additional Features
Each volume also includes a basic Bibliography on the biblical

book under study. Other bibliographies on selected issues are often
included that point the reader to other helpful resources.
Notes at the end of each chapter provide full documentation of
sources used and contain additional discussions of related matters.
Abbreviations used in each volume are explained in a list of
abbreviations found after the Table of Contents.
Readers of the Smyth & Helwys Bible Commentary can regularly
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Several thorough indexes enable the reader to locate information
quickly. These indexes include:
An Index of Sidebars groups content from the special-interest
boxes by category (maps, fine art, photographs, drawings, etc.).
An Index of Scriptures lists citations to particular biblical texts.
An Index of Topics lists alphabetically the major subjects, names,
topics, and locations referenced or discussed in the volume.
An Index of Modern Authors organizes contemporary authors
whose works are cited in the volume.
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1 Peter
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Acknowledgments
Thanks to Alan Culpepper and the editorial board for asking me to
write on 1 Peter, and to Leslie Andres and the rest of the editorial
staff at Smyth & Helwys for their good work. Bryan Hovey, Bob
Tuttle, Vera Witherspoon, and Dee Smart were wonderful co-learners
in a 1 Peter seminar at Union Presbyterian Seminary in Charlotte,
and I am grateful for our interactions. Dean Tom Currie, also of
Union in Charlotte, read the manuscript and made numerous
helpful suggestionsthank you, Tom. My wife, Diane Lipsett, read
this more than once, and in this project as in all things was my best
conversation partner.
Richard Vinson
July 2010
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Introduction to 1 Peter
This epistle of St. Peter is also one of the noblest books in the New
Testament; it is the genuine and pure Gospel. So opined Luther,
who did not mind criticizing books in the canon if he thought they
came short of gospel truth. Although 1 Peter expresses the gospel differently from Luthers beloved St. Paul, it teaches the true faith and
tells us that Christ was given to us to take away our sin and save us.1
E. G. Selwyns magisterial commentary also begins with praise for the
letter: Despite its brevityonly 105 verses in allit is a microcosm
of Christian faith and duty, the model of a pastoral charge. Selwyn
refers to the authors quiet and cheerful confidence and firm, yet
humble and persuasive spirit,2 and with that most readers would
agree. The writer of 1 Peter does not choose to focus on his audiences
shortcomings, but instead praises their standing in Christ. He is fully
aware of the kinds of hardships some of them face; slaves suffer beatings from harsh masters, and Christians of every status put up with
slanders, endure verbal abuse, and face the possibility of more physical dangers. In order to help his readers bear up and keep their faith,
1 Peter chooses to boost their confidence by telling them how well
they are doing, and to hand them multiple ways they can interpret
their own experience.
Authorship
Eusebius, writing around AD 323, said the following about 1 Peter:

Of Peter one epistle, known as his first, is accepted, and this the
early Fathers quoted freely, as undoubtedly genuine, in their own
writings.3 The author of 2 Peter, who most think was not the same
as the author of 1 Peter, knows of the first letter and tries to draw on
its authority (2 Pet 3:1). Polycarps letter to the Philippians unquestionably uses 1 Peter as an authority, and 1 Clement possibly does (see
below). Selwyn finds quotations or echoes in Barnabas, Hermas,
Epistle to Diognetus, Justin Martyr, and Theophilus of Antioch.4
Some of the parallels noted by Selwyn are too vague to prove the use
of 1 Peter, but others, slightly later than these, are certain: Irenaeus,
Tertullian, Clement of Alexandria, Origen, and Cyprian all cite
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1 Peter and attribute it to the apostle. Eusebiuss judgment is thus a

valid summary of Christian consensus at least from the end of the
second century on.
Modern commentators, however, mostly question whether Peter
the apostle could have written 1 Peter. The main arguments are as
follows:
1. The Greek of 1 Peter is too complicated to have been composed by Peter. While one should not overstate the case1 Peter is
not Plato or even Josephusit is written at a higher level than the
Gospels (except for the first four verses of Luke), Revelation, or the
Johannine epistles, and is roughly comparable to the level of Greek
in Pauls letters. It is implausible that Peter the Galilean fisherman
would have had the education sufficient to write
Eusebius on Mark and Peter
like this. Acts calls him unlettered, while the
Eusebius wrote his Church History
around AD 323. In it, he quotes many
earliest tradition about Marks authorship makes
documents no longer extant, including the
the author of that Gospel, rough as it is, Peters
works of Papias, bishop of Hierapolis, who died
interpreter/translator when he was preaching in
around AD 140. Papiass testimony in turn
Rome. [Eusebius on Mark and Peter]
quotes from a man named John the Elder,
whom Papias knew personally, and who had
2. Moreover, quotations from the Old
known eyewitnesses to Jesus.
Testament in 1 Peter are from the LXX, rather
John the Elder also said this: Mark was the
than being translations from Hebrew. Again, this
interpreter (or translator) of Peter, and whatever
is hard to square with a Galilean fisherman whose
Mark wrote he transcribed accurately, but not,
however, in order, for he neither heard nor follifetime experience of hearing the Bible would
lowed our Lord. Mark was in company with
have been in Hebrew and/or Aramaic. [LXX]
Peter, who adapted his teachings to the needs
3. Peter addresses exiles of the dispersion in
of his audience, but Mark was not attempting a
Pontus, Galatia, Cappadocia, Asia, and
history of our Lords discourses. In this way,
Mark made no mistake, for he made it his one
Bithyniaa multi-ethnic Christian audience
concern not to omit anything or to state anythat surely included Jews as well as Gentiles.
thing falsely.
Peter consistently urges the readers to leave
behind their ancestral customs and, in holiness, to live out the
destiny given to Israel in the Old Testament as a chosen race, a
royal priesthood, a holy nation,
LXX
Gods own people, etc. Yet there
LXX is the standard abbreviation for the Septuagint, the
is nothing in 1 Peter about obediancient Greek version of the Old Testament. Parts of the Old
ence to Torah, circumcision,
Testament were translated from Hebrew to Greek at different times
beginning around the third century before Christ. The LXX was used
Sabbath observance, eating
first by Jews whose native language was something other than
kosher, or any of the important
Hebrew or Aramaic, but it was also the Bible for first-century
and divisive issues that confronted
Christians living outside Palestine. There were several different Greek
congregations composed of Jewish
translations, and we have no idea which one the author of 1 Peter
would have used, but he clearly read the Old Testament in Greek.
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and Gentile followers of Jesus. If Peter the apostle wrote this letter
or had anything directly to do with its composition, it must have
been composed in the early to mid-60s, and it would have come
from Rome. Compare the way Paul, writing to Roman Christians
in the mid- to late 50s, offers help on these issues in Romans
1415; Colossians, Ephesians, and the Pastorals show that the same
issues extended into the post-Pauline period. Toward the end of the
first century, Revelation and the Didache demonstrate that these
issues were still alive and well, and the letters of Ignatius and
Barnabas extend the issues into the first half of the second century.
How is it possible that the apostle of the circumcised (Gal 2:8)
had nothing to say about whether Gentiles must keep some or all
of the Torah, or whether Jewish Christians are to be encouraged to
keep the Law down to jots and tittles? How is it that Peter failed to
address the issue of whether it is permissible for Christians to eat
food previously sacrificed to idols? It does not seem reasonable to
me that the Apostle Peter would be silent about the Law.5
Other objections, such as that the author never cites the words or
deeds of Jesus, or that one can show no connection between Peter
and the areas to which 1 Peter is addressed, are not definitive. The
Apostle Peter would not need to establish his bona fides with the
audience, and if 1 Peter had cited Jesus often, surely we would see
that as a sign of its pseudonymous status. Yet the fact that the
author does not quote Jesus cannot be evidence for the letters
authenticityit is just one of those odd things that proves nothing.
Almost all modern critical commentators on 1 Peter accept the
weight of points 1 and 2 above. Peter might have been able to
speak Greek, but Aramaic was his mother tongue, and 1 Peter was
not written by someone who wrote Greek badly, as if he or she
were thinking in Aramaic and then writing Greek (as the writer of
Revelation may have done). Those who believe Peter the apostle
was directly connected to the letters composition suggest that Peter
would have needed a secretary. Those who do not believe that Peter
the apostle was directly connected with 1 Peter propose either that
there was a Petrine group (his disciples or associates) who created
the letter in Peters name or that some unknown Christian used
Peters name to give authority to the advice he or she wanted to
pass on to others. We evaluate these options below.
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Karen Jobes argues strongly for the apostles involvement with

the composition of the letter, pointing to Semitic interference in
the Greek of 1 Peter.6 I agree with her about certain features being
possible evidence for Semitic interference, but not with how that
makes the case for Petrine authorship more plausible; indeed, Jobes
does not think Peter could have composed this letter without a secretary. Once you take that step and assume that the author of the
ideas was not the author of the words on the page, Semitic interference may only prove that whoever composed/wrote the letter was
not a native Greek speaker.
If Peter did not write it directly, then (a) he used a secretary, (b)
someone else wrote it using his ideas, or (c) someone else wrote it
using his name.
Peter Dictating to
St. Mark
This 11th-century
ivory depicts the
early Christian tradition that the Gospel
of Mark was based
on Peters teaching.
Saint Peter dictating the
Gospel to Saint Mark.
South Italian (?). Ivory.
11th C. Victoria and Albert
Museum, London, Great
Britain. (Credit: Victoria &
Albert Museum,
London/Art Resource, NY)
a. Peter used a secretary. The secretary hypothesis is certainly possible, and the letter provides no evidence for or against the theory:
if there was a secretary, then we do not know who it was. One
might suppose that Silvanus/Silas, named in 5:12, who was Pauls
associate, helped Peter write the letter. Current consensus is that
the formula used in 5:12 names Silvanus/Silas as the courier, not
the secretary (see the discussion at 5:12). Maybe Mark, who
sends greetings, is meant to be the secretary. If so, then Mark was
clearly a different person from the author of the second Gospel,
because the Greek of 1 Peter is much better than the Greek of
Mark. If we hypothesize a
secretary who was responsible for word choice,
syntax, etc., then we are
still left with the issue of
objection 3 above: could
the apostle to the circumcised tell Gentiles
they were the people
of God without ever
mentioning circumcision,
food laws, and other
problematic issues?7 In
my opinion, while one
cannot rule out a secretary
writing for St. Peter, it
seems unlikely.
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b. Someone else wrote it using Peters ideas. Many interpreters

believe a Petrine group in Rome wrote after Peters death with the
intent of comforting the Asian Christians. They used Petrine
themes and teaching and constructed what they believed Peter
would have said had he been alive.8 This is attractive, and the main
argument offered by its supporters is that unless there is some
actual connection between Peter and the Christians of Asia Minor,
even if indirect, it is hard to say why Peters name is on the document instead of somebody elses. However, the actual connection
between Peter and the audience, strictly speaking, only exists
within the letter. All we have is the letters presentation of Peter and
the letters named audience, and there are ways to explain (see
below) why someone might think Peter was the ideal author for a
letter to Gentile Christians facing persecution. The author of
1 Peter may have known the apostle, may have heard traditions of
Peters preaching, or may even have been a member of a group that
admired Peter greatly. But nothing in the letter will prove this, and
in the end this option explains the letter no better than option c.
Some who hold to theory b want to take Silas and Mark
literally, as well as the specific destination of the letter, making
Peter the only pseudonymous element; in other words, Silas (Pauls
associate and a member of the Jerusalem church) and Mark (Peters
associate in Rome, who had also traveled with Paul) delivered this
letter, which they knew to be pseudonymous, to the congregations
of Asia, Pontus/Bithynia, Galatia, and Cappadocia. This I find
implausible.
In this scenario, the letter is composed and delivered to the Asian
churches before 90, within a generation of Peters death. All indications are that Peter died during Neros time in Rome and that
Peters death was common knowledge among early Christians. So if
Silas and/or Mark showed up in Ephesus with this letter, twentyfive to thirty years after Peters death, how would they explain its
origin? Peter wrote this to you guys a generation ago, but we are
only just now getting around to bringing it? Elliott suggests that
the letters recipients would not have taken Peter literally, but
would have known that it meant this is what Peter would have
said if he could have said it.9 I do not think that is plausible either.
Silas and Mark, who actually knew Peter, could have made the case
for what Peter used to say or would have said, had he still been
alive, without the need for pseudonymity. That is, the real Silas
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and/or the real Mark could have written from their own points of
view, quoting Peter and Paul as their companions, and had they
decided to go to Asia Minor to exhort the troops, they would not
have needed a letter claiming to be written by Peter. In fact, would
not a letter that was (wink-wink, nudge-nudge) by Peter have
been less effective than something like the Gospel of Markthat
is, a document thought to be based on Peters remembered teachings but without the artificial address to a bunch of people he did
not know?
If Peter is pseudonymous, then probably so are Silvanus and
Mark. So may be the addressees, but we will come to that below.
c. The letter is pseudonymous. Some unknown Christian wrote
using Peters name.10 Why Peter? Because the author wanted to
give the audience the sense that they were truly Gods chosen
people, and Peters stance as apostle to Israel (vs. Pauls status as
apostle to the Gentiles) made him the most compelling advocate. A
problem with this theory is that the letter does not make a strong
case for Peters authorship, as one might expect a pseudonymous
letter to do (cf. 2 Peters use of traditions about Peter). Another is
that as far as we know, 1 Peter has always been accepted as
authentic, in contrast to 2 Peter, which many ancient Christians
doubted Peter wrote, and all the other Petrine literature (described
below). A theory of pseudonymous authorship must explain why, if
Peter did not write it, the letter came to be so widely valued and
accepted. How plausible would it be for someone to show up with
this letter, however many years after Peters death, and convince
others that Peter wrote it?
While we do not know the specifics of how this happened, we
can imagine various plausible scenarios. Suppose, for instance,
some Roman Christian in the late first century composed the letter.
Rather than sending it to, say, the church in Ephesus, suppose it
was first circulated in Rome with the explanation that it was a copy
of the letter sent by the great apostle to the addressees. Once some
or all of the Roman house-churches accepted it, it could then circulate with their backing to other areas, including the areas
addressed (this was the way 3 Corinthians was introduced,
according to Tertullian; see [Pseudonymity]). Or suppose it was composed not in Rome but in Asia, and that it first circulated not in
major Christian centers like Ephesus but in one of the other areas
addressed, where Christianity was newer and Christians were fewer.
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Again, once it was accepted in one place, others would accept it on

their recommendation.
However it was first disseminated, the letter was a welcome and
timely addition to the Gospels and the letters of Paul, which by the
end of the first century were already widely used. First Peter
addressed topics of immediate concern to Christians of that period,
and did so in warm, encouraging ways. Advice about facing harassment, coming from a famous martyr who was known to have failed
his Lord and yet to have learned how to be brave; advice about
marriage from a married apostle; advice about discipleship from the
chief spokesperson for the apostlesPeter was the ideal author for
a letter like this one, and the letter was spot-on for its intended
readers.
What Might Readers Know about Peter?
Alone on the broad tiller-seat of The Abigail, a gigantic, hairy, deeplytanned Galilean of thirty-fiveas busy with his awl as were his
employeesoccasionally looked up to survey their work . . . the
huge, noisy, quick-tempered, lamentably irreverent son of Jonas . . . .
All up and down the western shore, throughout Capernaum,
Magdala, Bethsaida, and the hamlets between, and at the Roman
fort, and among the servants at the great villa of the Tetrarch, and on
the lake, and in the country round about, Simon the son of Jonas
was referred to as the Big Fisherman.11
Thus does Lloyd Douglas picture Peter, the Big Fisherman.

Douglas makes Peter a widower who lives with his mother-in-law
Hannah. He is a successful businessman who started as a mere
roustabout and chore-boy on a dirty trawler and who used his size,
affability, and work ethic to become master of the most prosperous and best known fleet on the lake.12 Unfortunately, we have
no physical descriptions of Peter from antiquity. In the secondcentury Acts of Paul (and Thecla), Paul gets tagged as short,
bandy-legged, bald, hook-nosed, and unibrowed, quite possibly to
remove any suggestion that the heroine Thecla was smitten by his
matinee-idol looks, but this kind of verbal mug shot is not repeated
for any of the other apostles.
Those who first read 1 Peter will have learned some things about
Peter from the letter itself (or had their prior knowledge con-
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firmed), and likely will have known some things about Peter either
from Pauls letters, from one of the Gospels, or from early Christian
preaching, where he would have been a character in stories told
about Jesus.
What the Letter Claims about Peter
Apostle. First Peter 1:1 names the author apostle of Jesus Christ,
but nowhere else does the author expand on this or return to it.
Fellow-elder. In 1 Peter 5:1-4, the writer exhorts elders as a
fellow-elder. If the author means for the audience to take this literally, then it implies that he practices the same sort of ministry as
some of his recipients. I say more about this in the comments on
this section, but while apostle serves as an appeal to a Christbestowed authority, fellow-elder is an appeal to an authority
arising from experience. The phrase implies not only I know what
Im talking about because Ive served as an elder, but also you can
trust me because Ive stood where you stand.
First Peter 5:1-4 explains the function of an elder as shepherding
the flock of God. If readers knew the Gospel of John, or knew the
traditions behind John 21, then they would recall Christs commission to Peter to tend my sheep. Thus, while not citing Jesus
words outright, the writer may be alluding to them, expecting
many of his readers to know the episode.
Witness of Christs sufferings. Commentators normally point out
that the Gospel tradition mostly implies that Peter was not present
to watch Jesus die. Luke is the sole exception, probably meaning to
include Peter and the rest of those who traveled with Jesus among
the friends who watched from a distance (Luke 23:49). But all
the Gospels name Peter as the one who denied knowing Jesus while
Jesus was on trial, so his status as witness is somewhat sullied. If
the recipients of 1 Peter knew any of the Gospels or even the traditions behind the Passion Narratives, they would have known Peter
as an example of something close to apostasya helpful example,
since Peter repented and rededicated himself to being a faithful
witness. In addition, if they knew Acts, or if they accepted the traditional role of apostle as someone who knew the risen Christ
and who gave testimony to others about him, they would perhaps
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have read witness of Christs sufferings to mean one who

preaches about Jesus death and resurrection.
Witness, however, in addition to meaning one who observes
something and can testify to it, was used in the first century by
Christians to mean one who dies for ones faith. If 1 Peter dates
from the late first century, it is likely that the author means to
appeal to Peters death as a martyr to give authority to the letters
message. If Peter is writing it, obviously he cannot refer to his
death as if it had happened, so witness of Christs sufferings may
have been the authors way to make the connection without creating an anachronism.13
Knows Silvanus (1 Thess 1:1; 2 Thess 1:1; 2 Cor 1:19) and Mark
(Philemon 24Mark sends greetings; Col 4:10, Mark the cousin
of Barnabaswith Paul when he writes Colossians, but possibly
coming to them; 2 Tim 4:11get Mark and bring him). If the
readers knew Pauls letters or Acts, they would know Silas and
Mark as Pauls companions. Acts 15 also designates Silas as one of
the carriers of the letter giving the results of the Apostolic Council,
but nothing in Acts 15 strongly connects Peter to Silas. If they
knew the tradition quoted by Eusebius from Papias (see [Eusebius on
Mark and Peter]), readers would also associate Mark with Peter. Acts 12
also makes Marks mothers house in Jerusalem the meeting place
for the church to which Peter returned from his brief imprisonment.
Some commentators who conclude that 1 Peter is pseudonymous
nevertheless treat Silvanus and Mark as indicators that Pauls
companions, who were also part of Peters circle in Rome, composed the letter and took it to Asia Minor in the last decades of the
first century.14 In the discussion above, I indicated why I doubt
that the actual Silas and Mark were composing something in Peters
name. However, the existence of a Gentile Christian group in
Rome that considered Peter their premier apostle is not implausible; such a group existed in Corinth in Pauls day. It is easy to see
how many early Christian groups might have thought of Peter as
the ideal source for Christian teaching, and the New Testament
itself shows signs that as the first century progressed, groups of
Christians elevated Peters role among Jesus followers. For example,
compare Mark to Matthew: both Gospels present Peter as
spokesperson for the Twelve, but Matthew, the later Gospel, names
10
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Peter as the rock upon which Jesus would build the church and the
recipient of the keys to the kingdom. John 2021 sets the
Johannine communitys premier teacher, the disciple whom Jesus
loved, alongside Peter. The Beloved Disciple is the one who lets
Peter into the high priests courtyard, where Peter denies knowing
Jesus and departs in shame; the Beloved Disciple, by contrast,
stands beneath the cross to receive the commission to care for Jesus
mother. The two famously race to the tomb; the Beloved Disciple
gets there first, Peter enters first, and the Beloved Disciple is the
first to understand and believe. The Risen Jesus predicts Peters
martyrdom and commissions him to feed his sheep, but also corrects Peters curiosity about the Beloved Disciples time of death.
The back and forth would not have been effective or necessary
unless Peters status was already high among Johns intended
audience.
What the Audience Likely Knew apart from the Letter
His name. Paul mostly calls him Cephas but twice calls him
Peter (Gal 2:7-8). The Gospels all say that Jesus named him
Peter and that his birth name was Simon son of John (Mark
3:16; John 1:41-42). The author of 1 Peter names himself Peter
without any explanation or further identification, and expects the
audience will know who that is. Since neither Kp< in Aramaic
nor Petros in Greek was a normal proper name,15 the author of
1 Peter is almost certainly either Peter, the apostle of Jesus, or
someone claiming that identity.
His status as apostle. Paul lists Peter as the recipient of the first resurrection appearance (1 Cor 15:5) and says he had been appointed
apostle of the circumcised (Gal 2:8). Mark 1:16-17 makes Peter
and Andrew the first disciples called; John 1:35-42 tells the story a
little differently, but still makes Andrew one of the first two, who
then goes to bring Peter to Jesus. All the Gospels portray Peter as
spokesperson for the Twelve; even John, whose hero is the Beloved
Disciple, still has Peter answer for the group in 6:68, Lord, to
whom can we go? You have the words of eternal life.16 Since as
far as we know the story of the ministry of Jesus was not told
without mention of Simon,17 we can presume that the audience
for 1 Peter knew of Peters status as apostle in advance of receiving
the letter.
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He was married. According to Paul (1 Cor 9:5) and Mark (1:30),

Peter was married, although both passages only say so indirectly.
Marks story (paralleled in Matthew and Luke) is of Jesus healing
Peters mother-in-law, while Paul lists Peter with Jesus brothers and
all the other disciples as married and accustomed to traveling with
sister-wivesprobably meaning wives who are also believers
but possibly wives who live with their husbands in a celibate relationship. Since being single would be more unusual for an adult
Palestinian Jewish male, and since the tradition of Peters being
married appears in two independent sources, we may presume that
the audience for 1 Peter either knew or assumed that the author
was married.
He was martyred. An audience in the late first or early second
century would know that Peter had died as a martyr. Here is the
evidence: In John 21:18-19, Jesus predicts that Peter will be killed;
you will stretch out your hands, coupled with he said this to
indicate the kind of death by which he would glorify God, means
the author of John 21 believed Peter had been crucified.18 Second
Peter 1:13-15 probably refers back to this prediction, and it adds
no new details. We cannot know whether the author of 2 Peter
read John 21, but if 2 Peter dates from the first quarter of the
second century, as most suppose, then it seems likely; in any case, I
will not count 2 Peter as an independent witness to the tradition.
First Clement 5:3-4 testifies to Peters martyrdom: We should set
before our eyes the good apostles. There is Peter, who because of
unjust jealousy bore up under hardships not just once or twice, but
many times; and having thus borne his witness he went to the place
of glory that he deserved. This text does not state where Peter
died. But the author then describes Pauls martyrdom, and sums
up: To these men who have conducted themselves in such a holy
way there has been added a great multitude of the elect, who have
set a superb example among us by the numerous torments and tortures they suffered because of jealousy (6:1). It is possible, then,
that the author, who writes from Rome, means for the readers to
connect Peter and Paul with those who have died among us.19
Ignatius of Antiochs To the Romans 4:2-3 does not clearly indicate knowledge of Peters martyrdom in Rome, but arguably
implies it: Pray Christ for me that by these means I may become
Gods sacrifice. I do not give you orders like Peter and Paul. They
11
12
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were apostles; I am a convict. They were at liberty; I am still a slave.

But if I suffer, I shall be emancipated by Jesus Christ, and united to
him, I shall rise to freedom. Ignatiuss letter is meant to urge the
Roman Christians to do nothing that would stand in the way of his
becoming a martyr. The contrast he makes between his own status
and that of Peter and Paul makes most sense if he believed both
apostles had been martyred. In fact, if I do not give you orders like
Peter and Paul is meant to imply that they did give the Roman
Christians orders, then Ignatius must think Peter had visited Rome,
since there is no letter from Peter to Romeonly letters from
Rome to elsewhere.20
The earliest clear statement that Peter died in Rome under Nero
comes in Eusebiuss quotation of Dionysius of Corinth. Dionysius
of Corinth, writing to the church in Rome around 170, says, You
also, by such an admonition, have bound together the planting of
the Romans and Corinthians by Peter and Paul, for both of them
also planted and taught us in our Corinth and also taught and suffered martyrdom in Italy at the same time (Eusebius, Hist. eccl.
2.25.8). Tertullian, writing only a little later, says much the same:
At Rome Nero was the first who stained with blood the rising
faith. Then is Peter girt by another, when he is made fast to the
cross. Then does Paul obtain a birth suited to Roman citizenship,
when in Rome he springs to life again ennobled by martyrdom
(Scorpiace 15).
It seems to me that the testimonies in John, 1 Clement, and
Ignatius make it probable that a Christian in the last decade of the
first century would know that Peter had been martyred.21 First
Peter 5:13, indicating the letter originated from Rome, certainly
fits with what was more clearly stated by later Christian writers,
that Peter was martyred in Rome. First Peter 5:13 then is either a
proof that the tradition connecting Peter with Neros persecution in
Rome is no later than the first century22 or is part of the data that
the second-century church used to create the tradition.23 In my
opinion, Christians in the late first century would not know simply
the fact of Peters martyrdom, but would always have told it as a
story that involved a place; since Rome is the only place offered as
the site of Peters death, it seems likely that 1 Peters audience
would have assumed that Peter died in Rome.
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Authorship Issues and the Approach of this Commentary
As I indicated above, I find arguments against Peters authorship

compellingI do not think the apostle could have written 1 Peter.
I also do not think the apostle could have dictated a letter
addressing Gentiles as a chosen race without some discussion or
qualification of the requirements of Torah, including the question
of food offered to idols. In language and theology, 1 Peter is at
home when held up against Christian literature of the late first and
early second century: the Pastoral Epistles, Revelation, Hebrews,
1 Clement, the letters of Ignatius, and The Shepherd of Hermas all
have points of commonality with 1 Peter.
However, the evidence is that 1 Peters recipients accepted it as
authentic and welcomed it as extremely useful. I propose to think
of it, as much as one can, from their point of view: that is, how
would a Gentile Christian in the late first or early second century
have understood this letter if they believed that Peter had written
it? This approach will take into account the letters compositional
circumstances in the late first century, but will also read the letter
sympathetically, as the author intended and, as far as we can tell,
the way its original recipients received it.
Throughout the commentary, then, I will refer to the author as
1 Peter, reminding us that the audience only knew the writer
through the letter, through oral traditions about Peter that circulated among early Christians, and through hearing Pauls letters
and the Gospels read aloud in worship. From this body of tradition, 1 Peters readers would have constructed a mental image of
the author. The audience, as far as we can tell, thought they were
listening to Peter, and from time to time in the discussion of the
text, we will have occasion to think about what difference that
made. For instance, the audiences knowledge of Peter as both a
martyr and a near-apostate would affect how they heard 1 Peters
exhortations to bear up under suffering; I think the real author
knew that and wrote accordingly.
The Date of the Letter
If Peter wrote it or dictated it, then it probably comes from the

early 60s, when we think Peter was in Rome working with the
Christians there, but before Neros persecution began in 64 (see
below). Since nothing in 1 Peter hints at the horrendous experi-
13
14
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ences Christians went through at Neros hands, if Peter was directly

connected to the letter, then it probably was written in advance of
the great fire and the martyrdoms that followed.
If, as I believe, Peter neither wrote it nor dictated it, then it probably was written in the late first or early second century. If
1 Clement quotes it, then it was probably written before 95. There
are lots of similarities between the two letters, but the only places
that contain several words in the same order are quotations from
the LXX. For example, both 1 Peter 5:5 and 1 Clement 30:2 quote
LXX Proverbs 3:34 as God resists the proud but gives grace to the
humble-minded. The LXX text has the Lord instead of God,
and normally one would point to this as clear evidence that
1 Clement was reading 1 Peters revision of the LXX; but since
James 4:6 has the same text exactly as 1 Peter and 1 Clement, we
have to allow for the possibility that either there was a LXX textual
variant or this version of the proverb was popular among
Christians. I am undecided on whether 1 Clement used 1 Peter, but
I think their many similarities indicate that they were written at
roughly the same time.
Polycarps letter To the Philippians much more clearly reproduces
pieces of 1 Peter, as Eusebius pointed out.24 Polycarp was martyred
sometime close to the middle of the second century, and scholars
debate whether this letter was written somewhat earlier (around
140) or closer to his death (around 15054). Second Peter, usually
dated to the first quarter of the second century, knows of an earlier
letter (This is now, beloved, the second letter I am writing to
you, 3:1). Thus the latest date for 1 Peter is probably 120140,
depending on how one dates these two letters.
In the commentary, as already noted, I will consider 1 Peter
alongside other Christian texts from the late first and early second
centuries, without trying to pinpoint the date too precisely.
Evidence for Persecution of Christians at the End of the First
Century
First Peter refers often to suffering that Christians might have to

experience, but is never specific about what sort of suffering he has
in mind. They may suffer for the name of Christ (4:14) and as a
Christian (4:16); they may be insulted (3:9, 4:14); but 1 Peter
never says anything about physical persecution, imprisonment, or
confiscation of property. This has made commentators over the
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centuries wonder whether 1 Peter refers to any known instance of

Roman suppression of Christianity.
According to Roman historians and Christian tradition, Nero
was the first Roman emperor to persecute Christians. According to
Tacitus, he did so for personal reasonsfirst, to try to deflect
blame for the devastating fire in Rome from himself to a class
hated for their abominations, and second, because he was cruel:
it was felt that they were being destroyed not for the public good
but to gratify the cruelty of an individual (Ann. 15.44). Tacitus
states that the persecution went in stages, with some initial arrests
followed by mass arrests of those whom the first group identified
(no doubt under torture). Suetonius, writing about the same
events, had no sympathy for those put to death: punishment was
inflicted on the Christians, a set of men adhering to a novel and
mischievous superstition (Nero 16). Tacituss descriptions of
people torn to death by beasts, crucified, or burned makes this persecution sound grim indeed. But the persecutions, which began
after mid-July 64, when the fire struck, could not have extended
past June 68, when Nero was assassinated; most assume the killings
lasted for only a few months, and there is no evidence that they
happened in any place but Rome. Between 64 and 112, there are
only hints and occasional statements about persecution.
Hebrews is usually dated as roughly contemporary with 1 Peter,
between 7095.25 Hebrews 10:32-34 reads, But remember the
former days, when, after being enlightened, you endured a great
struggle of suffering, sometimes being treated as a spectacle for
insults and persecution, sometimes becoming partners with those
who had such a manner of life. For you suffered with those in
bonds and welcomed with joy the seizure of your possessions,
knowing that you had a better and abiding property. This sounds
bad, but not as bad as Tacituss description of what Nero did, particularly when Hebrews 12:4, you have not yet resisted to the
point of shedding blood, is factored in. Thus commentators
reason that the author of Hebrews probably refers to some kind of
local persecution that included insults, harassment, imprisonment,
and confiscation of property. But Hebrews 13:3, Remember those
who are in prison . . . [remember] those who are being tortured,
might point both to attempts to suppress the Christian movement
through imprisonment and to torture of some of its members to
gain information about others (see the reference in Plinys letter
15
16
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below). The evidence of Hebrews is thus equivocal, seeming at one

point to rule out physical abuse and at another to admit it.
Revelation is also usually dated to around 9095, and is
addressed to Christians in seven cities of Asia Minor. Despite its
dire predictions of rivers of blood and mass destructions, the only
martyr named is Antipas (Rev 2:13). The author writes to the
believers at Smyrna, do not be afraid of the things you are about
to suffer. Behold, the devil is about to throw some of you into
prison, where you will be tested and have tribulation for ten days
(2:10). By contrast, the Laodicean Christians think they are rich
and prosperous and in need of nothing; they need to wake up and
understand their spiritual poverty (3:15-19).
When the fifth seal is opened, it reveals martyrs under the altar
of God who are rewarded and told that their numbers will grow
(6:9-11). Those who will not worship the image of the beast with
ten horns and seven heads are killed by the second beast (13:15). A
special resurrection is reserved for those who give their lives for the
sake of Jesus (20:4-6). Even more significantly, the central image
for Jesus in Revelation, as Mitchell Reddish has argued, is of the
faithful witness, or martyr, whose death atones for sins and also
serves as an example for all his followers.26 There is no question,
then, that John believes that some have died for the sake of Christ
(Antipas, for example), and that those who remain faithful will die
for the sake of Christ (those soon to be martyred), but it is not
clear that he claims that people are dying for their faith in his day.
The situation thus seems to be that while some believers in some of
these churches have suffered for their faith, others have not. John
the Revelator wants his readers to withdraw more radically and
publicly from Roman life, refusing the mark of the beast and suffering the consequences; but this seems to be what he is preaching,
not what they are practicing.
First Clement was written from Rome to Corinth and is usually
dated toward the end of Domitians reign (9596), making it
roughly contemporary with both Revelation and 1 Peter. First
Clement is the first book to use Hebrews; some think it uses 1 Peter
as well, but that is not as clear (see above). It opens with Because
of the sudden and repeated misfortunes and setbacks we have experienced, we realize that we have been slow to turn our attention to
the matters causing disputes among you, loved ones . . . (1:1). The
author does not elaborate, but this sounds like some form of perse-
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cution that arose suddenly and then died away, so that the author
now has time and freedom to write to another Christian community about their issues.
Pliny, the governor of Bithynia, wrote to Emperor Trajan in 112
about what he was doing with Christians in his province. Because
the letter is so significant to the interpretation of 1 Peter, I reproduce most of it here.
It is my rule, Sire, to refer to you in matters where I am uncertain.
For who can better direct my hesitation or instruct my ignorance? I
was never present at any trial of Christians; therefore I do not know
what are the customary penalties or investigations, and what limits
are observed. I have hesitated a great deal on the question whether
there should be distinction of ages; whether the weak should have the
same treatment as the more robust; whether those who recant should
be pardoned, or whether a man who has ever been a Christian should
gain nothing by ceasing to be such; whether the name itself, even if
innocent of crime, should be punished, or only the crimes attaching
to the name.
Meanwhile, this is the course that I have adopted in the case of
those brought before me as Christians. I ask them if they are
Christians. If they admit it I repeat the question a second and a third
time, threatening capital punishment; if they persist I sentence them
to death. For I do not doubt that, whatever kind of crime it may be
to which they have confessed, their pertinacity and inflexible obstinacy should certainly be punished. There were others who displayed
a like madness and whom I reserved to be sent to Rome, since they
were Roman citizens.
Thereupon the usual result followed; the very fact of my dealing
with the question led to a wider spread of the charge, and a great
variety of cases were brought before me. An anonymous pamphlet
was issued, containing many names. All who denied that they were
or had been Christians I considered should be discharged, because
they called upon the gods at my dictation and did reverence, with
incense and wine, to your image which I had ordered to be brought
forward for this purpose, together with the statues of the deities; and
especially because they cursed Christ, a thing which, it is said,
genuine Christians cannot be induced to do. Others named by the
informer first said that they were Christians and then denied it;
declaring that they had been but were so no longer, some having
recanted three years or more before and one or two as long ago as
twenty years. They all worshipped your image and the statues of the
gods and cursed Christ. But they declared that the sum of their guilt
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or error had amounted only to this, that on an appointed day they
had been accustomed to meet before daybreak, and to recite a hymn
antiphonally to Christ, as to a god, and to bind themselves by an
oath, not for the commission of any crime but to abstain from theft,
robbery, adultery, and breach of faith, and not to deny a deposit
when it was claimed. After the conclusion of this ceremony it was
their custom to depart and meet again to take food; but it was ordinary and harmless food, and they had ceased this practice after my
edict in which, in accordance with your orders, I had forbidden
secret societies. I thought it the more necessary, therefore, to find out
what truth there was in this by applying torture to two slave-women,
who were called deaconesses. But I found nothing but a depraved
and extravagant superstition, and I therefore postponed my examination and had recourse to you for consultation.
The matter seemed to me to justify my consulting you, especially
on account of the number of those imperiled; for many persons of all
ages and classes and of both sexes are being put in peril by accusation, and this will go on. The contagion of this superstition has
spread not only in the cities, but in the villages and rural districts as
well; yet it seems capable of being checked and set right. There is no
shadow of doubt that the temples, which have been almost deserted,
are beginning to be frequented once more, that the sacred rites which
have been long neglected are being renewed, and that sacrificial
victims are for sale everywhere, whereas, till recently, a buyer was
rarely to be found. From this it is easy to imagine what a host of men
could be set right, were they given a chance of recantation.27
Some inferences from Plinys letter:

1. He accepts the testimony from some of those who denied their
faith that they had done so as long as twenty years before (perhaps
some were lying about being longtime apostates, but let us assume
that Pliny was not fooled by all the people all the time). That
would be around 92, so, allowing for exaggeration and/or rounding
of numbers, it would argue that in the last decade of the first
century, some Christians gave up their faith for unknown reasons
probably unrelated to official persecutions. We should keep that in
mindapostasy happened, and for many causes.
2. Pliny wrote the letter in 112 to make certain that what he had
been doing was correct. As most point out, this means there was no
official Roman policy yet, and so we should not think of planned
arrests or exposures of Christians, but of sporadic and episodic
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events that depended on finger-pointing by enemies and neighbors.

At the same time, Pliny is asking for Trajan either to bless or to
correct what Pliny had already been doing probably since he took
office in 111. He also presumes that there might be standard practices of which he is unaware, since he has never witnessed trials of
Christians. So while Plinys letter indicates that there was no standard Roman policy about Christians yet, it does not prove that
killing Christians was novelonly that Pliny had never been
present when it happened and so needed to ask about process.
3. Trajans reply to Pliny agrees that there is no fixed process, and
that mass or anonymous accusations are to be ignored. The
emperor writes, They are not to be sought out; if they are
denounced and proven guilty, they are to be punished28 unless
they recant and worship the gods.
4. Pliny admits confusion over whether the accusation of being a
Christian is enough, absent any other crime; but he acts as if the
name is enough, and Trajan appears to support him in this. Thus in
110 in Bithynia, one could be killed simply for being a Christian
who refused to recant, provided one had raised enough ire among
ones neighbors to be publicly exposed.
5. Regarding Plinys torture of two slave-women . . . called deaconesses, it should be noted that the testimony of slaves was only
admissible in court if it was obtained by torture. There is nothing
in his letter to indicate that he, as a Roman governor, was engaging
in torture, as Nero did, because he enjoyed it. Instead, his preference seems to be for quick disposal of cases: offer them a chance to
recant, and kill them if they do not. Thus, if Plinys example was
paradigmatic, at this stage in history Christians could keep themselves and their property intact by recanting. That must have been
a powerful incentive to do so.
6. The anonymous pamphlet, together with Plinys judgment
that the movement had been spreading, suggests that there was a
fair amount of public antipathy toward Christians. Perhaps many
others shared Plinys judgment that Christianity was a depraved
and extravagant superstition.
Ignatius, bishop of Antioch, was arrested at roughly the same
time that Pliny wrote this letter. But instead of being killed locally,
Ignatius was sent under guard from Antioch to Troas, where presumably he was put on a ship and taken to Rome. While he was
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traveling, he was allowed to correspond and to meet with local

Christian officials: Damas, bishop of Magnesia, plus Bassus and
Apollonius, elders of that church; Polybius, bishop of Trallia; and
Burrhus, Crocus, Onesimus, Euphus, and Fronto, all of the
Ephesian church; Polycarp, bishop of Smyrna; etc. He named
Philo, the deacon from Cilicia, and Rheus Agathopous, one of
the elect who is following me from Syria, as people in his
entourage. It is clear, then, that sometimes even a publicly identified Christian scheduled for execution received visits and
exchanged correspondence with other Christians without resulting
in their deaths.
To sum up: just after the turn of the century, a Christian who
was vocal enough about his/her faith, who was unpopular enough
with his/her neighbors, and who refused to recant when given the
opportunity could be killed. If we can trust the Revelators judgment that Antipas was a martyr,29 and if those imprisoned and
tortured in Hebrews were being persecuted for their faith, then we
can say that these conditions prevailed at the end of the first
century. Persecution does not appear to have happened regularly or
systematically; Revelation is evidence for how Christians could live
comfortably in their environmentmuch to the Revelators
disgust! A Christian who was willing to sacrifice to the gods when
asked would not have needed to worry. And if a Christian housechurch was willing to tolerate their members attending public
festivals honoring the gods or the ancestors, or participating in
annual banquets of trade or burial societies held in pagan
templesthen they could probably go about their lives unmolested, or suffering nothing worse than name-calling. This, I
presume, was the setting in which 1 Peter was written, and it goes a
long way toward explaining why the author sometimes says
Christians might, perhaps, suffer and at other times describes suffering as something that is almost certain.
Themes of 1 Peter
Suffering. The issue of suffering and how to think about it pervades

this short letter, and 1 Peter consistently links the readers suffering
(or potential suffering) to what Jesus endured. Throughout the
letter, suffering means things inflicted on believers for no reason
other than that they follow Jesus. In a couple of places (2:18-20;
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4:15), 1 Peter states that readers should not complain if they are
disciplined for doing wrong; that counts for nothing with God.
The author also never addresses the sort of suffering that comes
from illness or grief or natural disasters. The letters focus is on the
evils that some unbelievers inflict on believers, and on how
believers should interpret their experiences.
In 1:6-7, suffering is compared to how precious metals are
refined in fire to remove their impurities. Thus if it has to
happen to you, you can think of hard times as having some
benefit: suffering demonstrates the genuine character of your
faith. First Peter links this to Christs experience in 1:18-19 by
noting that the readers were brought to God not by the wealth
of precious metals, but by Christs death, infinitely more valuable to God.
In 2:18-25, 1 Peter takes up the issue of how slaves suffer undeserved beatings from cruel masters. The author says Christs
patient endurance of undeserved cruelty is an example for the
slaves (and other readers) to imitate. Christs death is interpreted through the lens of the Servant of God in Isaiah 53: he
bore our sins; his wounds heal us.
3:84:6 is a long section about right conduct. It includes exhortations to practice non-retaliation (3:9), to be unafraid of those
who threaten (3:14), and to be ready to explain ones manner of
life (3:15-16). If this leads to suffering, then it is better to have
suffered now for right living than to suffer Gods judgment later
for sin. Christs example of having gone to the cross but having
been resurrected and exalted is given as a reason to be done
with sin and follow Gods will.
In 4:12-19, the author states that since the end of time and the
judgment are near, we can think of suffering as Gods decision
to begin judgment with Gods own household. If, then, one is
reviled for bearing Christs name, one can think of this as a
blessing, since it is also a reminder of our rewards to come.
Here, the author argues that we are sharing Christs sufferings
and should entrust ourselves to God as he did.
Finally, in 5:6-11, 1 Peter encourages readers to resist the devil,
just as other Christians in other parts of the world are doing.
After a brief period of suffering, the author promises, God
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who has promised the readers eternal life in Christwill

provide all that they need to endure.
First Peters first readers at the end of the first and beginning of
the second century will have found this material timely and
helpful. For those readers who were not slaves, most or all the kinds
of suffering 1 Peter addressesslanders, insults, possible physical
harmwill have been the direct consequence of deciding to
become a Christian (all slaves were potential victims of abuse
regardless of their faith). For those folks, the easiest thing to do
would have been to renounce their faith and take up their former
way of life, rejoining the majority religions practiced in their area
and reconnecting with parts of their culture they had lost. First
Peter offers reasons to stick it out and ways to think of the pain as
potential gain.
Holiness. The words for holy, holiness, sanctify, etc., appear
many times in 1 Peter, particularly in the first two chapters (see discussions at 1:14-16 and 2:9), but the theme is wider than those
words:
In 2:11-17, the readers are to shun fleshly passions and maintain a good manner of life among the Gentiles. Their publicly
visible virtue will help to squash slanders against believers.
Readers are urged to turn from evil (3:11), to be zealots for the
good (3:13), to have a good conscience (3:16), to be done with
sin, and to be committed to Gods will (4:1-2).
The admonition not to be criminals (4:15) fits under this
rubric, however one explains ita reaction to some of the slanders about Christians, or hyperbole meant to stress how
seriously readers are to approach their new life.
In his various be holy, do good, and better to suffer for doing
good passages, the author sometimes suggests that their conduct
could have the effect of reducing or eliminating their suffering
(2:15; 3:13), but in other places is frank about how sometimes the
righteous suffer anyway. The bottom-line motivation for holiness
thus has is be holy, for I am holy (1:16); the readers should want
to be more like God as revealed in Christ.
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Community. First Peter never uses the word church (ekklsia),

which is remarkable but not unprecedented. Although Paul scarcely
writes a paragraph that does not contain the word, it does not
appear in Mark, Luke, John, 1 or 2 John or Jude, and only once in
James (5:14), and in Hebrews it does not appear to mean a local
congregation (2:12; 12:23). The images in 1 Peter for the community of Jesus followers include sojourners (1:1); the cluster in
2:4-10 (spiritual house, royal priesthood, chosen race, etc.); resident aliens and sojourners (2:11); house/household of God
(4:17); and flock (5:2).
The language of sojourners and resident aliens is offered as an
interpretation of the readers experience of otherness. As followers of Jesus, they were expected to abstain from the worship
of the gods, honors paid to ancestors and household spirits, and
celebrations honoring the divinized emperors. Since most of
these readers were not ethnically Jewish, they had no easy
answers to give their families and neighbors for why they were
abstaining from practices they must have previously joined in as
a matter of course.
The cluster of terms in 2:4-10 offers an alternate interpretation
of their otherness. They had traded worship at recognized and
revered temples and shrines for worship in private homes and
apartments; pagan writers typically characterize such behavior
with terms like depraved and extravagant superstition. First
Peter characterizes their small unimpressive assemblies as the
construction of a glorious temple made of living stones built on
the true cornerstone, Christbuilt so that they, a royal priesthood, may offer pleasing sacrifices to God.
As Gods house or household, readers must face up to the hard
side of faith, the willingness to endure suffering in order to
belong (4:17). It is the end, and so the suffering may not last
long, but God has chosen to start the judgment with (or in)
Gods own house. In this experience, the readers should
remember that they are not alone, since their brothers and
sisters elsewhere are also enduring hard times (5:9).
Expected Themes that Are Absent from 1 Peter
Charity. Although the author urges his readers to be hospitable

(4:9), he says nothing about giving alms or caring for the poor; in
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fact, 1 Peter is silent on the subject of money, except to tell women

not to wear jewelry or fancy clothes (3:3). The absence is striking
when 1 Peter is compared to James or the Didache but is more like
Hebrews (13:2, Do not neglect to show hospitality) and 1 John
(3:17-18 urges readers to give to needy brothers and sisters, but the
letter does not urge charity more broadly).
Food. First Peter, even though it seems to be written to Gentiles
and calls them a chosen race, includes no discussion about whether
Gentiles should observe Jewish food laws. Not only that, but the
letter also has no advice about eating food offered to idols. These
issues continued to be problematic for early believers, as evidenced
by 1 Timothy 4:3 (condemning those who demand abstinence
from food), Revelation 2:14, 20 (eating food offered to idols is an
evil practice taught by false prophets and opposed by the author),
Hebrews 13:9 (do not be seduced by false teachings about food
regulations), Didache 6:3 (Concerning food: bear what you are
able, but especially keep away from food offered to idols, since is it
is the service of dead gods), and Barnabas 10 (the food laws were
never meant to be taken literally, but warn us against various kinds
of evil people). Whether the writer of 1 Peter agreed with Paul and
his disciples that all food, including idol-food, is permissible as
long as it does not harm the faith of ones brother or sister, or with
the more conservative believers who forbade eating idol-food, it is
odd that he never offered any advice on this, especially since it
would have affected his readers so directly. One can never make
much of an authors silence on something, but this silence, since it
must represent a deliberate choice, may indicate a willingness to be
non-confrontational about this issuemaybe 1 Peter was allowing
local congregations to decide for themselves.
Sex. Perhaps nothing is as indicative of the positive, irenic tone of
1 Peter as what the letter does not say about sex. Almost every early
Christian vice list includes the words for general sexual misconduct
(porneia) and adultery (moicheia), and early Christian letter writers
often exhort their audiences in the strongest possible terms to stay
away from sexual sins. First Peter may include sexual sins in the
vice list in 4:3it depends on how one interprets the first two
wordsbut the surprising thing is that we have to guess at what he
means. For much more explicit language and warnings, compare
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Hebrews 13:4, Revelation 3:20-21, James 4:1-10 (where adultery

is used metaphorically but boldly, to scold the readers), 2 Peter
2:14, Jude 5-7, and Didache 3:3 (my child, do not be lustful, for
lust leads to sexual misconduct; be neither foul-mouthed nor lecherous). Like the issue of food offered to idols, the issue of sexual
morality was certain to have been important and problematic for
many of 1 Peters readers. The letters silence is emblematic of the
authors strategy of stressing how well the readers are doing in their
faith.
Other Petrine Literature
Peters name appears on several other documents besides 1 Peter.

This is not a complete accounting of them all, but a brief description of the second-century Petrine literature to which I will refer in
the commentary.
Second Peter is generally thought to refer to 1 Peter in 2 Peter 3:1
and to incorporate sections of Jude in its second chapter. Because it
depends on two earlier letters, and because it refers to Pauls letters
as if they are collected and regarded as Scripture (2 Pet 3:15-16),
2 Peter is generally dated to the early second century. By contrast to
1 Peter, 2 Peter took much longer to be regarded as Scripture. It is
not included in the Muratorian Canon (150200), and Eusebius
lists it as disputed, meaning that in the first half of the fourth
century, a significant portion of the church did not accept 2 Peter.
The Apocalypse of Peter was written probably in the first half of
the second century, since it is included in the Muratorian Canon. It
recounts, in vivid language, the punishments of the wicked in hell,
and gives a much briefer and less specific account of the rewards for
the righteous in heaven. In this document, Peter is presented as
ideally suited to restore Christians who had defected, since Christ
had restored him after his denial. It is written as an expansion of
the episode in the Synoptic Gospels where Jesus, having predicted
the destruction of the temple, is asked by the disciples to give more
information about the timing. In this version, Peter asks for even
more explanation, and Christ reveals the fates of sinners. Like Ezra
in 4 Ezra, Peter thinks all the suffering is sad, and says to Jesus that
it would have been better had the sinners never been born. The
revelations of hell are then offered as proofs of Gods perfect mercy
and justice, and indeed, they do have a punishment fits the crime
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feel to them (see [Judgment Scenes in Apocalypse of Peter]). Apocalypse of

Peter was composed in Greek, widely used by ancient Christians,
and translated into other languages (an Ethiopic version survives).
The Gospel of Peter probably also dates from the first half of the
second century, and was also composed in Greek. The copies that
survive seem to be damaged at the beginning; the text in its current
condition begins with Pilate having washed his hands after condemning Jesus to be crucified. There is no way to tell whether
Gospel of Peter was only a passion account or contained an entire
life of Jesus, but most interpreters lean toward the first option.
Most interpreters also think it draws from and depends on the
canonical Gospels (although J. D. Crossan famously argued that it
independently preserves remnants of an original passion account).
It is anti-Jewish, like most second-century Christian literature, and
includes the earliest Christian account of Jesus emergence from the
tomb on Easter Sunday. The best-known parts of the text are the
cry from the cross (My power, my power, why have you abandoned me?) and the resurrection scene, where Jesus comes out
supported by two angels, his head reaching into the heavens, and
followed by a levitating, speaking cross. The document was condemned for Docetic tendencies by Serapion, bishop of Antioch
(c. 190), according to Eusebius (Hist. eccl. 6.12.3-6), but an
ostracon dated to the seventh or eighth century shows it was even
then valued by some Egyptian believers.30
The Acts of Peter was composed in Greek in the second half of the
second century. It exists in multiple ancient translations, testament
to its popularity. Like the other apocryphal Acts, this one shows the
hero Peter able to do amazing miracles: he makes a smoked fish
swim, he flies, he heals, he raises a boy from the dead. Peter also
gets in trouble for preaching abstinence from sex, just like Paul in
the Acts of Paul (and Thecla). The last part of the Acts, which may
have circulated separately at some point, tells about Peters martyrdom, including the Quo Vadis legend as well as the detail that
Peter was crucified upside down.
Notes
1. Martin Luther, Foreword to Sermons on the First Epistle of St. Peter, vol. 30 of
Luthers Works (trans. Martin H. Bertram; St. Louis MO: Concordia, 1967) 3.
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2. Edward Gordon Selwyn, The First Epistle of St. Peter (London: MacMillan, 1952)
1, 4.
3. Eusebius, Hist. eccl. 3.3.
4. Selwyn, First Epistle of St. Peter, 37. John H. Elliott, 1 Peter (AB; New York:
Doubleday, 2000) 13848, presents a complete list of possible or plausible citations of
1 Peter, with the authors judgment on how certain they are.
5. So also David Horrell, The Epistles of Peter and Jude (Peterborough UK:
Epworth, 1998) 7; M. Eugene Boring, 1 Peter (ANTC; Nashville: Abingdon, 1999)
9596.
6. Karen Jobes, 1 Peter (Baker Exegetical Commentary on the New Testament;
Grand Rapids MI: Baker Academic, 2005) 519, 32538.
7. The best recent commentary arguing that the Apostle Peter was directly connected to the composition of 1 Peter is Jobes, 1 Peter. Joel B. Green, 1 Peter (Two
Horizons Commentary; Grand Rapids MI: Eerdmans, 2007) 411, also leans toward
Peter having written it, but agrees that the evidence against Petrine authorship is
strong.
8. John H Elliott, 1 Peter (AB 37B; New York: Doubleday, 2000) 11830; Raymond
E. Brown, An Introduction to the New Testament (New York: Doubleday, 1997) 70522;
Paul J. Achtemeier, 1 Peter (Hermeneia; Minneapolis: Fortress, 1996) 4143; Pheme
Perkins, First and Second Peter, James, and Jude (Interpretation; Louisville KY: John
Knox, 1995) 12.; Reinhard Feldmeier, The First Letter of Peter (trans. Peter H. Davids;
Waco TX: Baylor University Press, 2008) 3239.
9. Elliott, 1 Peter, 125.
10. M. Eugene Boring, 1 Peter (ANTC; Nashville: Abingdon, 1999) 3037; Earl J.
Richard, Reading 1 Peter, Jude, and 2 Peter: A Literary and Theological Commentary
(Macon GA: Smyth & Helwys, 2000) 911.
11. Lloyd C. Douglas, The Big Fisherman (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1948) 11516.
12. Ibid., 117.
13. So Karl P. Donfried, Peter, ABD 5.262; Raymond E. Brown, Karl P. Donfried,
and John Reumann, eds., Peter in the New Testament (Minneapolis: Augsburg, 1973)
153; Pheme Perkins, Peter: Apostle for the Whole Church (Columbia: University of
South Carolina Press, 1994) 120.
15. Elliott, 1 Peter, 324. Perkins, Peter: Apostle, 4041, qualifies this: Kp<
appears to be a name in an Aramaic text from Elephantine dated c. 416 BC, but there
remain no first-century examples in Aramaic, and there are no clear pre-Christian examples of Petros in Greek. The point still standsthe use of the word for rock as a name
or nick-name was apparently uncommon in Aramaic and Greek in pre-Christian times,
so that the author of the epistle is either the apostle or someone claiming to be the
apostle.
16. Brown et al., Peter in the New Testament, 15960.
17. Ibid., 159.
18. Colin G. Kruse, The Gospel According to John: An Introduction and
Commentary (Grand Rapids MI: Eerdmans, 2003) 39293; so Barnabas Lindars, The
Gospel of John (Grand Rapids MI: Eerdmans, 1972) 63637; Raymond E. Brown, The
Gospel According to John XIIIXXI (Garden City NY: Doubleday, 1970) 1118.
27
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19. Leonhard Goppelt, A Commentary on 1 Peter (ed. Ferdinand Hahn; trans.
John E. Alsup; Grand Rapids MI: Eerdmans, 1993) 1011; so also Elliott, 1 Peter,
88486.
20. Daniel William OConnor, Peter in Rome: The Literary, Liturgical, and
Archaeological Evidence (New York: Columbia University Press, 1969) 2022, 50;
Raymond E Brown and John P. Meier, Antioch and Rome: New Testament Cradles of
Catholic Christianity (New York: Paulist, 1983) 97.
21. So Brown et al., Peter in the New Testament, 153; see discussion at 5:1.
22. So Perkins, Peter: Apostle, 3738.
23. F. Lapham, Peter: The Myth, The Man and the Writings (JSNTS 239; Sheffield
UK: Sheffield, 2003) 144.
24. Eusebius, Hist. eccl. 4.14.9: But Polycarp, in the epistle to the Philippians, still
extant, has made use of certain testimonies taken from the first epistle of Peter.
25. Craig R. Koester, Hebrews (New York: Doubleday, 2001) 6771; Harold W.
Attridge, Hebrews (Philadelphia: Fortress, 1989) 69, 29899.
26. Mitchell G. Reddish, Martyr Christology in the Apocalypse, JSNT 33 (1988):
86; Reddish, Revelation (Macon GA: Smyth & Helwys, 2001) 2425.
27. Pliny, Ep. 10.96; translation in Henry Bettenson, ed., Documents of the
Christian Church (London: Oxford University Press, 1977) 34.
28. Naphtali Lewis and Meyer Reinhold, Roman Civilization (2 vols; New York:
Harper & Row, 1966) 2.583.
29. Doubtless Antipas died, but we only have Johns interpretation that he was
martyred. Perhaps whoever caused his death would have given another reason for it.
30. Bart D. Ehrman, Lost Christianities (New York: Oxford, 2003) 2425. The
ostracon has a stick figure on one side, labeled Saint Peter the Evangelist, and the
inscription Let us venerate him; let us receive his Gospel on the other.
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Outline of 1 Peter
Chapter One: Called by God to Holiness
1:1-3 Greeting
1:3-12 Opening Sentence
1:13-25 Hope and Holiness, Reverence and Love
Chapter Two: Stones, Sojourners, and Slaves
2:1-10 Living Stones
2:11-17 Alien Life
2:18-25 How to Be a Slave
Chapter Three: Conduct at Home and in the World
3:1-7 How to Be a Wife or Husband
3:8-22 How to Handle Evil Treatment
Chapter Four: The End of Suffering
4:1-11 What the Neighbors Think
4:12-19 Unperplexed by Fire
Chapter Five: Closing Advice from Peter the Elder
5:1-5 Feed My Sheep
5:6-11 Stay Awake, Fight the Lion (and Other Helpful Advice)
5:12-14 Conclusion
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Called by God to Holiness

1 Peter 1
COMMENTARY
The Greeting, 1:1-2
Peter, apostle of Jesus Christ, to the elect sojourners of the Diaspora

of Pontus, Galatia, Cappadocia, Asia, and Bithynia, according to the
foreknowledge of God, in the sanctification of the Spirit, for obedience and sprinkling with the blood of Jesus Christ. May grace and
peace be multiplied to you.
Author
The author begins his letter much like most Greek writers did, by
giving first his name, then the names of the recipients, and then by
adding a greeting. Here are some examples of the common letter
beginning, taken from Greek letters of the late republic/early empire:
Heraklas to Horos and Tachonis, greetings and good health;
Apollonius to his very dear friend Dioscurides, greeting; Chairas
to his dearest Dionysius, many greetings and continual health.1
Pauls letters had amplified this standard form. First, he made the
greeting into a blessing offered in the name of Jesus. Instead of the
bare word greetings, Paul typically offered his readers grace and
peace to you from God our Father and the Lord Jesus Christ.
Second, Paul transformed the naming of sender and recipient into
the letters opening rhetorical move. For instance, Philippiansa
friendship letterbegins with Pauls adopting a low-status title and
putting higher-sounding titles with the churchs name: Paul and
Timothy, slaves of Christ Jesus, to all the saints in Christ Jesus
who are at Philippi, with the bishops and deacons; grace and peace to
you . . . (Phil 1:1-2). By contrast, Galatiansa letter in which Paul
will rebuke the readers repeatedlyopens with heavy emphasis on
Pauls status and none at all on theirs: Paul, apostleneither from
humans nor by a human, but by Jesus Christ and God the Father
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1 Peter 1
who raised him from the deadand all the brothers with me, to
the churches of Galatia; grace and peace to you . . . (Gal 1:1-3).
The author of 1 Peter names himself Peter, apostle of Jesus
Christ. Throughout the first four chapters of the letter, the author
assumes this to be sufficient support for his exhortations and commands. Only at 5:1 does he reinforce his authority as fellow-elder
and witness of the sufferings of Christ. There are no appeals to as
Jesus often told me or as the one
2 Peters Claims to Authenticity
1 Peter makes no claims to have heard Jesus, nor does it
who was appointed to be the
make any specific links to stories the audience might have
leader of the disciples. [2 Peters
heard from the Gospels. By contrast, 2 Peter does, referencing both
Claims to Authenticity] The contrast
the prediction of Peters death at the end of John and the story of the
with Pauls self-references is
transfiguration in the Synoptic Gospels.
instructive. Paul often appeals to
Therefore I intend to keep on reminding you of these things, though you
his personal experiences with and
know them already and are established in the truth that has come to
knowledge of the recipients of his
you. I think it right, as long as I am in this body, to refresh your memory,
since I know that my death will come soon, as indeed our Lord Jesus
letters; 1 Peter never does.
Christ has made clear to me. And I will make every effort so that after
Consider Colossians and Romans,
my departure you may be able at any time to recall these things. For we
letters written to communities
did not follow cleverly devised myths when we made known to you the
power and coming of our Lord Jesus Christ, but we had been eyewitPaul had not personally visited.
nesses of his majesty. For he received honor and glory from God the
Paul
(or
whoever
wrote
Father when that voice was conveyed to him by the Majestic Glory,
Colossians)
has
heard
of
the
saying, This is my Son, my Beloved, with whom I am well pleased.
We ourselves heard this voice come from heaven, while we were with
faith of the recipients from
him on the holy mountain. (2 Pet 1:12-18)
Epaphras our beloved fellowslave (Col 1:3-8). He tells the readers, I want you to know how
much I am struggling for you, and for those in Laodicea, and for all
who have not seen me face to face (Col 2:1); he assures them that
although he is not physically present with them, he prays for them
and is present with them in spirit. Paul begins Romans by
describing how he has heard about their faith, how he prays for
them, and how he hopes at last to come to see them (Rom 1:8-14),
and returns to this at the end of the letter (Rom 15:14-33).
First Peter gives the reader no hints about whether the author
had visited the recipients or knew any of them personallythere is
neither Ive never seen you, but Id like to nor Ive heard so
much about you from Silvanus nor even I pray for you all the
time. Most commentators assumein my opinion correctly
from the authors silence on this matter that author and audience
have no direct connection, and that the author knows nothing
about the specific circumstances of any of the house-churches in
any of these regions.2
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1 Peter 1
This is not an encouraging beginning! A

stranger giving five chapters of advice to people
whose circumstances he does not knowwho
does he think he is? Well, Peter! The letter comes
from someone who considers Peter, apostle of
Jesus Christ to be qualified to speak to any
Christian audience about the nature of the
Christian life, and without any further justification. [Im Simon Peter] The author is counting on
the audience knowing full well who Peter is and
what Peter had experienced, and that, especially
on the topics the letter will address, Peter can be
presumed to be an authority (see the discussion
in the introduction on what a late first-century
audience would likely know about Peter).
33
Im Simon Peter
In this scene from Wally Lambs novel I
Know This Much Is True, a schizophrenic
man, Thomas Birdsey, is having a conversation
with his psychiatrist, whom he calls Mrs. Gandhi.
She speaks first:
Mr. Birdsey . . . Im wondering if I may call
you Thomas?
No, you may not.
No?
Im Simon Peter. . . .
When you say you are Simon Peter, Mr.
Birdsey, do you mean by that you emulate him or
that you feel you are his physical embodiment?
[Thomas then quotes from memory the rock
passage from Matthew 16:17-19.] Thomas
stopped, came up for air. Are you following me,
Mrs. Gandhi? Im a fisher of souls! The keeper of
the keys! Its not my idea, its Gods. How do you
like them apples, Suzie Q?
Audience
Wally Lamb, I Know This Much Is True (New York: HarperCollins,
First Peter is fond of complex phrases, and the
1998) 23536.
first is no slouch: To the elect sojourners of the
Diaspora of Pontus, Galatia, Cappadocia, Asia, and Bithynia,
according to the foreknowledge of God the Father, in (or by) the
sanctification of the Spirit, for
Arrest of Peter
obedience and sprinkling with
Sarcophagus of Marcus Claudianus.
The arrest of Peter. AD 330335.
the blood of Jesus Christ.
Detail. Marble high relief, Museo
Elect resident aliens is not
Nazionale Romano (Palazzo Massimo
alle Terme), Rome, Italy. (Credit:
3
quite an oxymoron, but close.
Vanni/Art Resource, NY)
Elect means chosen, and
This fourth-century marble
calls up the rich history of
carving decorated the sarIsrael. I have chosen you
cophagus of Marcus
(LXX Isa 41:9) names the
Claudianus. Peter is
great mystery of Gods dealdepicted, as usual, as an
older man, balding and
ings with Gods people. The
bearded, but strong and
Lord chose you and elected
active, as one might expect
you, not because you were
of a fisherman.
more numerous than all the
nations, for you were fewer
than all the nations, but because the Lord loved you (LXX Deut
7:7-8). Elect, choice, specialall of those are words of privilege.
Sojourners, on the other hand, names someone often without
privilege: a person living in a country not his or her own, subject to
the antipathies so often directed at foreigners, and with limited
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access to legal protection. The word used here is parepidmos,

meaning stranger or foreigner. It is used again at 2:11 as a
synonym to paroikos, which means resident aliena person
living in a foreign place. The NRSV translation exiles is incorrectthe word does not connote a person who has been sent away
from home and prevented from returning, but
Exile
one who lives away, whether by choice or by
Who is he? An exile. Which must not be
necessity. [Exile] The LXX uses parepidmos
confused with, allowed to run into, all the
twice,
both in parallel to the more common
other words that people throw around: migr,
expatriate, refugee, immigrant, silence, cunning.
paroikos:
Exile is a dream of glorious return. Exile is a vision of
revolution: Elba, not St. Helena. It is an endless
paradox: looking forward by always looking back.
The exile is a ball hurled high into the air. He hangs
there, frozen in time, translated into a photograph;
denied motion, suspended impossibly above his
native earth, he awaits the inevitable moment at
which the photograph must begin to move, and the
earth reclaim its own.
1 Peters uses of the terms paroikos and

parepidmos exclude any notion of a return to a
place from which the readers have been forced.
They are not exiles, since they are not waiting to go
homeinstead, Christ, and their gathered community, embodying Christ for them, is their home.
Salman Rushdie, The Satanic Verses (New York: Random House,
2008) 21112.
In LXX Genesis 23:4-6, Abraham negotiates to buy a burial place for Sarah: I am a
paroikos and a parepidmos among you. The
Hittites protest, No, Lord, but listenyou
are our king from God among us; bury your
dead in our chosen [same word as chosen in
1 Pet 1:1] burial places.
LXX Psalm 38:13-14 (=39:12-13) reads,
Hear my prayer, O Lord, and attend to my
tears. Do not remain silent, because I am a
paroikos before you and a parepidmos, just as
all my ancestors. Release me so that I may
revive before I go away, never more to exist.
In the first case, Abraham is a long-term resident foreigner in

truth, owning no real estate in the land where he pitches his tents
and pastures his flocks. In the second case, the psalmist composed
a lament appropriate for a serious illness. The pray-er, who admits
that the illness is Gods punishment for sins, nevertheless hopes for
an easing of Gods powerful hand before he or she expires. Being
paroikos and parepidmos is not, or not necessarily, literal; it is part
of the supplicant role the pray-er takes, linking himself or herself to
the sacred past and to the reality that one can control neither illness
nor God. The author of the psalm constructed it so that those
using it to beseech God for help during a severe illness would
acknowledge how helpless they are unless God champions them, as
God did Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob.
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In the world of the author of 1 Peter, resident aliens were rarely

welcomed, although their presence was sometimes an economic
boon to the places where they lived:
I cannot bear, Romans, a Greek Rome; and yet, how small a portion
of our dregs is from Greece! Long since Syrian Orontes has flowed
into the Tiber, and has brought with it its languages and manners.4
Look at the crowds for whom, vast as Rome is, there is hardly sufficient housing accommodations: the majority of them are aliens in a
sense. They have flooded in from the country towns of Italy, in fact
from all over the world . . . Rome offers high rewards for good qualities and bad alike; and so every sort of being has come here. Call
them up and ask them one by one where they come from. Most of
them, you will find, have left home and come to Rome, the greatest
and loveliest city in the worldbut not theirs.5
Resident aliens could be, and were from time to time, summarily
deported. We know more about the deportations from the city of
Rome than from any other place simply because histories of what
went on in Rome survived, but we should take these removals as
indicative of what probably sometimes happened in other places as
well. For instance, Rome sometimes deported foreigners when they
were at war with the groups native home (Macedonians, 171 BC;
Germans, AD 9); or because a member of the group did or supposedly did something problematic to a well-placed Roman (Jews and
Egyptians in AD 19); or because the group was creating problems
for public order (Jews in AD 48).6 In addition to the threat of
removal that made their status always impermanent, resident aliens
had various other sorts of restrictions:
Excluded from voting and landholding privileges as well as from the
chief civic offices and honors, they enjoyed only limited legal protection, were restricted in regard to intermarriage [i.e., with citizens],
commerce, transmission of property, and land tenure, could be
pressed into military service, and were susceptible to severer forms of
civil and criminal punishment. While allowed limited participation
in local cultic rites, they were excluded from priestly offices, but still
shared full responsibility with the citizenry for all financial burdens,
such as tribute, taxes, and production quotas. Their different languages, clothing, customs, religious traditions, and foreign roots set
these aliens apart and exposed them to suspicion and hostility on the
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part of the native population and to charges of wrongdoing and
conduct injurious to the well-being of the commonwealth and the
favor of the gods.7
Despite all the drawbacks of living as a stranger in a strange

land, people still did it. David Noys study Foreigners at Rome
shows that despite the barriers to citizenship and advancement
placed on aliens living in Rome, they still came voluntarily in great
enough numbers to keep the working-class population relatively
stable during the first two centuries of the Common Era, when the
so-called Pax Romana meant that Rome could not count on periodic infusions of war captives to boost the number of slaves.8 Noys
examination of inscriptions from the period suggests that many
immigrants to Rome during the first and second centuries came
from the territories addressed by 1 Peter.9
Commentators differ on how literally to read sojourner. Some
take this to be an indication of the recipients actual social condition; in their view, 1 Peter was addressed to persons living in Asia
and surrounding provinces, but who were not citizens of those
places.10 The major claim in favor of this view is that the words
paroikos and parepidmos are normally used in the LXX as literal
social designations.11 As noted above, parepidmos occurs only
twice in the LXX, both times in parallel with paroikos. The first
instance, Genesis 23:4, is certainly a literal description of
Abrahams legal situation, but the second occurs in a psalm of
lament, and cannot be intended always to be taken literally. The
word paroikos or the verb paroikein occur 104 times in the LXX.
Many of these are in historical or legal contexts, where they designate a foreignereither an Israelite living abroad or a Gentile
living in Judea. But there are several uses in Psalms that are not so
clearly literal:
LXX Psalm 14:1 (=15:1): O Lord, who will sojourn in your tent?
LXX Psalm 33:5 (=34:4): I sought the Lord and he favorably
heard me, and rescued me from all my sojournings.
LXX Psalm 60:7 (=61:4): I will sojourn in your tent forever . . . .
LXX Psalm 118:19 (=119:19): I am a sojourner in the land; do
not hide your commandments from me.
LXX Psalm 118:54 (=119:54): Your commandments have been
my psalms in the place of my sojourn.
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37
Psalms, like hymns, are not single-use compositions. The author

may be autobiographical, describing his or her own literal situation, but would expect that others, whose situations differed, could
also pray or sing the text beneficially. The use of sojourner language in LXX Psalm 38 (39), for instance, is meant to call up in the
pray-ers mind the stories of the patriarchs and matriarchs who
lived as aliens first in Palestine, then Egypt, then Babylon, and
then, depending on the worshipers family history, in various other
places. But imagine Simon Peters mother-in-law, for instance,
praying LXX Psalm 38 (39) while lying feverish on her sickbed on
the day before Jesus came to heal her (Mark 1:30-31): Hear my
prayer, O Lord, and attend to my tears. Do not remain silent,
because I am a paroikos before you and a parepidmos, just as all my
ancestors. Release me so that I may revive before I go away, never
more to exist. Technically, she was not a resident alien or
sojourner, but the psalm still fits in her mouth, does it not?
The position this commentary takes is that alien and
sojourner will have literally described the situation of some but
not all of 1 Peters first readers. But for all the first readers, the
terms function as part of the letters hortaResident Alien in 1 Clement
tory strategy: whether you are a citizen or
1 Clement, which was probably written roughly
not, think of yourself as an alien as a result
about the same time as 1 Peter (some people
of your commitment to Christ.12 [Resident
think it drew on 1 Peter), begins this way: The church of
Alien in 1 Clement]
God living as aliens at Rome to the church of God living
as aliens at Corinth, to those called, to those beloved in

Elect sojourners of the Diaspora would,
Gods will through our Lord Jesus Christ; may grace and
taken literally, indicate an ethnically Jewish
peace from the all-powerful God be multiplied to you
audience of Christians, since diaspora in
through Jesus Christ.
the LXX ordinarily means Jews living
Residing as aliens is a form of the verb paroike, the
same root as the noun resident aliens in 1 Pet 2:11.
outside Palestine. In two places, however,
1 Peter addresses its audience in ways that
better fit Gentiles:
you were ransomed from your meaningless ancestral way of life
(1:18).
For the past time is sufficient for performing the desire of the
Gentiles, living in . . . lawless idolatries (4:3).
It would be odd for Peter to refer to Judaism as a meaningless

ancestral way of life. That phrase is a more appropriate way for
Peter to name the readers now-abandoned practice of idolatry if
the readers were Gentiles. Yet Peter consistently refers to non-
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Christians as Gentiles and regularly addresses the readers with

terms that in the LXX apply to Israel: chosen race, for instance.
Most commentators therefore conclude that of the Dispersion
is also part of the writers rhetorical strategy. He has decided not
only to address his audience as if they were non-citizens of the
places they live (which may have been literally true of some but not
all of them); he has also chosen to depict them as Gods chosen
people. But note that he never calls them Jews or Israel; while
they are a chosen race and Gods own people, they are never
said to be descended from the twelve tribes or from the seed of
Abraham. Some of those who first received this letter may have
been ethnic Jews who followed Jesus. But this letter, addressed as it
is to five provinces that contained multiple ethnic groups, is not at
all concerned with ethnicity. There is no discussion of the practices
that marked Jewish identitythe food laws, keeping Sabbath, circumcisionand that Paul needed to address for his mixed-ethnic
congregations.
The list of place names describes the area bordered by the Aegean
to the west, the Mediterranean and the Taurus Mountains to the
south, the Black Sea to the north, and Syria to the eastroughly,
modern-day Turkey. Although there are five place names, Pontus
and Bithynia had been one Roman province since 63 BC.13 The
usual suggestion for why the two names are listed separately is that
the order bespoke the route the letter carrier would take to deliver
it. On this theory, the courier could begin at one of the Black Sea
ports on the northeastern, Pontus end of Pontus/Bithynia, go east
to Galatia, southeast to Cappadocia, west to Asia, and then north
to return to the southwestern, Bithynia end of Pontus/Bithynia and
presumably sail for home.14 A courier coming from Rome,
however, would more naturally begin somewhere in Asia, so maybe
the places are simply listed in the order that the author thought of
them.
The territories named are mostly familiar to Bible teachers. Asia
turns up often in Pauls letters (e.g., The churches of Asia send
greetings, 1 Cor 16:19), and Pauls work in Ephesus and his
interest in Colossae and Laodicea spring to mind. Revelation was
also addressed to Christians in seven different Asian cities, and
ancient Christian tradition connects the Gospel of John with that
region as well. Galatians we know from Pauls impassioned address
to Christians in that region, but since there are no specific cities
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Map of Pontus, Galatia, Cappadocia, Asia, and Bithynia
named in the letter, debate still rages about where, precisely, Pauls
recipients lived. Cappadocia is a blank; while it is named in Acts
2:9, there is no later New Testament evidence for how Christianity
spread there. Bithynia and Pontus, the northernmost areas named,
show up in Acts: Paul wants to go into Bithynia, but the Spirit of
Jesus prevents him (Acts 16:7). People from Pontus and Asia are
present at the Pentecost miracle (Acts 2:9), and Aquila is identified
as a native of Pontus (Acts 18:2).
These provinces contained a variety of types of places and people,
and for a late first- or early second-century reader, the names probably signified a broad intended audience. Galatia and Cappadocia
were rugged, rural areas, whereas Asia, especially along the Aegean
coast, boasted large cities (Ephesus, Smyrna, Pergamum, Miletus).
Asia thought of itself as Greek, but Asian Greek as opposed to Attic
Greek, and different from the Persian-influenced Pontic Greeks.
Galatia was populated by the descendants of various Celtic tribes
who migrated there in the third century BC. Cappadocians traced
themselves back to the Hittites. John Elliott estimates the total
population of the areas addressed at 8.5 million.
Roman opinion, never high for any group of foreigners, was low
for the residents of these provinces. They thought Cappadocians
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spoke vile Greek, if they spoke Greek at all, and though they were
often tall and made good litter-bearers (as did Bithynians and
Syrians), they were as a general rule both stupid and dumb.15 By
way of heaping abuse on the former consul Piso, who had helped
send Cicero into exile, Cicero said, Insensitive, tasteless, tonguetied, a dawdling apology for a man, a Cappadocian, you might
think, who had just been picked out of a crowd of slaves under the
auctioneers hammer.16 Part of Ciceros defense of the disreputable
Flaccus involved defaming the Asian Greeks whom Flaccus had
defrauded. First, Cicero says there are three types of Greeks and
that the ones living in Asia are not the true Greeks. Then he
attempts to show that Asians do not even think well of themselves:
I beg you therefore, witnesses for Asia, when you want to think over
honestly what influence you bring to the court, to characterize Asia
in your own minds and to remember not what foreigners usually say
of you but what you think of your race yourselves. Your Asia, if I am
not mistaken, consists of Phrygia, Mysia, Caria, and Lydia. Is this
proverb, then, yours or ours: A Phrygian is better and more obedient
when beaten. And again, do you not have this saying about the
whole of Caria, Try out the poison on a Carian? Or again, is there
a more hackneyed and commonplace phrase in Greek that to say the
farthest of the Mysians of anyone you despise? And what am I to say
about Lydia? What Greek ever wrote a comedy without giving the
leading slave part to a Lydian?17
With such a varied audience, it is not surprising that there are no

bits of advice or exhortation tailored for any particular place. For
purposes of comparison, think about Revelation 23, the letters to
the seven churches of Asia. While the letters are in some ways
formulaicthey have the same structure, they all draw on images
introduced in the opening visionthere are situation-specific features in each one. Only Thyatira has the female prophet with
whom John the Revelator has such a negative relationship;
Pergamum, where Satans throne is, is home to the only named
martyr; etc. First Peter offers no variation in advice based on differences in the readers situationno advice specific to city-dwellers
as opposed to farmhands, nothing to indicate that Christians in
sparsely populated Cappadocia faced anything different from those
in metropolitan Ephesus.
Since that is true, why include the place names at all? Why not
stop with to the chosen resident aliens of the Diaspora? To put
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the point in our terms, what would be the difference between a

letter full of advice for Christians in California, Arizona, Nevada,
Utah, and Oregon as opposed to a letter meant for all United States
Christians? If you addressed Christians in those five states as a
group, not allowing for variations in local situations, your advice
would need to be so general as to be applicable to the whole
country. But naming the specific places is the epistolary equivalent
of how effective persuasive speakers, even when exhorting throngs,
give each listener the impression of being directly addressed. In
short, the names may indicate the actual places where the letter was
first sent. But whether or not that is the case, addressing the letter
to actual places has the rhetorical effect of making the advice seem
more targeted.
Election Analysis, 1:2
Following the list of place names, the author includes three prepositional phrases that hang in the air a bit. The author probably
means them to explain elect,18 although they could be intended
to support his claim to be an apostle or even to explain the origin
and purpose of the letter. Presuming that the phrases qualify
elect, they read something like this: to the elect . . . according to
the foreknowledge of God the Father, in the sanctification of the
Spirit, for obedience and sprinkling with the blood of Jesus
Christ.
According to the foreknowledge of God the Father: The letters recipients are electi.e., have been chosen by Godas a part of
Gods plan of salvation set out before the world was created.
[Foreknowledge] This plan included, the author believed, Gods decision to send Christ (1:20), Gods revelation of that plan to the
prophets (1:10-12), the recipients favorable response to it (1:2),
and the rejection of the plan by the Gentiles (2:8). This would
have surprised no reader. Those who were the least bit familiar with
the story of God and Israel would know
Foreknowledge
that Gods choice of Israel also entailed
While we have time to be healed, let us give
divine plans made in advance and then
ourselves over to the God who brings healing,
paying him what is due. And what is that? Repentance
revealed to prophets. If some readers had
from a sincere heart. For he knows all things in advance
no background knowledge of the Old
[lit., his foreknowledge is of all things] and recognizes
Testament or Judaism, it would still have
what is in our hearts. And so we should give him praise,
seemed a commonplace to them that God
not from our mouth alone but also from our heart, that he
may welcome us as children.
planned things out far in advance. Many, if
2 Clement 9.7-10
not most, ancient people believed that
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Destiny and Free Will

In the prologue to Plautuss comedy The
Rope, the star/god Arcturus speaks:
Arcturus is my name. By night, a god, a bright
star in the skyby day, a mortal, walking among
men, as other constellations do, descending to
your world. For the lord of gods and men, Great
Jupiter, appoints us as his spies, one here, one
there, in various different places, to watch how
men behave, observe their acts, their characters,
keep records of their piety and virtue, so that he,
through Fortunes hand, may suitably reward this
man or that. (lines 812)
ones destiny was to some degree determined

by the Fates, by prophecies, by ancient curses, or
by the decisions of divine beings. [Destiny and Free
Will]
In the sanctification of the Spirit: Spirit has

no modifier (holy, for instance) and so one
could read this phrase as in the sanctification of
the spirit, meaning the spirits of the recipientsGod has chosen them by making their
spirits holy. But because of the Father-SpiritJesus references, because the emphasis in the
other two prepositional phrases seems to fall on
In Plautus, The Rope and Other Plays (trans. E. F. Watlington;
New York: Penguin, 1964) 90.
what God does, and because Spirit of Christ
(1:11) and Holy Spirit (1:12) appear close by,
commentators prefer to think of this as Gods Spirit. The initial
preposition en (in) is often used to mean by in New Testament
Greek, and there are some instrumental uses of en elsewhere in
1 Peter. By the sanctification of the Spirit would also make excellent sense, and many commentators prefer that translation.19 But
following a suggestion by Green, I opt for in, making the Spirits
sanctificationthe ways the Spirit makes the letter recipients
holythe sphere in which God elected the readers.20 They are
resident aliens . . . in Pontus, etc. but elect . . . in the Spirits
sanctification.
Holiness is a big deal in 1 Peter. Being holy, set apart as Gods
and for Gods use, is a major part of how the author wants the
readers to think of themselves:
in the sanctification of the Spirit (1:2)
an inheritance . . . undefiled (1:4)
But in accord with the way the one who called you is holy, you
yourselves must also be holy in your whole manner of life, just as
it is written, Be holy, because I am holy (1:15-16)
Christ was as a lamb without spot or blemish (1:19)
Since you have purified your souls by your obedience to the
truth (1:22)
like living stones, be built up as a spiritual house for a holy
priesthood (2:5)
You are . . . a holy ethnos (2:9)
When they see your reverent, pure manner of life (3:2)
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43
For thus also saintly women who hoped in God once adorned
themselves (3:5)
Sanctify Christ as Lord in your hearts (3:15)
Being holy, or pure, or blemish-free, is a preeminent
distinguishing feature of Christian identity and
conduct.21 [Set Apart for God]
For obedience and sprinkling with the blood of Jesus
Christ: The third prepositional phrase is much harder
to translate precisely than the first two. The phrase
begins with the preposition eis, which has two
objects, obedience and sprinkling. Blood is in a
case that allows it to be translated with blood. But
of Jesus Christ could simply modify blood or
might also be intended to connect to obedience. So
here are the options:
Set Apart for God

You surely understand one thing,
the need to do what every instinct
of your body tells you is ordained for you.
Havent you lived your life like that? Dont
we all at some time or another make a
decision which we know is absolutely right,
the assurance that some enterprise, some
change, is imperative? And even if it fails,
to resist it would be a greater failure. I
suppose some people would see that as a
call from God.
P. D. James, The Private Patient (New York: Knopf,
2008) 69.
Because of the obedience of Jesus Christ and sprinkling with the

blood of Jesus Christ: The only way that this will make sense is if
obedience of Jesus Christ is what grammarians call a subjective
genitive, where it means Jesus own obedience. If one takes this
option, then eis must be translated becausethe readers are
elected because of Christs obedience and sacrificial death, symbolized as Christ sprinkling believers with blood.22 But while eis
can mean because, there are no other such uses in 1 Peter;
everywhere else it means for, introducing a purpose clause, or
into, showing direction.
For obedience to Jesus Christ and sprinkling with the blood of Jesus
Christ: This option allows one to take the preposition in its most
common sense in 1 Peter, the introduction of a purpose statement. But it requires that one translate of Jesus Christ in two
different waysas an objective genitive in the first clause (obedience that has Jesus as its object), and as a possessive genitive in
the second (Jesus blood, which is sprinkled on the believers).23
This is not impossible, but is very awkward.
For obedience and sprinkling with the blood of Jesus Christ: The
least problematic translation is to let obedience stand on its
own, without any statement about to whom it is directed, and to
let of Jesus Christ govern only blood.24 In fact, as obedient
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1 Peter 1
children in 1:14 probably indicates that the author tended to

think of obedience as directed toward God rather than Jesus.
Obedience is presented in 1 Peter as both a natural consequence
of having been chosen by God the Father (1:2: 1:14-17) and as the
means of gaining purity (1:22). The image of being sprinkled with
blood likewise joins election and sanctification images. In Exodus
24, Moses reads the Torah aloud to the people and then, after they
promise to obey it all, taking the blood [of animals already sacrificed] he scattered it over the people and said, Look, the blood of
the covenant that the Lord made with you concerning all these
words [of the Torah] (LXX Exod 24:8). If 1 Peters readers knew
their Old Testament, they may have picked up on the Exodus reference.25 If not, they nevertheless probably would have thought of
it as an image for cultic initiation or purifiVariations in Early Christian Greetings
1. Pauls earliest letter, 1 Thessalonians, opens
cation, since Greeks and Romans used the
with the simplest greeting: Grace to you and
blood of sacrifices in those ways.
peace.
Only the first two verses, and already the
2. Pauls standard greeting was a little longer: Grace to
author has unloaded some pretty heavy
you and peace from God our Father and the Lord Jesus
Christ (Romans, 12 Corinthians, Ephesians, Philippians,
theology! He finishes up the greeting with
Colossians, 2 Thessalonians).
a popular variation on Pauls grace and
3. James, alone in the New Testament, uses the stanpeace formula: May grace and peace be
dard Greetings as do ordinary secular Greek letters.
multiplied to you. [Variations in Early Christian
4. Jude has May mercy, peace, and love be multiplied to
you, using the same verb as 1 Peter; 2 Peter, which used
Jude, opens with May grace and peace be multiplied to
you in the knowledge of God and of Jesus our Lord.
5. 1 Clements greeting is May grace and peace be multiplied to youjust as 1 Peter has itbut grace and
peace is expanded with from the all-powerful God
through Jesus Christ.
6. Polycarps letter To the Philadelphians, which probably
used 1 Clement and 1 Peter, begins, May mercy and
peace from the all-powerful God and from Jesus Christ
our savior be multiplied to you.
7. The Martyrdom of Polycarp expands 1 Peters greeting
in a different way: May the mercy, peace, and love of
God the father and our Lord Jesus Christ be multiplied.
Greetings]
Opening Sentence, 1:3-12
An envelope came in the mail with

YOUVE BEEN PRE-FORGIVEN:
OPEN TO FIND OUT HOW printed
on the outside. Addressed to Smart
Driver, it was clearly not aimed specifically
at me (just ask my kids), but it was not a
bad approach, if they were aiming at the
over-50 theological educator market. An
envelope that read YOU DONT HAVE ENOUGH CAR
INSURANCE, DO YOU? would go straight into the trash.
First Peters writing strategy in this first part of the letter is to
accentuate the positive and to praise the readers, and God, for
things that are already true about them. The author does not know
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1 Peter 1
the recipients of his letter. He writes a general epistlewe have to

keep this in mind as we read ita letter that the author hoped
would be useful and helpful to Christians living in all sorts of settings near the end of the first century. So he decides to assume the
best about them: they do believe, they do rejoice, their faith is
genuine, and they are heading toward a glorious experience on the
day of judgment.
Structure
From Blessed be God in v. 3 to into which [salvation] angels
longed to peek at the end of v. 12 is one long, complex (complicated? convoluted?) sentence in Greek. In order to see the way the
themes are introduced and then reprised, and better to notice the
parallel structurescrucial for deciphering what the author
meant!I offer an inelegantly wooden translation arranged to
show some of the sentences underpinnings.
Blessed be the God and father of our Lord Jesus Christ,
Who,
according to his great mercy
Re-begat us
into a living hope
through the resurrection of Jesus Christ
from the dead
into an inheritance
uncorrupted, unstained, and unfading
guarded in heaven
for you
who are being protected through faith
into a salvation
prepared to be revealed in the Last Time,
[A condition] in which you rejoice,
Even if for a little while your suffering various testings is required,
So that the proven-ness of your faith, more precious than gold
which, though perishable,
is proven through fire,
May be found [as a cause] for praise and glory and honor
In the revelation of Jesus Christ,
Whom [=Jesus] you love, although you do not see him
On whom you believe, still without seeing,
But rather you rejoice with inexpressible and glorious joy
Receiving as the outcome of your faith the salvation of your souls,
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Concerning which salvation
Prophets who were prophesying about grace for you
Searched and sought
Making careful inquiry into what person or
which time
The Spirit of Christ intended
[the Spirit] who was pre-testifying in them to
The sufferings and subsequent glories for Christ,
To whom [the prophets] it was revealed that
They were pursuing these things for you, not themselves,
Which [the things revealed to the prophets about Christ]
Are now proclaimed
to you
Through those who evangelized you
By the Holy Spirit sent from heaven,
Into which [the things proclaimed to you] angels long to peek.
The sentence begins as a prayer praising God for providing salvation (vv. 3-5). Then it turns to the issue of how salvation and
suffering connect (vv. 6-7), then to the recipients devotion to Jesus
(vv. 8-9), then to how salvation through Christs suffering was
first revealed to prophets and then preached to the recipients (vv.
10-12). Each of these subdivisions closes with a reference to the
theme of the next sectionv. 5 has salvation near the end, v. 7
ends with Jesus Christ, v. 9 ends with the salvation of your
souls. There are several repeated refrains or themes:
The career of the Messiah: suffering (v. 11), resurrection from
the dead (v. 3), future revelation in glory (vv. 7, 11). 1 Peter uses
the Messiahs career later as a model for how Christians should live:
Christs suffering on the cross (2:18-25), Christs preaching to
the dead and resurrection (3:184:6), and Christs future return
(4:12-19).
The manifold nature of salvation: described as mercy (v. 3); rebegetting (v. 3); a living hope (v. 3); an immortal, indivisible, and
imperishable inheritance (v. 4); an occasion for praise and glory
and honor (v. 7); a mystery revealed to prophets by the Spirit
(v. 11); and a present reality as well as something to be revealed at
the Last Day (v. 5).
The faith of the recipients: as protection (v. 5); as proven (v. 7);
as directed toward the as-yet-unseen Jesus (v. 8); salvation as
outcome of faith (v. 9).
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Things being done for you or to you: an inheritance

guarded for you (v. 4), grace for you (v. 11), the prophets pursuit
of mysteries was for you (v. 12); the things revealed to them are
now proclaimed to you (v. 12).
Note how the actors named in the verses form a complex web of
relations:
God is Father of our Lord Jesus Christ who also re-begat us;
God is the one responsible for the resurrection of Jesus Christ
from the dead as well as for the living hope into which we have
been re-begotten.
Jesus Christ is Gods progeny (implied, but not stated) and our
Lord; the object of our belief and love; the subject of the searches
of the prophets, who were granted revelation by Christs Spirit.
The Spirit is the Spirit of Christ, who gave the prophets testimony about the sufferings and glories intended for Christ, and
who inspired those who evangelized the letter recipients.
The prophets diligently sought information about Christ and
were given it by the Holy Spirit, but for the sake of the letter recipients, so that they could pass these things along.
Unnamed persons evangelized the letter recipients, motivated
by the Spirit and proclaiming things revealed by the prophets.
Angels wished they could peek into the topics preached to the
recipients by the evangelists.
The author, along with the recipients, has received the new
begetting from God into an unchangeable inheritance.
The recipients are beneficiaries of Gods mercy, re-begotten into
a living hope, an unchangeable inheritance; they love Jesus, their
unseen Lord, whose future revelation they await with joy through
suffering; they have accepted the good news proclaimed to them by
the evangelists.
With that bit of preliminary mapping done, we plunge in, taking
things a section at a time.
Blessed Be God, Provider of Salvation, 1:3-5
Blessed be the God and father of our Lord Jesus Christ, who,
according to his great mercy re-begat us into a living hope through
the resurrection of Jesus Christ from the dead into an inheritance
uncorrupted, unstained, and unfading, guarded in heaven for you
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Peter Prays
In the following passage from The Robe, Peter has
just been released from prison (the Acts 12 story).
He bangs on the gate of the house in Jerusalem where all
the Christians are meeting; Rhoda the slave eventually
opens the door for him.
They moved slowly into the house, Rhoda weeping inconsolably. The place was crowded with Christians. Their
grieving eyes widened and their drawn faces paled as Simon
entered, for they had thought him dead. They made way for
him in silence. He paused in the midst of them. Some great
experience had come to Simon. He had taken on a new
dignity, a new power. Slowly he raised his hand and they
bowed their heads.
Let us pray, said Peter the Rock.
Blessed be God who has revived our hope. Though in
great heaviness for a season, let us rejoice that this trial of
our faithmore precious than goldwill make us worthy of
honor when our Lord returns.
Lloyd C Douglas, The Robe (1942; repr., Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1999)
36970.
who are being protected through faith for

a salvation prepared to be revealed in the
Last Time . . . . [Peter Prays]
Those who wrote letters in Greek in
the first century often included a brief
prayer right after saying greetings.
These mostly followed a couple of conventional patterns:
Claudius Agathas Daimon to most
beloved Serapion, greetings . . . . I pray
for your health continually together with
that of your children.26
Chairas to his dearest Dionysius, many
greetings and continued health.27
Sempronius to Maximus his brother,
many greetings. Before all I pray for your
welfare.28
Paul once again seems to have been an innovator, adapting this

expected pattern to make it more tailored to the specific circumstances of his letter. In most of his letters, the prayer begins I
thank my God (or we thank God) and then spells out reasons why
he could be grateful: because the Thessalonians
Blessed Be God
Many Jewish prayers from the
were continuing steadfastly in their newfound faith
Second Temple period (from the end
(1 Thess 1:2-3); because of the long-standing partof the Babylonian Exile to the destruction of
nership he has had with the Philippians (Phil
the temple in AD 70) begin, Blessed are you,
1:3-5); because of the wealth of spiritual gifts disO Lord, and then continue with a motive
clause: because you do this or that. Some
played by the Corinthians (1 Cor 1:4-5); and
examples:
because of the world-renowned faith of the Roman
Christians (Rom 1:8). Second Corinthians,
Blessed art thou, O Lord, who art righteous in
however, begins exactly as 1 Peter: Blessed be the
all thy ways (4Q408)
Blessed be God who lives forever (Tob 13:1a)
God and father of our Lord Jesus Christ (2 Cor
Blessed are you, O Lord . . . and blessed is
1:3a), followed by a focus on Gods mercies as a
your glorious, holy name (Prayer of Azariah
29-30; LXX Dan 3:23)
reason for praise (2 Cor 1:3b-4). The prayer in
Thou art holy and thy name is awesome, and
Ephesians also starts that way (Eph 1:3).
there is no God beside thee. Blessed art thou,
In the LXX, blessed be God, followed by a
O Lord, the Holy God. (Benediction 3 of the
Eighteen Benedictions, according to the Cairo
phrase naming some divine action or aspect, is a
Genizah fragments)
common prayer beginning (e.g., LXX Gen 14:20;
1 Kgs 5:21; 1 Esd 4:40; Pss 17:47; 65:20). [Blessed
Joseph Heinemann, Prayer in the Talmud: Forms and
Patterns (New York: de Gruyter, 1977) 2627.
Be God] Prayers in Tobit often begin either blessed
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1 Peter 1
are you, O God (LXX Tob 3:11; 8:15; 11:14) or with a blessed
be God phrase: of our fathers (LXX Tob 8:5), who has brought
you to us (11:17), who lives forever (13:2), who raised
(13:18). Paul may have been the one to Christianize the Jewish
blessed be God by adding and father of our Lord Jesus Christ,
but it seems more plausible to me that this was something many
early Christians did in their prayers. But since his letters are our
earliest Christian literature, it looks as if he was the one to think of
substituting this Christian benediction for the more typical Greek
epistolary prayer for good health. Furthermore, except for Luke
1:68, where Luke appropriately has Zechariah the priest pray a
blessed be God prayer, the only New Testament examples of this
form are in Pauls letters and here. That does not prove 1 Peters use
of Pauls letters, but since we can be pretty sure that Pauls letters
were widely circulated by the end of the first century, 1 Peters
prayer would have sounded Paul-like to the audience.
Addressing God as Father was not unknown for Jews, Greeks,
or Romans, but because of Jesus prayer habits and especially
because of the Model Prayer, Father was a common Christian
address for God. To call the deity Father is most certainly to
make a claim to a family relationship. But because the father of a
Greek, Roman, or Jewish household had certain legal powers over
his wife, his children, his slaves, and his clients, calling God
Father is not necessarily an attempt to snuggle up29 (more on this
at 1:17). Here the stress falls first on Gods relationship to Jesus,
who is presented first as kyrios, Lord, rather than as our relative.
God the father (1:2) is our Masters father before anything else in
this letter. [A Fathers Rights]
In accord with Gods great mercy, God has re-begotten us into a
living hope through the resurrection of Jesus Christ from the
dead. Gods mercy, biblically, is Gods faithfulness to the covenant
and willingness to forgive (LXX Deut 5:10: 7:9). Sirach 16:11-12,
using identical wording to 1 Peter 1:3, contrasts Gods mercy with
Gods punishment: even if there were only one stiff-necked
person, if he were unpunished, this would be amazing, for mercy
and wrath are from [God]mighty doer-of-mercy and one who
pours out wrath. In accord with his great mercy, so also his great
discipline/punishment; he will judge a man according to his
deeds. [Mercy]
Re-beget is an odd word. In the New Testament it appears only
here and (in a different grammatical form) at 1 Peter 1:23; it never
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A Fathers Rights
Under Roman law, a father had the right of life
and death over his children (the patria potestas).
Augustuss Julian Law reaffirmed a fathers right to kill
his daughter if he found her committing adultery. A
father could sell his children into slavery (presumably to
pay off debts); the Twelve Tables (traditionally dated 450
BC) says that if the father sells a son three times, the son
is then free from the fathers authority. The father could
arrange or refuse marriages for his children; the Emperor
Augustuss Papian-Poppaean Law, intended to
encourage more marriages among the upper classes,
set limits on the length of betrothals and on the reasons
for which a father might forbid his childs marriage. In
the first century, patria potestas was held to apply even
to married sons and to married daughters who were
married sine manuthat is, without transferring final
authority over the woman and her dowry to her

husband.
Simply because the power existed legally does not
mean that it was always, or even often, exercised. In
fact, scholars of ancient Rome point out that if you consider both average life expectancy for males and the
average age for marriage for men and women, the consequence is that by the time children reached their late
teens or early twentieswhen women usually
marriedmore than half had already lost their fathers. .
. . Only a fifth or so of men at the time of their marriage
in their late twenties or early thirties were still in their
fathers power and had to tolerate their interference in a
decision about marriage.
Peter Garnsey and Richard Saller, The Roman Empire: Economy, Society,
and Culture (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1987) 138.
appears in the LXX. Born again/anew in John 3 combines the

normal verb for being born plus an adverb; water of rebirth in
Titus 3:5 uses the more common word for a spiritual rebirth, of the
sort celebrated by the mystery religions.30 First Peters word puts
the emphasis on Gods action in fathering us, the
Mercy
author and the recipients. The contrast in the re is
No matter where you lead or
with ones natural birth, and is consistent with how
you are led, no matter how the
often 1 Peter pictures conversion as living in Gods
waves may break upon you, and what
sins you may unknowingly commit, it is
household. But instead of re-begotten us into the
true that by the grace of God you can
household of God, the author stretches a bit to
sometimes make amends.
connect re-fathering to living hopethat is, to a
vibrant, living hope rather than dead despair.31 Perhaps
Mark Helprin, Il Colore Ritrovato, in The Pacific
and Other Stories (New York: Penguin, 2004) 34.
the author was thinking of how hopeless life can feel
when ones circumstances are both oppressive and
unlikely to change. However much or little he knew of the readers
situations, he imagined them suffering in various ways because of
their faith and, for some of them, because of their status as slaves.
No need to envy the dead, or even to fear the threat of execution
a threat the readers know Peter had facedbecause God raised
Jesus from the dead.
From a birth vs. death frame of reference, the author turns to the
idea of inheritance: God has re-begotten us . . . into an uncorrupted, unstained, and unfading inheritance, guarded in heaven for
you. The author uses a nice alliterative string in the first part of
this verse, tailor-made for a sermon outline, and giving a nice
emphasis to this verse when it was read aloud to the congregation.
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In Greek, the words for inheritance and for and both begin
with a k sound, and the three adjectives all begin with a short a:
klronomian aphtharton kai amianton kai amaranton (the stressed
syllables in bold). Everybody who had money or property was concerned about inheritance issuesJewish, Greek, and Roman
fathers worried about how to protect things for the next generation
(sometimes from the next generation, if their children were spendthrifts), so the idea of an estate completely safe from all the various
threats would have communicated instantly to any of the letters
readers. For those who could hear Old Testament overtones,
inheritance would have connections to the promises God made
to the patriarchs. Several biblical authors used the idea of an inheritance to speak of various ways God blessed Gods people with the
land, with the Law, and with a relationship to the Lord:
LXX Genesis 15:7: But [God] said to [Abram], I am the God
who led you from the region of the Chaldeans in order to grant for
you to inherit this land.
LXX Sirach 24:23: All these are the book of the covenant of
God Most High, the law which Moses commanded us, an inheritance for the synagogues of Jacob.
LXX Psalm 15:5 (=16:5): The Lord is the portion of my inheritance and my cup.
Gods people are also spoken of as Gods inheritance (LXX
Ps 32:12 [=33:12]; Sir 24:12). The image is that God re-fathered
these recipients, resulting in an unchangeable inheritance; it means
that they are part of Gods household, counted as children with a
stake in the family estate. It is interesting that 1 Peter chooses to
make this household connection through a birth, rather than adoption, metaphor. Paul preferred the latter (Rom 8:15, 23; Gal 4:5),
famously comparing the inclusion of the Gentiles into Gods
people to how wild olive branches are grafted onto a cultivated
olive trunk (Rom 11:17-24). One of the differences of thought
between Paul and 1 Peter is how easily our author transfers Israelite
rubrics to these Gentile readers without any qualification.
The three alliterating adjectives, prominently, perfectly positioned, are all the negation of some quality. As in English we make
changing into unchanging, Greeks did it by putting an alpha
onto the beginning of the word. So phthartos, meaning corrupt,
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1 Peter 1
perishable, mortal, becomes aphthartos, immortal or incorruptible. Amianton, coming from a verb that means to stain, defile,
means unstained, which is normally a word associated with the
purity of a temple or with sexual purity.32 Amarantos is based on a
verb meaning to fade, wither, die out, and is related to the name
of a shrub with leaves the Greeks considered long-lasting.33 Each
word enhances the sense that the inheritance is rock-solid, impervious to damageand as the readers of this commentary probably
know all too well, there is no such thing in real life. In the world of
1 Peters readers, people lost substantial inheritances because they
backed the wrong politician, because their property lay in the path
of an army, or because they incurred too much debt and had to sell
themselves and their families into slavery. The author of Hebrews
said to his readers you cheerfully accepted the plundering of your
possessions as a result of their commitment to Christ (Heb 10:34).
Gods estate is not subject to these disasters, and now that God has
put you readers into the household, your inheritance is under
Gods protection.
The readers have been re-begotten into a living hope, into a sure
inheritance, and into a salvation prepared to be revealed in the
Last Time. The Christian salvation is not all about the future, as
we will see in this letter, but there is always a future orientation, an
aspect that has yet to be unveiled. Since the hope/inheritance/salvation is being kept safe in heaven for now, there
No Need for Future Hope?
must be a planned curtain raising, a time when
Uncle Jules is the only man I know
everything will be plainly visible. Notice how the
whose victory in the world is total
progression works: hope is living because Jesus
and unqualified. He has made a great deal of
was raised from the dead; the inheritance is
money, he has a great many friends, he was
Rex of Mardi Gras, he gives freely of himself
unchanging because it is being kept safe in
and his money. He is an exemplary Catholic,
heavenmuch as Jesus sits at Gods right hand for
but it is hard to know why he takes the
now; and on that day, when God sends Jesus
trouble. For the world he lives in, the City of
back to close up shop, hope will become reality,
Man, is so pleasant that the City of God must
hold little in store for him.
promised inheritance will become actual possesWalker Percy, The Moviegoer (New York: Alfred A. Knopf,
sion, and what has been prepared will be revealed
1967) 31.
as salvation. [No Need for Future Hope?]
Salvation: Joy, Suffering, Proven-ness, and Future Cause for
Praise, 1:6-7
[God is keeping your salvation safe to be revealed at the last
timethat is a condition] in which you rejoice, even if for a little
while your suffering various testings is required, so that the proven-
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53
St. Peter Opens Paradise

ness of your faith, more precious than gold which, though
perishable, is proven through
fire, may be found [as a cause]
for praise and glory and honor
in the revelation of Jesus
Christ . . . .
From praise for the God
who saves, 1 Peter turns to
description of the salvation
God provides. Verse 6 begins
with the first of three relative
pronouns used to divide this
Saint Peter opening the doors of Paradise to the elect. Exterior porch, Church of Saint George,
Voronet. The Last Judgment was painted in 15471550 when the porch was added to the
long sentence into sections
church. St. George Church, Voronet, Romania. (Credit: Vanni/Art Resource, NY)
(the other two are in vv. 8 and
10). The which of in which
In Christian art, St. Peter was assigned responsibility for tending the
gates of Paradise. Here he is at the Last Day, opening Paradise and welyou rejoice may have as its
coming the elect.
antecedent last time, but
then we would expect you
will rejoice. To make sense of the present tense of you rejoice,
most take the which to refer more generally to the circumstances
described in the preceding versehow God provides salvation for
the letters recipients.34 You rejoice is not an imperative, but a flat
statement, repeated in v. 8 (but see the imperative in 4:13)one of
three affirmations made in this long opening sentence about what
the Asian Christians are doing well (the other two are in v. 8). The
author gives us no clues about how he might know this. He seems
to be commenting not on what he has heard about them, but on
what must be true since they are believers.
While rejoicing is stated as actual, suffering is stated as potential or possible: even if for a little while your suffering various
testings is required. As noted in the introduction, the letters statements about what the recipients might undergo are general enough
that they do not permit us to tie the letter to a specific time of persecution. Between Neros brief, localized period of terror and the
initiation of mass persecutions in the late second century, such evidence as we have indicates that Romans did not waste much time
or effort in trying to prosecute or persecute Christians. From AD
64177, we know only of individual martyrs, which may indicate
that most Christians could practice their faith in a low-key way and
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come to no harm worse than name-calling and economic deprivations. Testing (used also at 4:12) translates a word that can mean
temptation (e.g., Luke 4:13). Here, testing seems more appropriate because the experience is meant to demonstrate the genuine
nature of the readers faith, and because it is described as possibly
required, and not something that could be avoided through selfrestraint.
First Peter has lots to say about how to think about suffering.
This first pass makes it about guaranteeing a good outcome on
Judgment Day: so that the proven-ness of your faith . . . may be
found [as a cause] for praise and glory and honor in the revelation
of Jesus Christ. It is possible that by praise and glory and honor
the author means of God, and that he was describing how the
readers will join the great chorus glorifying God at the revelation of
Christ. But it seems more plausible that he meant that the recipients themselves will receive this sort of affirmationby God? by
the angels? by the saints?as a benefit of having endured suffering.
[Those Who Endured Are Praised/Praise God] Thus he states that they are
rejoicing now, even if they are suffering, and if they go through this
current hard patch successfully, their demonstrably genuine faith
will be the grounds for rejoicing when the roll is called up yonder.
Let us be clear what the letter does and does not say. It does say
that the recipients are rejoicing; later it will say that they should
rejoice (4:12-13), so perhaps that is implied here as well. It does
not say that they should rejoice because they suffer; they rejoice on
the basis of the salvation that will be revealed at the coming of
Christ. The letter also does not say that suffering is required of all
believers, but if . . . suffering is required, the experience will be
analogous to the way fire purifies gold. Suffering, then, has a beneficial effect, but 1 Peter stops short of naming suffering desirable or
even good. Suffering may be required and thus be part of Gods
plan for the recipients, as it was for Jesus, but 1 Peter does not go so
far as to encourage believers to seek to suffer. [Purified by Fire]
Oh, How They Love Jesus, 1:8-9
Whom [=Jesus] you love, although you do not see him; on whom
you believe, still without seeing, but rather rejoice with inexpressible and glorious joy receiving as the outcome of your faith the
salvation of your souls . . . .
Verses 8-9 turn from suffering to happier responses to Gods
saving acts. Whom [Jesus] you love . . . on whom you believe go
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Those Who Endured Are Praised/Praise God
88 Now this is the order of those who have kept
the ways of the Most High, when they shall be
separated from their mortal body. 89 During the time
that they lived in it, they laboriously served the Most
High, and withstood danger every hour so that they
might keep the law of the Lawgiver perfectly. 90
Therefore this is the teaching concerning them: 91 First
of all, they shall see with great joy the glory of him who
receives them, for they shall have rest in seven orders.
92 The first order, because they have striven with great
effort to overcome the evil thought that was formed
with them, so that it might not lead them astray from life
into death. 93 The second order, because they see the
perplexity in which the souls of the ungodly wander and
the punishment that awaits them. 94 The third order,
they see the witness that he who formed them bears
concerning them, that throughout their life they kept the
law with which they were entrusted. 95 The fourth
order, they understand the rest that they now enjoy,
being gathered into their chambers and guarded by
angels in profound quiet, and the glory waiting for them
in the last days. 96 The fifth order, they rejoice that they
have now escaped what is corruptible and shall inherit
what is to come; and besides they see the straits and
toil from which they have been delivered, and the spacious liberty that they are to receive and enjoy in
immortality. 97 The sixth order, when it is shown them
55
how their face is to shine like the sun, and how they are
to be made like the light of the stars, being incorruptible
from then on. 98 The seventh order, which is greater
than all that have been mentioned, because they shall
rejoice with boldness, and shall be confident without
confusion, and shall be glad without fear, for they press
forward to see the face of him whom they served in life
and from whom they are to receive their reward when
glorified. 99 This is the order of the souls of the righteous, as henceforth is announced; and the previously
mentioned are the ways of torment that those who
would not give heed shall suffer hereafter. (4 Ezra [=2
Esdras] 7:88-99)
And the inhabitants in that place [the reward of the just]
were clad with the raiment of shining angels, and their
raiment was like their land. And angels ran round about
them there. And the glory of those who dwelt there was
equal, and with one voice they praised the Lord God,
rejoicing in that place. The Lord said to us [Peter, James,
and John], This is the place of your leaders, the righteous men. As is their rest, also is the honor and glory of
those who are persecuted for my righteousness sake.
(Apoc. Pet., Akhmimic sections 17-20, Ethiopic section
16; in Elliott, 611)
J. K. Elliott, The Apocryphal New Testament (Oxford: Clarendon, 1993).
along with rejoice (vv. 6, 8) as descriptions of the recipients

actions. While God re-begets (v. 3), guards (v. 4), and prepares to
reveal (v. 5), the believers rejoice, love, and believe. None of the
letters first readers had ever seen Jesus, and because they believed
this letter came from Jesus number one apostle, they may well have
felt an implied contrast between themselves and the author. But
1 Peters author almost never pulls on this string (the possible
exception being his use of martys, martyr, at 5:1; yet even this is
something in which readers may also participate). His rhetoric is
always either about what we experience, including the audience,
or what you, the readers, are doing.
Although 1 Peter several times exhorts the readers to love each
other (1:22; 2:17; 4:8; 5:14), this one instance of love directed
toward God is an indicative, a statement about the readers, like
you rejoice in v. 6. Likewise, the author speaks of your faith or
describes how you believeall indicatives, with no exhortations
to have more or stronger faith. As noted earlier, the statements are
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given without any supporting observations

(such as Pauls your faith is being proclaimed in the whole world [Rom 1:8]).
They are Christians, after all, so these
things must be true of them. But the effect
Vibrating with restraint, he went through in his mind all the
on the recipients of having Peter speak so
things that were now dissolving in flame and combining
confidently of their love for Christ, faith
together in a serpentine of gases and smoke, in a ballet of
in Christ, and rejoicing in salvation, even
uncountable particles each behaving with a precision to
which he could never even aspire: paintings; suits; books;
when suffering, must have been salutary.
metals and silver; things of ivory, leather, and silk; furniture
As argued in the introduction, by the end
of cherry and mahogany. The heat was such that even the
of the first century one can presume that
porcelain might melt. He felt this heat, but did not move.
Nor did he want to move even as all he had built and
many of those hearing 1 Peter read would
worked for over so many years vanished before him at
also have heard about Peters own struggles
great speed.
For he had already left it behind, and his spirit had been
with faith, joy, and love from the Gospel
unlocked, and his soul freed, in a gift that had come to him
stories about him. Imagine a late firston the wind.
century Asian believer, remembering
Mark Helprin, Vandeveres House, in The Pacific and Other Stories (New
Peters denial of Jesus (Mark 14:66-71;
York: Penguin, 2004) 11314.
John 19:15-18, 25-27), his weeping afterward (Mark 14:72; John puts Peters grief
in another context, 21:17), and his post-resurrection reconciliation
with Jesus (Mark 14:28; 16:7; John 21:15-19). If the John 21 traditions were known to the readers, then Jesus repeated Simon, do
you love me?added to Peters failure to be strong in faith in a
moment of testingmay have made the letters confident assertions about the recipients that much more gratifying.
In the phrase you rejoice with inexpressible and glorious joy,
the verb translated rejoice is the same as in v. 6, but is a different
root from the noun translated joy. Both are common words in
the LXX, and Luke 1:14 treats them as synonyms. Inexpressible
might also be unexpressed; the idea is that the joy the believers
experience has not or cannot be put into words. Glorious is literally glorified, a divine passive participle that probably implies
that God has infused the joy with the glory of Gods presence. [Joy]
That is some joy, in other words. They are not just whistling a
happy tune or letting a smile be their umbrella. They are feeling the
sort of joy one would only feel before the face of God, when words
leave you and your legs go weak. This kind of joy comes because35
they are receiving, as the outcome of your faith, the salvation of
your souls. Outcome is the word telos, meaning the end or goal
of something. Since receive has the sense of gaining something as
Purified by Fire
A very wealthy and obsessive man loses the
woman he truly loves because he cannot let go
of an obsession with a house. One afternoon, reflecting
on his loss, he finds his house is on fire:
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a reward or as payment, we are probably supposed Joy

When men hear it [the voice of God]
to be thinking here of the last judgment: their salvathey fall to their knees and their
tion will be the final benefit God grants as a result
souls are riven and they cry out to Him and
of their life of faith.
there is no fear in them but only that wildThe salvation of your souls is unfortunately ness of heart that springs from such longing
bound up with the whole body/soul division that and they cry out to stay his presence for they
has at times turned Christianity into a faith that know at once that while godless men may
live well enough in their exile those to whom
taught people to devalue their bodies. If the soul is He has spoken can contemplate no life
understood to be an immortal, invisible, immaterial without Him but only darkness and despair.
bit trapped within the body of unchristian passions Cormac McCarthy, The Crossing (New York: Vintage,
and desires and is the only thing that will be saved, 1994) 152.
then (some have reasoned) the churchs business is
bringing souls to God, treating the bodies involved mostly as
impediments. But 1 Peters usage of psych, the Greek word usually
translated soul or self, shows that the author means it to refer to
the whole person. In 1:22 soul seems to be parallel to heart, by
which first-century writers meant what we mean when we say the
will or the mind. In 2:11, fleshly desires make war against the
souls of the readers, which sounds like the old body/soul split, but
then 3:20 uses souls to mean personsthe eight folks saved from
the flood. So the salvation of your souls could be correctly paraphrased as your own salvation or the salvation of your selves.36
But perhaps the author attached souls as well as the personal
pronoun your to the noun salvation to signal the turn he was
about to make in vv. 10-12, where the readers salvation was the
subject of investigation by the prophets of old; he will be dealing in
the next three verses with matters spiritual and mysterious.
Previews Granted and Desired, 1:10-12
Concerning which salvation prophets (who were prophesying
about grace for you) searched and sought, making careful inquiry
into what person or which time the Spirit of Christ intended[the
Spirit] who was pre-testifying in them to the sufferings and subsequent glories for Christ, to whom [the prophets] it was revealed
that they were pursuing these things for you, not themselves, which
[the things revealed to the prophets about Christ] are now proclaimed to you through those who evangelized you by the Holy
Spirit sent from heaven, into which [the things proclaimed to you]
angels long to peek.
These next few verses take us through some high syntactical
weeds, as well as tall theological timber. First, the grammar. If you
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read Greek, pull out your New Testament and glance at how vv.
10-11 are structured. In English, the objects of prepositions need
to follow close behind the prepositions, with perhaps an article
intervening: a bump on the log in the hole in the bottom of the
sea. Rhythmic but predictable. In addition, subjects usually come
before verbs in English. Greek, however, uses case endings rather
than word order to match nouns to governing prepositions and to
indicate the subject. Sticking to the Greek word order, v. 10 reads:
Concerning which salvation searched and sought prophets the
ones about the for you grace prophesying. Prophets is the
subject of searched and sought, and everything from the ones
through prophesying qualifies prophets. For you is nested
inside about the . . . grace and both of those are nested inside the
ones . . . prophesyingcool, isnt it? And a good example of the
fluency of 1 Peters Greekneither Hebrew nor Aramaic nests
prepositional phrases like that, so this passage is unlikely to have
been composed by someone who had only limited formal training
in Greek.
The syntax is challenging for novice Greek-readers, but the sense
of the passage is clear enough. The prophets of old searched diligently, looking for clues about the time and identity of the Christ
who was destined to suffer. The Spirit revealed to them that the
information they found was not so much for themselves, but for
othersthose reading 1 Peter. What they searched for, others
announced as good news to the readers, led by the same Spirit;
what they announced was such good news that even angels wanted
an advance look at it.
Prophets in these verses, as v. 11 makes plain, were the ancient
prophets who lived prior to the time of Christ. Christians like the
recipients of 1 Peter heard them read aloud in worship. [Justin,
Apology 1.67] Early Christian interpretation of the prophets, as far as
we can tell, seems to have been consistently, if not exclusively, christological; that is, Christians in the first and second centuries treated
Isaiah, Jeremiah, and the others as predictors of the experiences of
Jesus, mostly to the exclusion of what the prophets might
Justin, Apology 1.67
On the day which is called
have had to say to their own times and people. In addition,
Sunday we have a
for early Christians, prophet included Moses and David,
common assembly of all who live in
so that the Pentateuch and the Psalms were also interthe cities or in the outlying districts,
preted as predictive. Thus, for instance, LXX Psalm 109:1
and the memoirs of the Apostles or
the writings of the Prophets are
(110:1), The Lord says to my lord, Sit at my right, until I
read, as long as there is time.
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set your enemies as a footstool for your feet, probably originally

written as a hymn or poem for the coronation of a new Israelite
king, was taken by early Christians as a prediction of Jesus resurrection/exaltation (Acts 2:34-35; Justin, Apol 1.45; Heb 1:13; and
Barn. 12.10 cite the verse to prove Christs exalted status). Justin
Martyr, writing in the mid-second century, interprets LXX Psalm
18 (19):1-2, The heavens declare Gods glory, and the firmament
announces the work of his hands. Day by day is uttering words,
and night by night is announcing wisdom, to be a prediction of
the evangelistic work of the apostles (Justin, Apol 1.40). Justin, like
many Christians of his era, argued that Christians understand the
Old Testament better than Jews, but Barnabas goes further,
denying that the ancient Israelites ever understood the Bible. It
argues, for instance, that God never intended the laws about clean
and unclean food (Barn. 10), Sabbath observance (15), or the
temple (16) to be taken literally, and that the correct allegorical
interpretation is only available to Christians: How could they
know or understand these things? We, however, speak as those who
know the commandments in an upright way, as the Lord wished.
For this reason he circumcised our hearing and our hearts, that we
may understand these things (Barn. 10.12).
First Peters emphasis on how the Old Testament predicted Jesus
would therefore have probably been familiar to the readers. More
than likely, this was the sort of thing they heard in worship.
According to 1 Peter 2:18-25, the author understands Isaiah
52:1353:12 to have been a prediction of Jesus sufferings, so when
he writes about the Spirit of Christ . . . who was pretestifying to the sufferings and subsequent glories for Christ
(1:11), we know at least one of the prophets and Scriptures that he
had in mind. It was also common among Christians of the late first
and early second centuries to identify the Spirit who inspired the
prophets with the Word of God: We believe them [Matthew and
Luke on the Virgin Birth], since the prophetic Spirit through the
above-mentioned Isaiah said that this would happen, as we noted
before. The Spirit and the Power from God cannot rightly be
thought of as anything else than the Word, who is also the Firstborn of God . . . (Justin, Apol 1.33). The prophets searched and
sought (the two Greek words behind the verbs both alliterate and
rhyme), making careful inquirynot into the Scriptures, obviously, since they could not investigate something not yet
writtenbut into what person or which time the Spirit of Christ
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Christ with Prophets

In this decoration of the ceiling above a 14th-century baptistery, Christ
is inspiring the Old Testament Prophets. Many early Christians believed
that as the Word of God, Christ provided them with what they preached
and wrote.
intended. In other words, the

prophets wrestled with the
meaning of the revelations
given them by the Spirit, and
by the same Spirit came to
understand that their prophesies were about grace for you,
and that they were pursuing
these things for you, not themselves. Prophets like Isaiah
knew they were passing along
previews of things like the sufferings and subsequent glories
for Christ (meaning destined
for Christ in Gods plan) and
that this news was really for the
benefit of others. [Ignatius on the
Prophets] The image of prophets
passing along divine messages
that could not be fully interpreted or understood until later
Christ with Prophets. Mosaic, Mid 14th C. Baptistery, Venice, Italy. (Credit: Cameraphoto
Arte, Venice/Art Resource, NY)
would have been familiar for
the readers. Greek and Roman
Ignatius on the Prophets
religious practices included posing questions to the gods,
For the most divine
prophets lived according to
whose answers came through male and female prophets
Jesus Christ. For this reason also
often in rather ambiguous oracles. [Sibylline Oracles]
they were persecuted. But they
Take a minute to think about this from a couple of difwere inspired by his gracious gift,
ferent angles. First, as commentators note, the author
so that the disobedient became
fully convinced that there is one
intends this as a way to show the readers how far back God
God, who manifested himself
has been thinking about them and how their salvation was
through Jesus Christ his Son . . . .
always part of Gods intention.37 Locating the readers as
Ignatius, Magnesians 8.2.
Gods people, full recipients of Gods grace and promises
that is one of the letters major purposes and one of its most
appealing features. Our practices of pastoral care and evangelism
would benefit from imitating 1 Peters focus on what Gods people
are in Gods intention, rather than on the gap that always exists
between how we live and what God aims for us to be. Second,
however, we should be cautious about how far we take the notion
that the prophets spoke for us and not for themselves. First Peter
never says that the prophets failed to comprehend their own predictions or that the prophets had nothing to say to their own times.
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But if we are not careful, not for themselves but Sibylline Oracles
The Roman Senate kept a collection of
for you can become its all about usa most
Sibylline Oraclesthat is, prophetic
implausible scenario, and a sort of theological
texts supposedly delivered by a Sibyl, or holy
narcissism. Implausible: suppose Isaiah had womanfor consultation in times of great disgathered an audience and then had begun by tress: when political strife gripped the city,
saying, What you are about to hear has nothing when a great calamity had happened in war, or
to do with you. You will not understand; when a portent or prodigy had appeared that was
difficult to interpret (Dionysius of Halicarnassus,
nobody will for several hundred years. Why Antiquities 4.62). In order to use them, the
would his audience have continued to listen, and Senate had to pass a law authorizing the quinwho would have cared enough to preserve his decimviri, the Council of Fifteen, to find the
words? Narcissistic: why do we think God would appropriate passage, interpret it, and pass along
the relevant advice.
ignore that generation and all subsequent ones
See Valerie M. Warrior, Roman Religion (Cambridge: Cambridge
down to us? Do we think we are the only ones University Press, 2006) 4849.
God has ever cared about?
Better, then, to stay with 1 Peters image of
continuity between the Spirit who inspired the prophets, who
empowered those who preached the good news to the letters audience, and who is also the Spirit of Christ. Gods word is full of
grace, abundant enough to be good news across the ages for all who
have heard it, because the Spirit makes it so. It is such great news,
in fact, that the angels wanted a peek, but the Spirit has caused the
news to be announced openly and broadly.
Hope and Holiness, Reverence and Love (1:13-25)
The reason I live in Covington, Louisiana, is not because it was listed

recently in Money as one of the best places in the United States to
retire to. The reason is not that it is a pleasant place but rather that it
is a pleasant nonplace. . . . Technically speaking, Covington is a nonplace in a certain relation to a place (New Orleans), a relation that
allows one to avoid the horrors of total placement or total nonplacement or total misplacement.38
Walker Percys reflections on how place affects a writer help frame

this next section. By total placement, he means to live in a place
like Charleston or Mobile, where ones family has lived for two
hundred years.39 Percy notes how that usually cripples a writer: It
is necessary to escape the place of ones origins and the ghosts of
ones ancestors but not too far.40 A writer can choose to move to a
foreign country, like Hemingway in Paris (total misplacement),
or to a completely different region of the United States (total non-
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placement). Neither choice sounded good to Percyhe knew he

would miss his native South too much. So he moved from New
Orleans to Covington:
When I first saw Covington, having driven over from New Orleans
one day, I took one look around, sniffed the ozone, and exclaimed
unlike Brigham Young: This is the nonplace for me! It had no
country clubs, no subdivisions, no Chamber of Commerce, no hospitals, no psychiatrists (now it has all these). I didnt know anybody,
had no kin here. A stranger in my own country. A perfect place for a
writer! I bought a house the following week.41
Some of 1 Peters readers may have literally moved from their

homeland, becoming strangers and sojourners in fact, but I suspect
that most of them have not; they are still living in the places where
they were born, but now as Christians they are acting as if they
were foreigners. It is terribly hard to do this, to resist the pull of
your family and friends, to risk the displeasure of your neighbors,
and to remain steadfastly different when it would be so much easier
to live as you did before your conversion. So 1 Peter, having praised
them in 1:3-12 for what and who they are, now turns to exhortation. Sure, it is hard; roll up your sleeves and work at it. Being holy
is no cakewalk. Yes, you are different nowa stranger in your own
countrybut unlike Percy, you do have kin here, so love them
with all you are.
Structure
This next section includes the lectionary reading for the third
Sunday in Easter, Year A (1:17-23), when contemplation of the
effects of the resurrection should be on our minds. The first word
in v. 13 is the conjunction dio, meaning therefore, and since it
signals a turn from the descriptions piled up in vv. 3-12 to conclusions drawn from them, we can be pretty sure that v. 13 is the
beginning of a new section. Where the author intended the section
to end is harder to say. The verses in 1 Peter 2:4-10, the living
stone passage, belong together, but v. 4 begins rather abruptly for
the start of a new section. First Peter 2:1-3 is all one sentence, and
begins with a therefore (a different word from v. 13, but still
an inferential conjunction). I propose, then, to treat 2:1-3 with
2:4-10, which has the advantage of matching the lectionary reading
for the fifth Sunday in Easter, Year A. Continuing to work back-
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wards, the verses of 1:22-25 belong together, with the Scripture

quote in vv. 24-25 offered as evidence for the command love
strenuously in v. 22. First Peter 1:17-21 is all one sentence, commanding the readers to live in reverence, with appropriate
explanations and amplifications. Verses 14-16 are a sentence,
urging the readers to live holy lives, with a Scriptural support in
v. 16, and v. 13 begins the section by exhorting the readers, Hope
completely! Thus, although one could divide 1:22-25 from
1:13-21, I will instead approach this as one section. It has four
main topics, all meant to be drawn from the descriptions of Gods
saving actions toward the readers offered in 1:3-12. The topics are
offered as imperatives. Each is qualified by at least one participle,
and the second and last are supported by quotations from the
Bible. Here is what it looks like:
1. Hope completely . . . (v. 13)
By girding the loins of your mind
By being self-controlled
Upon the grace brought to you in the revelation of Jesus Christ
2. Be yourselves holy in your whole manner of life . . . (vv. 14-16)
As obedient children
By not conforming yourselves to former desires had in ignorance
In accordance to how the one who called you is holy
Because it is written, Be holy, because I am holy
3. Live in reverence during your sojourn . . . (vv. 17-21)
Since the one you pray to as Father impartially judges everyone
by his/her deeds
Since you know that you were redeemed not with perishable
things, but with the blood of Christ
4. Love each other strenuously from a clean heart . . . (vv. 22-25)
Since you have purified your souls
Since you have been re-begotten . . . through the Word of God
Because (it is written), . . . the Word of God remains forever
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Hope Completely, 1:13

Therefore, by girding up the loins of your mind, by being selfcontrolled, hope completely upon the grace brought to you in the
revelation of Jesus Christ.
As noted above, therefore means that the author is treating
what he is about to say as an inference drawn from what he already
said. So far, he has mostly played up what a wonderful situation the
readers are in: chosen and re-begotten by God their Father, given a
living hope by the resurrection of Christ their Lord, and receiving
Spirit-inspired testimonies from the prophets and proclamations of
those who first brought them the gospel. First Peter has had only
good things to say about their faith: it is currently protecting them,
and its proven value, demonstrated by their steadfastness in suffering, will be celebrated when Jesus is revealed. They love and
believe in Jesus, although they have never seen him, and the author
expects that Judgment Day will bring only the full realization of
the inheritance God is currently guarding for them.
Such a warm introduction might be expected to be followed by a
but, as with John the Revelators but I have this against you or
as with Paul, who spends five verses piling up nice words about the
Corinthians speech, knowledge, spiritual giftedness, and strength,
and then three and a half chapters berating and cajoling them
about their divisive habits. First Peter does not do that, however.
The four imperatives carry no hints that the readers are not already
doing what the author is commanding. In a letter written to such a
broad audience as this one, that strategy makes sense: you urge
your readers to do what you believe is likely to help them and leave
it to them to apply where needed.
Translations of v. 13 sometimes treat the participles girding
(anazsamenoi) and being self-controlled (nphontes) as imperatives (the NRSV reads prepare your minds . . . discipline
yourselves). Grammarians are divided on this issue; J. H. Moulton
argued that the imperatival participle was a feature of Koine Greek,
and some modern commentators follow him cautiously, reducing
the number of imperatival participles that Moulton found in
1 Peter.42 My opinion is that one should only translate a participle
as an imperative when no other option makes sense, which generally happens when an adverbial participle has no finite verb close
by to modify (the first example is in v. 14). In this verse, the imperative hope can easily support the two participles, which I take to
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be adverbial, describing the circumstances under which they will

hope.
Girding the loins literally meant tying up ones robe or tunic and
securing it at the waist, in order to be ready for active movement; it
was a typical thing for slaves to do, as the quote from Polycarp
shows. [Gird Up] It was a familiar metaphor for preparation: we say
rolling up your sleeves or suiting up. First Peter is trusting that
his readers have absorbed the descriptions of who they
Gird Up
are in vv. 3-12 and so have their minds right or their
Therefore, after girding up your
loins, be slaves to God in fear
thinking correctly focused. The second participle is hard
and
truth,
setting aside empty reato explain because it stands alone, without an obvious
soning and the error of the many,
object and without any sort of conjunction to make
believing on the one who raised our
plain how it is to be connected to girding up or
Lord Jesus Christ from the dead and
who gave him glory and a throne at his
hope. My best guess is to take it as a second participle
right hand.
of means: by being self-controlled, like by girding up
Pol. Phil 2:1.
the loins of your mind, explains how the readers are to
hope completely.43 This translation makes these participles parallel in function to the one in v. 14a. First Peter will have more to
say later about what might be expected under the heading being
self-controlled, which was a major topic for early Christian
authors. [Self-controlled]
Self-controlled
Completely is an adverb (teleis) from the noun for
Nphontes, translated being
end or goal (telos). It is sometimes translated perself-controlled, literally means
fectly or finally. Here it probably means that the
being sober. 1 Peter uses the imperaauthor expects the readers to pin all their hopes on their
tive form of the same verb in 4:7 and
5:8 where it seems to mean something
Christian faith, not qualifying it with any other comlike be serious!
mitments or allegiances. Hope, as a noun or verb, is
used five times in 1 Peter (1:3, 13, 21; 3:5, 15):
1:3, God has re-begotten us into a living hope.
1:13, Hope completely in the grace brought to you in Christs
revelation.
1:21, So that your faith and hope are in God.
3:5, The holy women who hoped in God.
3:15, The hope within you.
The author tends to think of hope as both the result of Gods
saving activity and as an activity that we undertake toward God; in
the latter sense, it is parallel to faith, as 1:21 demonstrates. Think
of hope as a great expectation, a confidence based on what has
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Hope
already happenedelection, re-begetting, etc.

that what God promised, God will provide. [Hope]
The grace brought to you in the revelation of
Jesus Christ presents another puzzle. The participle brought (pheromenn) is in a past tense,
and so the clause may refer to the ministry of Jesus
as a saving event. The phrase in the revelation of
1 Clem. 26:127:1.
Jesus Christ has already been used in v. 7 to mean
the second coming of Jesus and the last judgment. First Peter 1:20,
however, speaks of Jesus having been made manifest at the end of
timemeaning in the time of the author and the readers. Either
orientation makes sense: Christs appearance brought Gods grace
to the world and would serve as grounds for the
Grace and Holiness
readers hope,44 while Christs second coming will
Her face was flushed with happiness,
complete Gods work of grace and may also be the
as it always was when she was in
resting place for their hope. If the author meant the
the proximity of holiness. An avowed
second coming, then one can either fudge the
agnostic, believing the sacred has been taken
over by psychology, she nevertheless was
translation of the participle (the NRSV translates it
someone who melted toward the vision of
will bring as if it were future), or infer that he was
Gods grace, seeing it as a storm of sunlight,
looking at the future with such confidence that the
the most powerful force in history.
readers could count the delivery as already made.45
Carol Shields, Larrys Party (Toronto: Random House of
Do we then think that it is so great
and marvelous that the Creator of all
things will raise everyone who has served him
in a holy way with the confidence of good
faith . . . ? Let our souls, therefore, be bound
by this hope to the one who is faithful in his
promises and upright in his judgments.
Canada, 1997) 215.
[Grace and Holiness]
Be Yourselves Holy in Your Whole Manner of Life, 1:14-16

As obedient children, do not be conformed to the desires you had
formerly in your ignorance, but in keeping with how the one who
called you is holy, be yourselves holy in your whole manner of life,
because it is written, Be holy, because I am holy.
First Peter often introduces exhortations with an as, which in
this authors usage is another way of saying that because x is true,
you should do y. This one appears to be a double-edged
command: do not do this, but do this instead; double-edged, that
is, if we are correct to translate the participle being conformed
(syschmatizomenoi) as an imperative. It is possible to keep it as a
participleAs obedient children, who are not conformed . . .
but normally one would expect a definite article with the participle
if that is what was meant. As obedient children, since you are not
conformed or As obedient children, by not being conformed are
plausible and mean approximately the same thing as the translation
given above. Being conformed, in other words, is something to
avoid as a means of being holy, which is the main point of this
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section.46 The only other instance of this verb is in Romans 12:2,

where Paul uses a true imperative and where the object to be
avoided is this age. First Peter is more pointed in what he wants
the readers to shun: the desires you had formerly in your ignorance.
The desires or the passions, and what to do about them, were a
common topic of discussion for Greek, Roman, Jewish, and
Christian ethical writers during this period. A typical approach was
to think of the passions as something to be mastered through
processes intended to strengthen the will. A good example is the
first-century Stoic-influenced Jewish work 4 Maccabees, which
argues that human reason, if properly prepared through devotion
to God and study of the Torah, can overcome normal human passions, allowing the faithful to stay in control even under extreme
duress. To make this point, the author retells the stories of the martyrdoms of an old priest named Eleazar, seven brothers, and their
mother (the author expands on a previous version found in 2
Maccabees). Each martyr dies bravely after being
Devout Reason Conquers Emotion
tortured in gruesome ways for failure to eat pork.
1 If, then, a woman, advanced in
years and mother of seven sons,
The elderly Eleazar has the constitution of an athlete
endured
seeing her children tortured to
and does not give in to his age; the brothers, instead
death, it must be admitted that devout
of urging each other to eat and live, put aside their
reason is sovereign over the emotions. 2
natural affection and urge each other to resist; and
Thus I have demonstrated not only that men
have ruled over the emotions, but also that
the mother, whom the author holds up as a prime
a woman has despised the fiercest tortures.
example, is able to overcome the maternal desire to
3 The lions surrounding Daniel were not so
protect her children as well as (according to the
savage, nor was the raging fiery furnace of
authors understanding) the natural weaknesses charMishael so intensely hot, as was her innate
parental love, inflamed as she saw her
acteristic of women. [Devout Reason Conquers Emotion]
seven sons tortured in such varied ways. 4
Roman and Greek Stoics, Cynics, and Platonists
But the mother quenched so many and such
would not link self-discipline and reason to the
great emotions by devout reason.
study of Torah, of course, but they would agree with
4 Macc 16:1-4.
4 Maccabees that by study and serious effort, one
can, and should, learn to master ones desires. [A Cynic on Emotion]
But some Christians approached the issue differently. In their
view, desire could be a powerful force for good if targeted toward
the right end and allowed to grow. Rather than ignoring passion,
this approach would redirect it. A good example of this understanding is the second-century Shepherd of Hermas, a long account
of a man who has visions and is guided by various heavenly interpreters on how to understand them. Hermass problem is his own
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A Cynic on Emotion
Just as we do toward philosophy, the masses hasten
eagerly toward what they think is happiness, whenever they hear of a short cut leading to it. But when they come
up the road and survey its ruggedness, they draw back as
though they were sick, and then somehow voice a complaint
not about their own weakness, but about our indifference to
hardship. So let them sleep with their pleasures as they are
eager to do. For if they lead such lives, greater hardships will
overtake them than those of which they accuse us. By reason
of these they become base slaves to every circumstance. But
as for you, continue in your training, just as you began, and
earnestly pursue a balanced resistance to both pleasure and
hardship. For it is natural for us to war equally against both and,
first and foremost, to shackle them, the one because it leads to
shameful deeds, the other because it leads away from noble
acts through fear.
(Pseudo-)Diogenes to Crates, in Abraham J. Malherbe, The Cynic Epistles (SBL
Sources for Biblical Study 12; Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1977) 107.
desires, which he cannot even completely identify, much less control.

Desire turns out to be much more
complicated than just I am consumed with passion vs. I can handle
it; believers may be two-thirds green
and one-third dead (spending too
much time with unbelievers, but not
yet fallen away from the faith) or
mostly green and only a little bit dead
(faithful believers who only gave in to
petty desires and then repented) or
any number of endlessly enumerated
variations. Hermas learns that he can
cultivate strong virtuous passions, and
that unless he does, his efforts to bear
Christs name will be fruitless (Herm.,
Sim. 90.2).47 [Shepherd of Hermas on Godly Passion]

First Peter does not, like Hermas, depict the Virtues as beautiful
virgins who kiss and dance and play with believers (no surprise
nobody but Hermas tries it). But 1 Peter does tend to distinguish
between harmful and beneficial desires. In 1:14, believers are to
stay away from, literally, the former in-your-ignorance desires,
things characterized by an undisciplined submission to passion
licentiousness, drunkenness, etc. (4:3). But in 2:2-3, the author
hopes that salvation will seem so tasty in the mouths of the
believers that they will thirst for it.
Shepherd of Hermas on Godly Passion
The ninth parable in The Shepherd of Hermas is a story about how twelve beautiful virgins were building a tower
out of stones. These young women are the Virtues, also called holy spirits (90.2). True followers of Jesus must
bear their names as well as the name of the Son of God (90.3): The first is Faith, the second Self-Restraint, the third
Power, and the fourth Patience. And the others who stood between them are named Simplicity, Innocence, Holiness,
Cheerfulness, Truth, Understanding, Harmony, and Love (92.2). In one part of the parable, Hermas is left alone with the
virgins for a night; scandalized, he tries to leave, but they tell him that he cannot:
But where will I stay? I asked. You will sleep with us, they replied, but as a brother, not as a husband. For you are our brother,
and we will be living with you from now on because we love you so much. But I was embarrassed to stay with them. Then the
one who appeared to be their leader began to kiss me and hold me in her arms. When the others saw her holding me, they also
began to kiss me, leading me around the tower and playing with me. It was as if I were young again, and I began also to play with
them. For some of them were prancing, others dancing, and others singing. (88.3-5)
In this way, Hermas learns that being passionately connected to the Virtues is a good thing. When his spiritual guide
comes back to meet him the next morning, he asks Hermas what he had for dinner: All night long, Lord, I replied, I
dined on the words of the Lord (88.8).
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So stay away from passions you once mistakenly thought were

good or harmless, and instead, be holy in your whole manner of
life. The word translated manner of life (anastroph ) is one of
1 Peters favorites (also at 1:18; 2:12; 3:1, 2, 16). It is a comprehensive sort of word, meant to sum up how one operates according to
ones values: Guard yourself, child, in all your deeds, and be
someone who has been instructed in your whole manner of life
(Tob 4:14); but [Eleazar], taking up a firm resolve worthy of his
age . . . and of the most excellent manner of life he had had since
childhood . . . quickly answered for [his torturers] to send him to
Hades (2 Macc 6:23). The whole-life principle announced here is
be holy in accordance with how God is holy, the thesis of
Leviticus, which 1 Peter cites in v. 16 (LXX Lev 11:44-45; 19:2;
20:7, 26).
Holiness is the separateness, the difference of God from everything else, not just from sin. I am holy means I am God and
there is no otherno competitors, no parallels, no confusion
between the Creator and the created, simply God. By extension,
things or people are holy when they belong exclusively to God, or
when they are sufficiently committed to God so that they can
draw near to God without damage to themselves or to the place
of drawing near. A shovel used to remove ashes from the altar in
the temple was holy because it had been dedicated to this use
alone. Ordinary Jews, coming into the temple to offer sacrifice for
their sins or to pay a vow, were supposed to sanctify themselves
by immersing themselves in a mikveh, an immersion pool. But all
day, every day, they were obligated to honor their parents (Lev
19:3), to provide for the poor (Lev 19:9-10), and to refrain from
doing things, like eating pork or shellfish, that had no obvious
moral effects (Lev 11), in order to mark
Holiness
them as Gods people. That is what Leviticus
The mass existed, in his perhaps heretical
means by be holy, because I am holy.
view, to keep, encourage, and sustain a sense
[Holiness]
of holiness, and to hold open the channels of grace

that, with age and discouragement, tend to close.
Holiness is another of 1 Peters major

Mark Helprin, Monday, in The Pacific and Other Stories (New York:
themes. Note the wide range of terms
Penguin, 2004) 6768.
employed: holy (hagios, 1:12, 15, 16; 2:5, 9;
3:5); sanctify (hagiaz, 3:15); sanctification (hagiasmos, 1:2); purify
(hagniz, 1:22); pure (hagnos, 3:2); unblemished (ammos, 1:19);
spotless (aspilos, 1:19); pure (katharos, 1:2); undefiled (amiantos,
1:4).48 The author takes over the Levitical theme that Gods people
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Transfiguration
are to be separate from the rest

of the world, urging his readers
not to be like the Gentiles
(2:12; 4:3). One obvious component of their separation
would be giving up the worship
of the gods (4:3, lawless idolatry), and the author echoes
other early Christians in urging
his readers to avoid sins of
excess: licentiousness, drunkenness, etc. (4:3). But another set
of things to avoid are community-killing attitudes: deceit,
hypocrisy, envy, and slander
(2:1). Holiness is thus about
both being different from the
world and being devoted to
fellow believers (see discussion
of 1:22 below).
Live in Reverence during

Your Sojourn, 1:17-21
And since you call upon a
Fra Angelico painted this in a monks cell in Florence. St. Peter, on the
Father who impartially judges
bottom left, is turning away from Christ in his glory, while Moses and
according to everyones deeds,
Elijah, the Virgin and St. Dominic gaze intently at the Lord. 1 Peter would
live in reverence during your
agree that holiness demands ones full attention.
sojourn, knowing that you
were redeemed from the worthless manner of life you inherited
from your forebears, not with perishable things like silver or gold,
but by the valuable blood of Jesus, as an unblemished and spotless
lamb, foreknown before the worlds founding, but made plain at
the end of times for your sakeyou, who through him are
believing in God who raised him from the dead and gave him
glory, so that your faith and hope are on God.
The word translated live (anastraphte) is the verb form of the
noun manner of life (anastroph) from v. 15, so live carries connotations of live by certain principles or conduct your life. In
reverence is literally in fear, which in 1 Peter is normally used for
how one is related to God, and in that context is a good thing. It is
hard for modern readers to read fear God without unfortunate
Fra Angelico (13871455). Transfiguration. 14401445. Fresco, Museo di S. Marco,
Florence, Italy. (Credit: Scala/Art Resource, NY)
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negative connotations, however, so respect or reverence comes

pretty close to what is meant. You must fear the Lord your God
(LXX Lev 19:14; Deut 6:2, 13, and many more times) is used as a
summary call for living a godly life, while the fear of the Lord
pervades legal, prophetic, wisdom, and cultic Old Testament texts
as shorthand for a life correctly related to God. First Peter carefully
distinguishes between respect due to everyone, including persons of
high status or great power, and reverence due God (2:17); believers
should only fear God.
Pin all your hopes on God (v. 13); let Gods holiness guide the
way you conduct your life (vv. 14-16); and conduct your life in reverence. All three imperatives are hammering on the same nail, that
believers must be focused on God in a seriously exclusive way.
These readers, the author figures, need a lot of encouragement on
this topic. Christians were a small fraction of the population, and
their culture was oriented toward support for their traditional gods
and goddesses and for the newer cults, temples devoted to
emperors and to the various mysteries. Public art and architecture
displayed these deities and celebrated them as the saviors and protectors of the places where 1 Peters readers lived. Holidays and
public celebrations honored the gods and the reigns of the divine
emperors. Homes had private altars for daily offerings to the deities
who guarded the house or to departed ancestors. Small statues
stood at the gates of homes for folks to touch, for luck, when
coming or going. People about to take a sip of wine poured a little
onto the ground to honor the gods; people took oaths and cursed
in the names of the gods; the gods were invoked to begin and end
theatre performances and athletic contests. Craft guilds, burial societies, and military regiments had patron deities. It would not have
been easy for 1 Peters readers to ignore all this, and the author
would not have needed to know his readers intimately to guess how
hard they struggled to live by the One Gods exclusive claims on
them.
Imagine finding something that made such claims on you, that
captured your heart to such a degree that you could cut ties to your
family, your work, your city, your faith, to the long history of your
culture. It would be one thing to feel such a call and, like Abram,
walk hundreds of miles to find a new place where you were a
strangerto put the oar on your shoulder and walk until somebody asked you what that was, so that you never had to wrestle
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Emigrant
The speaker in the scene below has been
reading Dickenss Great Expectations, and
she asks her teacher about the changes Pip
makes after he moves to London.
with your history again. [Emigrant] But what if you

did not, or could not, leave? What if you made
yourself a stranger in your own neighborhood?
Not a clean break, but a ragged edge against
which you cut yourself day after day, as you
I didnt like his London friends. I didnt take to his
longed both to fit into the life you had and to
housemate Herbert Pocket, and I couldnt underremain faithful to the life you had embraced. No
stand why Pip had, and it worried me that he was
leaving me behind. Nor could I understand why he
wonder 1 Peter calls this way of life your
had changed his name to Handel.
sojourn. Exile (so NRSV) gives us the wrong
Mr. Watts plonked himself down on the sand
image, one of being forced out and kept out of
beside me . . . . Lets see if I can explain,
Matilda. . . . Pip . . . is like an emigrant. He is in
home. Maybe some of 1 Peters readers had been
the process of migrating from one level of society
sent away, and maybe some of them had physito another. A change of name is as good as a
change of clothes. It is to help him on his way.
cally moved and were living in a place far from
their home. But chances are that most of them
Lloyd Jones, Mister Pip (Toronto: Vintage Canada, 2007) 70.
were still living in the places where they adopted
Christianity, living as if they were foreigners because their faith
demanded that they abstain from so many ordinary, daily parts
of life.
Here are more reasons why they should live so uncomfortably.
First, the God whom you call upon as Father is an impartial
judge of peoples deeds. No favoritismwhich always cuts both
ways, right? We would like God to be just with others and merciful
with us. But God sees through pretense, so if the readers are
tempted to ease their sojourn by conforming here and there
to their previously held values, they should remember the judgment coming.
Second, the ticket price for their sojourn is extremely high
not some amount of gold or silver, but Jesus life. You were
redeemed is a word for buying people out of slavery or for recovering lost (or almost-lost) property, and because this is the only
place 1 Peter uses it, we cannot easily pinpoint the nuances he
intends. In the LXX redeem is often used as a figure of speech for
salvation with the exodus or the release of Israel from captivity in
Babylon as the metaphorical comparison. A few examples:
LXX Exodus 6:6: Go, speak to the sons of Israel, saying, I am
the Lord, and I will lead you from the power of the Egyptians and
I will rescue you from slavery and I will redeem you with an
upraised arm and great judgment. In this verse, redeem means
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the same as rescue, and requires no purchase price, only Gods

great strength and acts of judgment.
LXX Psalm 33:22: The Lord will redeem the souls of his
slaves, and all those who hope in him shall not err. Psalm 34 (LXX
33) will be cited in 1 Peter 2:3, so it may have been in the authors
mind as he wrote this verse. In this psalm, redeem is parallel to
save (LXX Ps 33:18) and to deliver (33:17, 19), and the righteous are pulled out of tribulations (33:19) and death (33:21).
LXX Isaiah 43:1-4: And now thus says the Lord, the God who
made you, O Jacob, and who formed you, O Israel: Do not fear,
because I redeemed you; I called you by your name; you are mine.
. . . Because I am the Lord your God, the Holy one of Israel, the
one saving you. I made Egypt and Ethiopia your redemption-price,
and [gave] Soene [the Hebrew has Seba] for you. Because you
were valuable in my sight, you were glorified, and I loved you, and
I gave people for you and rulers for your head. Redeem in its
various forms as noun and verb is a favorite word in Isaiah 4055.
In this example, God gives other nations as the price for Israels
redemptionnot literally, of course, because to whom would God
give the Egyptians? The notion is that God overthrew other nations
in order to save Israel.
LXX Isaiah 52:3-4: Because thus says the Lord, you were sold
as a gift [i.e., given away], so you will not be redeemed with silver.
Thus says the Lord, My people formerly went down to Egypt to
sojourn there, and they were violently carried away into Assyria.
The point made in this saying is that since there was no purchase
price for Israels sojourn, neither will there be a redemption price.
The links between the Isaiah passages and 1 Peter are strong
Isaiahs I called you is echoed in 1 Peter 1:15, sojourn from
Isaiah 52:3 is in 1 Peter 1:17, and not with silver is in both Isaiah
52:3 and 1 Peter 1:18. We will also see material from Isaiah 5253
show up later in 1 Peter, so it is entirely plausible that the author
was thinking of Isaiah as he wrote this section.49 The audience
might have caught the references, if they were sufficiently attuned
to the overtones of the LXX. Regardless, they probably (in addition
or instead) heard redeem and thought about redemption from
slaveryespecially as a large percentage of the audience members
were slaves, former slaves, or slave owners.
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Seneca on Abuse of Slaves

As a result of their high-handed treatment the proverb is
current: As many enemies as you have slaves. They are not
enemies when we acquire them; we make them enemies. I shall pass
over the other cruel and inhuman conduct toward them; for we maltreat them, not as if they were men, but as if they were beasts of
burden. When we recline at a banquet, one slave mops up the disgorged food, another crouches beneath the table and gathers up the
leftovers of the tipsy guests. . . . Another, who serves the wine, must
dress like a woman and wrestle with his advancing years . . . he is kept
beardless by having his hair smoothed away or plucked out by the
roots, and he must remain awake throughout the night, dividing his time
between his masters drunkenness and his lustin the bedchamber he
must be a man, at the feast a boy. . . .
Slavery was a ubiquitous part

of life in the Roman Empire in
the late first century. The
ancient economy depended on
slave labor, and while some
writers like Seneca protested the
common abuse of slaves,
nobody, unfortunately, advocated the abolition of the
practice. Roman conquests of
various groups in the two centuries before Christ led to a
Seneca, Ep. 47; cited in Naphtali Lewis and Meyer Reinhold, Roman Civilization (2 vols; New
York: Harper & Row, 1966) 2.267.
relatively cheap supply of slaves
in that period, and helped to
fuel the rise of large estates with hundreds of slaves. But even small
households had a slave, if they could afford one, to nurse the
babies, mind the children, help with household tasks, or assist with
whatever trade the householder might practice. Slaves were property, and so were available in all respects for their owners. [Seneca on
Redemption of Slaves
A deed of manumission from Hermopolis, Egypt:
I, Marcus Aurelius Ammonio son of Lupercus son of Sarapio,
freed in the presence of friends my house-born female slave
Helene, about thirty-four years old, and I received for her
ransom 2,200 imperial drachmas from Aurelious Ales son of
Inarous. (262)
A will from Caranis, Egypt:

Gaius Longinus Castor, veteran honorably discharged from the
praetorian fleet of Misenum, made this will. I direct that my
slave Marcella, over thirty years of age, and my slave
Cleopatra, over thirty years of age, shall be freed, and they
shall each in equal portion be my heirs. All others shall be disinherited . . . . (281)
A tomb inscription from Ravenna:

Gaius Julius Mygdonius, a Parthian by origin, born a freeman,
captured when a youth and sold into slavery in Roman territory. When I became a citizen with fates kind help, I got
together a nest egg against the day when I turned fifty. Ever
since youth I sought to attain my old age; now receive me
gladly, O stone; with you I shall be freed from care. (284)
Naphtali Lewis and Meyer Reinhold, Roman Civilization, vol. 2 (New York:
Harper & Row, 1966).
Abuse of Slaves]
Slaves were regularly set free by

bequest, but sometimes bought themselves out of slavery by saving money
earned through business deals (either
legitimate, with the owner as
sponsor/patron, or shady, in the form of
kickbacks or money skimmed, in the
case of a slave who managed a wealthy
mans businesses). A slave could also be
redeemed by a relativea parent buying
out a child, or one spouse redeeming
another. [Redemption of Slaves] In secular
usage as well as in the LXX, the word for
the price to purchase a slave or to
redeem the person from slavery was the
same, the word tim (translated valuable above). The same word means
honor or honorable, and while the
contrast with silver or gold leans
toward the nuance valuable, precious,
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the shame of death by crucifixion might help the audience hear

overtones of honorable death.
The author, writing you were redeemed by the valuable/honorable blood of Jesus, almost certainly meant for God to be the
implied actor behind the passive verb, and with the valuable death
of Jesus to be the means God used to effect redemption. Surely the
audience had heard this sort of thing before in Christian preaching,
that Christs death, far from being a pointless accident, was part of
Gods plan for rescuing people. What might have been surprising
to the readers in this passage is that 1 Peter does not say they were
rescued from sin, or from this evil age, but from [lit., out of ] the
worthless manner of life you inherited from your forebears. Their
patrimonytheir cultural heritage as residents of Pontus,
Cappadocia, Galatia, Asia, or Bithynia; as Pontic Greeks, Asian
Greeks, Gauls, Persians, and Romansall of that was mataia,
empty, fruitless, useless, powerless, lacking truth.50 Readers
might catch the implication that who they had been was like a
form of slavery, or that their cultural background was for them like
Egypt or Babylon had been for the Jews, something from which
they needed to be released.
Liberty Coin from AD 69
Notethey needed to be released,
redeemed, from how they used to
live and how the majority of their
neighbors and family still lived.
The point is that they had voluntarily chosen a faith that made
them different, and that difference
was painful. Just as sojourn
acknowledges
how
strange
Christianity made them feel and
seem in places they used to fit in,
you were redeemed gives them
an alternative to thinking what
have I done? God did itGod
pulled you out of an empty, pointless, fruitless way of life, the one
Reverse of Orichalcum sestertius of Galba (Roman emperor, AD 6869). AD 69. Rome.
Yale University Art Gallery, New Haven CT. (Credit: Yale University Art Gallery/Art
where you were simply walking
Resource, NY)
down the well-worn path trodden
by your ancestors.
A coin minted in AD 69 shows Liberty holding a cap in her right hand.
This cap was traditionally given to freedmen to show that they had
How did God use Christs death
been emancipated.
to accomplish that? First Peter
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does not spell things out as clearly as one might like. As noted
earlier, the similarities between 1 Peter 1:17-19 and Isaiah 43:1-4;
52:3-4 suggest that when the author wrote you were redeemed,
he was thinking about how God rescued Israel from Egypt and
Babylon. Although the blood of sheep was part of the Passover
ritual, it was not actually part of how God set Israel free, but how
Israel was protected from the final plague against the Egyptians;
furthermore, Exodus 12 does not call the animal an unblemished
and spotless lamb, but a perfect sheep (LXX Exod 12:5). Many
commentators suggest that the unblemished and spotless language was put here because the author was thinking of Christs
death as a sacrifice, and sacrificial animals were indeed required to
be without blemish.51 Sacrifices, however, atone rather than
redeem. Sacrifices provide cleansing for the worshiper and the
altar from the after-effects of the worshipers sins, whereas redemption restores ownership of property or, in the case of slaves, of ones
own body. Perhaps the author was reflecting on some of the texts
on redemption:
Every first-born male, human and four-legged animal,
belonged to God. Clean animals could be sacrificed or redeemed,
whereas unclean animals and humans had to be redeemed (LXX
Exod 13:11-16; 34:19-20) either with a sacrificial animal or with a
monetary payment: You shall redeem a first-born ass with a sheep;
but if you will not redeem it, you shall give its value (tim) (LXX
Exod 34:20).
Israelites who fell into debt and were sold to a stranger or a
sojourner should be redeemed by one of their near-kinsman as
soon as possible: one of his brothers shall redeem him, or his
fathers brother, or his cousin [lit., his fathers brothers son] shall
redeem him, or someone of his blood relatives from his tribe
should redeem him (LXX Lev 25:48-49).
Leviticus 27 provides a detailed list of the value (tim )
of persons, depending on age and sex; these prices are what the
person would need to pay to redeem his or her life if they vowed it
to the Lord (which they might do, say, in a desperate prayer for
deliverance from danger or disease): Whoever vows a vow, with
the result that his soul [belongs] to the Lord, the value of a male
twenty to sixty years old shall be 50 didrachmas of silver . . . (LXX
Lev 27:2-3).
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If the author of 1 Peter was thinking of the cultural heritage of

the readers as a form of slavery, then perhaps the second and third
passages illuminate how he conceived of Christs death as a form of
redemption. The readers were redeemed by the One they called
upon as Father, who sent the Fathers Son with a payment far more
valuable than silver.
This is possible, but it still does not account for unblemished
and spotless lamb, which does point more toward sacrifice. So
perhaps we must conclude that the author has switched images
when he gets to the valuable blood, and has moved from the
metaphor of redemption to one of atoning sacrifice. With the
sprinkling with the blood of Jesus Christ in 1:2, 1 Peter has
already signaled that, like most other early
Cicero on Crucifixion
Christians, he understands Jesus death to be
Cicero is defending a Roman citizen
threatened with crucifixion as a punishatoning. In discussion of 2:18-25, we will return
ment for treason and murder:
to the theme in greater depth.
Jesus death by crucifixion was one of the sigHow grievous a thing it is to be disgraced by a
public court; how grievous to suffer a fine, how
nificant barriers to reception of Christianity.
grievous to suffer banishment; and yet in the
Crucifixion was the servile death, something
midst of any such disaster we retain some degree
no well-bred Roman should even have to think
of liberty. Even if we are threatened with death,
we may die free men. But the executioner, the
about. [Cicero on Crucifixion] One strategy many
veiling of the head and the very word cross
early Christians employed for making the cross
should be far removed not only from the person of
somewhat less repulsive was to emphasize how it
a Roman citizen but from his thoughts, his eyes,
and his ears. For it is not only the actual occurwas all part of Gods plan, foreknown before
rence of these things or the endurance of them,
the worlds founding. First Peter 1:10-12 spoke
but liability to the expectation, indeed the very
mention of them, that is unworthy of a Roman
to how Christs Spirit revealed the Messiahs sufcitizen and a free man.
ferings and subsequent glory to the prophets,
and so undoubtedly the readers would find
Cicero, Pro Rabirio Perduellionis Reo 16.
proof of the pre-creation plan for the Messiah in
the writings of the prophets. This time, the author does not linger
on how or where the plan was revealed long ago, but on how the
plan has now finally been unveiled. As with most New Testament
authors, 1 Peter believes that his time is the end of times, and
that Jesus resurrection will soon be followed by his return and
Judgment Day. He, like the readers he imagined as he wrote, was
believing in God who raised him from the dead and gave him
glory, with the result that their faith and hope are on God.
Love Each Other Strenuously from a Clean Heart, 1:22-25
Since you have purified your souls by true obedience, aiming at an
unhypocritical love for the brotherhood, love each other strenu-
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ously from a clean heart, since you have been re-begotten not from
perishable seed but from imperishable, through the living and
remaining word of God; because all flesh is like grass, and all its
glory like a grass flower; the grass withers and the flower falls, but
the Lords word remains forever; this word is what was evangelized to you.
The first three of the four imperatives in 1:13-25 urge the readers
to be serious about staying connected to God: hope completely in
Gods grace, be holy as God is holy, and live reverently. The fourth
and final imperative directs the readers toward an equally serious
commitment to each other, toward philadelphia, brother-love or
love for the brotherhood, the fellowship of believers.
Philadelphia depends on the believers commitment to God, so
the other three imperatives come first, and this one is introduced
by the assumption that the readers have purified their lives by obedience. True obedience is literally obedience of truth, and one
can either understand the genitive of truth to be adjectival, as I
have, or objective, as most take it, and translate obedience to the
truth. There is no theological problem with the latter translation,
but 1:14 directs obedience toward God (as obedient children)
rather than to any abstraction such as truth or grace. True obedience stresses, again, how the author is picturing his readers as
successes; they realize that God is holy and an uncompromising
Judge, so they have not gone half-measures in their obedience. As a
result, they have purified their souls or lives and can relate to
each other from a clean heart.
The goal of such a disciplined life is not simply to be able to live
pure, however, but to be able to love other Christians without
hypocrisy or pretense. In 2:1, the author will list some things that
would spoil the common life, like deceit or jealousy or slander.
One suspects that the authors ideal Christian community would
be one where people spoke truthfully but carefully, and where
nobody tried to take advantage of someone else; more on this when
we come to 2:183:7.
The imperative in this section is love each other strenuously,
where the last word translates a word (ektens) that describes an allout, long-term, overcome-the-obstacles effort.52 It sometimes
describes prayer offered up in extreme circumstances: the
Ninevites, hoping to turn aside Gods judgment announced laconically by Jonah, dressed themselves and their cattle in sackcloth and
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all yelled up to God strenuously (LXX Jonah 3:8). Having

learned from this example, no doubt, the Israelites do the same
when faced with the Assyrian threat recounted in Judith:
And every man of Israel yelled up to the Lord in great strenuousness,
and they humbled their souls in great strenuousness, themselves and
their wives and their babies and their cattle, and every sojourner or
day-laborer and their slaves, [they all] donned sackcloth over their
loins . . . and fell on their faces towards the Temple, and put ashes on
their heads, and stretched out their sackcloth before the Lord and
draped the altar in sackcloth, and yelled up to the God of Israel in
unison strenuously. (Jdt 4:9-12)
You get the pointstrenuously is associated with times when you

do everything you can do that you think might help you get out of
this fix. That is how to love each other, says
Love One Another
1 Peterwhole-hog, not holding anything
Herbert McCabe writes, Do not imagine
that when the world sees how these
back. [Love One Another]
Christians love one another, it will be lost in admiIsnt that sweet? Except that as all churchgoers
ration. When it sees how these Christians love
know, it is not always easy to love ones fellow
one another, the world usually goes for its gun
congregants. If I do not like Deacon Brown, I
(God, Christ, and Us [London: Continuum, 2003]
13). Its true; the same ancient Romans who
can keep coming to my medium-sized church
commented on how much Christians loved each
and listening to the preacher and maybe never
other also accused them of hatred of humanity.
have to come to terms with my failure to love. It
would be much harder in a house-church with fewer members, not
as much room to be separate, and no professional clergy to carry
the load. Furthermore, in a setting where living as a Christian feels
like being a resident alien, I should stay connected to all the
members of my congregation, since they may be all the friends,
family, and associates I have.
The section closes with another look at how the recipients experience of salvation undergirds their love for each other. Returning
to the idea of Gods re-begetting them (1:3), 1 Peter describes the
divine seed that produced the readers new life as imperishable
and as the living and remaining word of God. Modern readers in
church will need to be reminded that in the late first century,
Christians hearing word of God did not think the Bible, but
Gods word, delivered by ancient or contemporary prophets, and
the Word, meaning Christ. First Peter probably had the former
sense in mind, as there are no places where word (logos) is identified as Christ, and because of the explanation given in vv. 24-25.
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To prove that the words God spoke through the ancient prophets
were still living and in force, 1 Peter first quotes Isaiah 40:6-8, with
its climactic the Lords word remains forever. But then he identifies that same word with the gospel message preached to the
letters recipients by unnamed others (so also at 1:12), and so
unifies Gods message then and now.
CONNECTIONS
In the Commentary above, I agree with many interpreters that
while sojourner or temporary resident may be literally true of
some of this letters readers, it is also part of the writers rhetorical
strategy. First Peter wants to put all his readers into one box labeled
transient, no matter where they live, no matter what their actual
status as citizen or non-citizen. This is also true of his use of elect
and of the Diaspora; the author knew well that while some of
those who read his letter would be Jews, othersmaybe most
otherswould be Gentiles. Notice, however, that 1 Peter never
calls his readers the true Israel or the spiritual descendants of
Abraham; in other words, they are Gods people, and the author
is not going to speculate about whether this displaces anybody else
from that same category.
It is an interesting strategy, no? You, whoever you are, whatever
your people, are now no longer citizens of the place where you were
born (later, he will tell them that they have left behind all remnants
of their family/tribal/national heritage). You belong now to God,
and you are Gods people. Where are you from? God. What language do you speak? God-ish. In the place of a story about a
famous founding ancestora Romulus, Remus, or Aeneasthese
people have the story of Christs death and resurrection and the
promise that God has become their Father.
It is not My home is in Heaven / so I dont pay no rent / Dont
work no job / just gon live in a tent; while 1 Peter does have a
lively hope for Jesus return and the rewards that will bring, he
never says Christians are sojourners here because they are citizens of
Gloryland. His point is that the readers commitment to Christ
keeps them from many aspects of normal life in their cities and villages and makes them foreigners in their own lands.
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That is simply not true of many American Christians. Nobody

would argue that our current culture is Christian, even though
Christianity is by far the majority religion; whether we are liberals
or conservatives, we probably find a lot to criticize about the moral
values of our society. We eat too much. We use too much water.
We buy too much junk. We watch too many spectacles of questionable morality, interspersed with 15-second materialist
propaganda segments. We use up, we pile up, and we throw away,
and we too often fail to consider what that does to the rest of the
world, especially to the poor. We do not like it, and we may even
complain about it, but most of us do not go so far as to refuse to
participate. We are mostly at home, not resident aliens, in our
world.
If we took 1 Peter seriously, we would identify ourselves with
those who truly are resident aliens or transients among us. Lots of
churches provide all sorts of wonderful services to the immigrants
in their communities, and more power to themthat is the work
of Christ. But 1 Peter suggests that the immigrant experience has
paradoxical lessons to teach about how to be less American and
more Christianless attached to such a high standard of living,
more willing to do unpleasant but necessary work, more accustomed to handling discourtesy and adversity.
John Donne preached a sermon on 1 Peter 1:17 to a bunch of
lawyers and legal clerks in 1621, and in it reminds us of how Godcentric this first chapter of 1 Peter is. God causes us to be newly
born, grants us an inheritance, expects us to be obedient, and has
revealed the words that can help us live rightly. Sins against the
Father then, we consider especially to be such as are in potestate
[against Gods power], either in a neglect of Gods power over us,
or in an abuse of that power which we have from God over
others.53 Donne reminded the clerks and lawyers that our time on
earth, as a sojourning, is neither a permanent dwelling nor a
gliding through the world, but such a stay, as upon it our everlasting dwelling depends.54 We ought to fear God, observed
Donne, since our eternal life depends on Gods judgmentnot
with the sort of fear that paralyzes, but with the sort that keeps our
attention fixed on God and Gods law; like Esther, who despite
knowing that she might die, approached her husband the king to
beg for the lives of those he had so recklessly condemned.55 In his
conclusion, Donne suggests that his audience live so that they will
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be able to pray, God be such to me at the last day, as I am to his

people this day, and for that days justice in thy public calling, God
may be pleased to cover many sins of infirmity.56
One last note about this first chapter is how positive it is. The
readers have been reborn, possess the inheritance, are being protected by God, have been tested and found genuine, truly love God
. . . and so on. Like most commentators, I do not think 1 Peter
knew his audience personally, at least not in the way Paul knew his
congregations. We do not get the sense that he has visited these
people or lived with them, as Paul did, nor do we have any indication of conflict between some of the house-churches and the
author, as there was between John the Revelator and (for instance)
the church in Thyatira. Not knowing them, the author needed to
make some assumptions about what they needed to hearwhere
they might need some extra instructionand it might have been
reasonable to think that while some of them passed through the
testing fire with a stronger faith, others might have faltered or
wavered. Whatever the letters first readers may actually have done,
1 Peter chooses to address them all as successes. The Christian who
decides to continue participating in his familys regular sacrifices to
his family gods, or the wife who keeps quiet about her new faith
around her non-Christian husbandin this first chapter, everyone
is included in the praise, and nobody is left to the side. Later, in the
hortatory sections, 1 Peter will make plain that Christians must
make hard choices and be willing to suffer for them, but in this
first part, he chooses not to divide his group into high and low
achievers.
Maybe it is a Mr. Rogers sort of approach, but it works for this
letter. All of you are transientsnot just the real transients, but all
of youso that all readers, if they enter sympathetically into this
letters narrative web, are put in a precarious place. All of you are
Gods people, without excluding anybody else who also might be
Gods people; your security does not undermine theirs, and since
we are all dependent on Gods mercy, does that not make sense?
And all of you are doing so well, despite how hard it is to live as
Gods sojourners in this world. By Gods mercy you were given salvation and put into the position of having to choose between
loyalty to God and commonality with your culture. If you are succeeding, it will be because God is supporting you. So, reasons the
author, let us celebrate the successes God is no doubt enjoying. It is
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a great way to begin a letter of consolation and encouragement,

and should inform our teaching and preaching in these troubled
times.
Notes
1. Stanley K. Stowers, Letter Writing in Greco-Roman Antiquity (Philadelphia:
Westminster, 1986) 61, 63, 73.
2. F. Peter Lapham, The Myth, the Man and the Writings: A Study of Early Petrine
Text and Tradition (JSNTS 239; Sheffield UK: Sheffield Academic, 2003) 119.
3. Joel B. Green, 1 Peter (Two Horizons Commentary; Grand Rapids MI: Eerdmans,
2007) 1920; John H Elliott, 1 Peter (AB 37B; New York: Doubleday, 2000) 315, calls
the combination paradoxical.
4. Juvenal, Satire III; cited in Naphtali Lewis and Meyer Reinhold, Roman
Civilization (2 vols; New York: Harper & Row, 1966) 2.239.
5. Seneca, De Consolatione ad Helviam Matrem, 6, 2f.; cited in J. P. V. D. Balsdon,
Romans and Aliens (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1979) 13.
6. Balsdon, Romans and Aliens, 98107; David Noy, Foreigners at Rome: Citizens
and Strangers (London: Duckworth, 2000) 24.
8. Noy, Foreigners, 2425.
9. Ibid., 7677.
10. The foremost proponent of this reading is John H. Elliott, first in his A Home for
the Homeless: A Sociological Exegesis of 1 Peter, Its Situation and Strategy
(Philadelphia: Fortress, 1981), and then in his Anchor Bible commentary on 1 Peter (AB
37B). Elliott understands the audience to be Gentile Christians, or mostly so, who have
immigrated to the areas addressed for a variety of reasons. Karen Jobes, 1 Peter (Baker
Exegetical Commentary on the New Testament; Grand Rapids MI: Baker Academic,
2005) argues that the recipients are Jewish Christians sent to these places as
colonists. F. Lapham, Peter: The Myth, the Man and the Writings, 11920, 12731,
thinks they are genuine immigrants, probably from Syria or Mesopotamia, Christians of
Jewish descent who left their homeland during the insurrections following Trajans
failed Parthian campaign.
12. So M. Eugene Boring, 1 Peter (ANTC; Nashville: Abingdon, 1999) 5658;
Donald Senior, 1 Peter (Collegeville MN: Liturgical, 2003) 28; and Green, 1 Peter, 16,
who notes that it is unnecessary to choose between literal and metaphorical; the
same phrase not only can, but necessarily does function in both ways at the same time.
14. So Elliott, 1 Peter, 317. Jobes, 1 Peter, 66, notes that no proponent of this
theory has ever shown how it is consistent with the known roads connecting the
regions. She sensibly suggests that the list of regions simply represents the authors
mental map of Asia Minor, probably using the names of regions as he first learned
them.
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15. Balsdon, Romans and Aliens, 66.
16. Balsdon, Romans and Aliens, 66, quoting Cicero, Post Reditum in Senatu 14.
17. Cicero, Pro Flacco 65; in Cicero, vol 10 (trans. C. MacDonald; Cambridge MA:
Harvard University Press, 1977).
18. Green, 1 Peter, 1920; Elliott, 1 Peter, 317; Paul J. Achtemeier, 1 Peter
(Hermeneia; Minneapolis: Fortress, 1996) 86. The NRSV translation paraphrases a bit to
make this interpretation clear: who have been chosen and destined by God . . . .
19. Achtemeier, 1 Peter, 86; Boring, 1 Peter, 55; Elliott, 1 Peter, 31819.
20. Green, 1 Peter, 1920.
22. Ibid.; Green, 1 Peter, 2021.
23. Boring, 1 Peter, 5556.
24. Achtemeier, 1 Peter, 8788.
25. Boring, 1 Peter, 56; Achtemeier, 1 Peter, 8889; Elliott, 1 Peter, 320. It is a bit
of a problem that the LXX of Exod 34:8 uses a very different word for what Moses does
with the blood, kataskedannumi, as opposed to hrantismon in 1 Pet 1:2. Nevertheless,
the author of Hebrews used the same term as 1 Peter: to Jesus, the mediator of a new
covenant, and to the sprinkled blood that speaks a better word than the blood of Abel
(Heb 12:24). The author of 1 Peter perhaps expects his readers to make the same connections that Hebrews does.
26. Stowers, Letter Writing, 61. The letter is dated early second century AD and is
from Upper Egypt.
27. Ibid., 61. The letter is dated AD 58, for Oxyrhynchus or Hermopolis, Egypt.
28. Ibid., 129. The letter is dated second century AD, from Egypt.
29. See the discussion in Michael Joseph Brown, The Lords Prayer Through North
African Eyes: A Window into Early Christianity (New York: T. & T. Clark, 2004) 48; also
Diane G. Chen, God as Father in Luke-Acts (New York: Peter Lang, 2006) 1734, who
rightly corrects the impression that Roman fathers did not love their children, or that the
legal rights of the paterfamilias made them essentially tyrants. She summarizes, The
father figure symbolized power and authority on the one hand, and providence and
beneficence on the other. Both sides of fatherhood coexisted in a positive tension (33).
31. Elliott, 1 Peter, 334; Achtemeier, 1 Peter, 9495. Living hope is different from
hope of living (eternally); for hope of life, see Titus 1:2; 3:7; Barn. 1:4; 1:6.
33. BAGD, 49.
34. The Greek noun for salvation (stria) is feminine, and the relative pronoun is
either masculine or neuter, so salvation is not the antecedent of which. Achtemeier,
1 Peter, 99100, translates for that reason; Elliott, 1 Peter, 328, consequently.
35. Achtemeier, 1 Peter, 104, argues that the participle is causal.
36. So Achtemeier, 1 Peter, 104; Elliott, 1 Peter, 344.
37. Achtemeier, 1 Peter, 105; Boring, 1 Peter, 65.
38, Walker Percy, Signposts in a Strange Land (ed. Patrick Samway; New York:
Farrar, Straus, and Giroux, 1991) 3.
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39. Ibid., 3.
40. Ibid.
41. Ibid., 67.
42. Achtemeier, 1 Peter, 11718; Jobes, 1 Peter, 11011, 120; Boring, 1 Peter, 74;
James Hope Moulton, A Grammar of New Testament Greek: Vol. 1, Prolegomena (3rd
ed.; Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1908) 15053.
43. Elliott, 1 Peter, 35456, takes them as descriptive of what the readers have
done or are doing: having girded your minds . . . and remaining alert; so Green,
1 Peter, 34. Achtemeier, 1 Peter, 11718, also takes them as descriptive of the readers
present circumstances: Therefore you, people whose minds are girded for action, who
are sober.
44. So Elliott, 1 Peter, 35657.
45. Achtemeier, 1 Peter, 119, opts for an implied future force; so Boring, 1 Peter,
75; Green, 1 Peter, 46.
46. So Achtemeier, 1 Peter, 120.
47. See the discussion in B. Diane Lipsett, Desiring Conversion: Hermas, Thecla,
Aseneth (New York: Oxford University Press, 2010.
48. The list comes from Elliott, 1 Peter, 63, 361.
49. So Jobes, 1 Peter, 117; Elliott, 1 Peter, 69.
50. BDAG, 621.
51. Achtemeier, 1 Peter, 12829; Jobes, 1 Peter, 117.
52. BADG, 310.
53. John Donne, Sermon Number 13: Preached at Lincolns Inn on 1 Peter 1:17
(no. 39 in LXXX Sermons), in The Sermons of John Donne (ed. George R. Potter and
Evelyn M. Simpson; Berkeley: University of California Press, 1962) 3.275.
54. Donne, Sermon Number 13, 275.
55. Ibid., 280.
56. Ibid., 291.
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Stones, Sojourners,
and Slaves
1 Peter 2
COMMENTARY
Living Stones, 2:1-10
Something there is that doesnt love a wall1; Frosts something

obviously excludes humans. Stone walls, towers, homes, monuments,
ziggurats, plinths, columns, obelisks, statues, cairns, grave-markers,
altars, templesstones are symbols of permanence, although people
have always known that they can split or erode. A bedrock foundation means fixed and secure, while like a stone wall images security
or stubbornness, safety or imprisonment, depending on the angle of
the observer. When the writer of 1 Peter built his stone section, he
knew that wherever his readers lived, they were surrounded by religions possessing a more obviously solid foundation and unshakeable
place in society. By contrast, their own community was impermanent, existing only in those moments when the gathered few were a
church instead of just ordinary guests in somebodys triclinium.
Think of itno temples, no shrines, nothing visible. So 1 Peter, like
the mason Cuyler Goodwill in The Stone Diaries, builds an edifice of
stone:
Already the walls of the tower have risen to shoulder-height. Some of
the stones he sets are no bigger than his thumb or his fist, some
measure eight or ten inches across. This morning, in the rainbows
garish light, their surfaces seem to dance in rhythm with the clusters of
goldenrod that had opened up everywhere in recent days. Sun and rain,
cloud and light, flower and stonethey are each so closely bound
together, so almost prophetically joined, that he experiences a spasm of
joy to find himself at the heart of such a holy convergence . . . . What
he feels when the finished stone slips finally into its waiting space is the
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hand of God upon his head, the Holy Ghost entering his body with
a glad shout.2
Structure
This passage renews the call to devotion to God that was so much
featured in the last half of the first chapter. The author uses several
rich metaphors to invite the readers consideration:
2:1-3: The first image is how an infant craves milkin that
way, the readers should long to drink what will help them grow
into salvation, and avoid what will do them harm. As in 1:14-16,
the author first states the negative thing to shun and then the
imperative, followed by an allusion to a biblical passage in support
of his reasoning.
2:4-6: The second image is of a house made of living stones,
built so that a holy priesthood can offer acceptable sacrifices for
God. The final verse in this section is a Scripture quote on which to
base the commands.
2:7-8: The author pauses briefly to consider the fate of those
who do not accept the gospel, linking his thoughts by means of
other stone passages from the LXX.
2:9-10: The author concludes this section with a collage of epithets for the readers, piled up to reinforce the point that the readers
are Gods people. Whatever they were before, they now belong to
God as Gods special possession.
Crave the Unadulterated, Rational Milk, 2:1-3
Therefore, since you have set aside all evilall deceit and
hypocrisy and envy and all slander, as newborn infants crave the
unadulterated, rational milk, so that by it you may grow towards
salvation, since you have tasted that the Lord is kind.
The one puzzling word in this section is logikon in v. 2, which I
have translated rational but which is sometimes taken to mean
spiritual (as the NRSV) or even, at a stretch, of the word.3
Logikon, however, does not mean of the word,4 and only a few
verses earlier the author used the two normal words for word,
logos (1:23) and rhma (1:25). Spiritual, in the sense of
metaphorical or non-literal, is a legitimate translation and would
make sense in context. But it also seems rather obvious that in this
passage milk is metaphorical, so if logikon means spiritual it is a
bit superfluous. Its first meaning is rational, which in the first
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89
Milk
century was deemed to be the human capacity
As noted in the comments, milk is used
that, if properly trained, could master the pasby Paul and the author of Hebrews to
sions. I therefore take logikon as an indication of
symbolize elementary things that mature
1 Peters belief that, through passionate devotion
Christians should no longer need. Barnabas,
however, reflecting on Gods promise to Israel of a
to God, the Christian gains what is necessary to
land of milk and honey, writes, Why then does
overcome negative emotions and habits such as
he speak of milk and honey? Because the child is
those listed in 2:1. [Milk]
first nourished by honey and then milk. So also,
The opening word of 2:1 is another participle
when we are nourished by faith in the promise
and then by the word, we will live as masters
(apothemenoi) that some (e.g., NRSV) translate
over the earth (Barn. 6.17). In this interpretation,
5
as an imperative: Put away! But with the
milk is equated with the word, that which
therefore, it may be kept as a true participle,
every believer of every level needs.
describing the readers progress toward salvation
that provides the basis for the command in v. 2. Putting off or
putting away may have reminded the readers of how they laid
aside their clothes to be baptized.6 It could imply that the author
thinks these things may be present in the lives of the readershe
does write put away rather than avoidbut the same verb
appears in similar exhortations in Romans 13:12; Colossians 3:8;
Ephesians 4:22, 25; and James 1:21, so it probably is simply the
normal word for such contexts.
Malice
The short vice list that closes the verse seems to focus
Lou knew then that her mother
on sins that damage community. The first vice is kakia,
was tallying her fathers faults
and
perfidies.
She did not know that pola general word for bad things, which I take to be the
ishing
this
grudge
would be her mothers
heading but some understand to mean malice.7
lone project for the balance of her life.
[Malice] Next is dolos, meaning deceit or guile or
Annie Dillard, The Maytrees (New York:
even treachery; its negation, adolos, modifies milk
HarperCollins, 2007) 58.
in v. 2 and is translated unadulterated. Third is
hypokrisis, which we take into English as hypocrisy, meaning pretense or acting insincerely. [Hypocrisy] The next, phthonos, is envy
or jealousy. The last word, katalalia, might also be a category
rather than a specific sin. It literally means evil speaking, so it
might be intended to cover all sorts of negative speech; as many do,
I take it to mean slander, a problem to which 1 Peter returns in
2:12, 15.8
Hypocrisy
What gave adults the cheer to tolerate their
As newborn infants has sometimes
hypocrisy? Even his mother praised generosity
been used to argue that 1 Peter drew from
and hoarded; she preached industry and barely worked.
early baptismal liturgies or from instrucPerhaps every generation passes to the next, to hand
down to yet more children, an untouched trunk of virtues.
tions given to new converts.9 But
The adults describe the trunks contents to the young and
the newborn metaphor is part of the
never open it.
larger theme of how the readers are Gods
Annie Dillard, The Maytrees (New York: HarperCollins, 2007) 96.
children: re-begotten (1:3, 23), obedient
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1 Peter 2
(1:14), created by divine seed

(1:23-25). First Peter uses the image
of a newborn who desperately needs
and wants to suckle as a metaphor
for how much the readers should
long for what God can give them
that will help them grow toward salvation. It is for this reason that
unlike in 1 Corinthians 3:1-2 and
Hebrews 5:11-14, the audiences
craving for milk is a good thing, not
a mark of their immaturity. Guileless milk is milk with no strings
attached and no associated guilt.
The readers may, in fact should,
crave it without second thought,
since it only brings good results.
[Milk (2)]
One might have expected, after

unadulterated, rational milk, a
As newborn infants, long for the unadulterated milk . . . .
resolution of the metaphor along
Terracotta statuette of a mother nursing her child. 5th C. BC. (Credit: R. Vinson)
the lines of which is Christ
or namely, the Spirit or that is, the gospel. Instead of defining
milk, the author names its purpose, so that by it you may
grow toward salvation. In
Milk (2)
1 Peter, salvation is preThe Odes of Solomon are Christian texts thought to date from the
pared to be revealed on the
late first to early second century AD, so roughly the same period as
Last Day (1:5), and the
1 Peter. In the Odes, milk is not only a symbol of paradise and Gods blessing
(as in milk and honey), but is also the teachings Jesus gives the believer.
expected reward for faith
Notice that the Odist is not at all shy about gender-bending images, such as
(1:9). Salvation thus has a
Jesus, like a mother, suckling his disciples.
markedly future orientation
As honey drips from the honeycomb of bees,
in 1 Peter, and the author
and milk flows from the woman who loves her children,
probably thought of the
so also is my hope upon you, O my God. (Odes Sol. 40:1)
word as parallel to inheriSprinkle upon us your sprinklings,
tance (1:4)kept safe in
and open your bountiful springs which abundantly
heaven for now, to be
supply us with milk and honey. (Odes Sol. 4:10)
revealed laterand to
[Christ speaking] I fashioned their members
grace (1:10, 13)preand my own breasts I prepared for them,
dicted by the prophets and
that they might drink my holy milk and live by it. (Odes Sol. 8:14)
revealed (or to be revealed)
OTP 2.72571.
at Christs appearance.
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Grow into salvation (so the NRSV) is a literal translation, but

1 Peter tends to use the preposition eis (which often means into)
to indicate the purpose or goal of something. The readers are not
growing into salvation as if it were a coat God purposely made too
large for them, knowing that they would fill it out, but salvation is
what they are aiming for, the target for their growth.
To wind up this section, the author quotes a line from LXX
Psalm 33(=34):8, which reads, Taste and see that the Lord is kind;
blessed is the man who hopes upon him. The word
Taste that the Lord Is Good
May the sight of the graces
for kind in Greek is chrstos, which sounds almost
granted others lead them by the
like Christ, christos; chrstos ho kyrios, the Lord is
hand, to reading, to meditation, and to conkind, would have sounded like the Christian confestemplation, so that they may begin to taste
sion Christ is (the) Lord. [Taste that the Lord Is Good]
how sweet is the Lord, and how truly
happy is the person who hopes in God and
The readers have tasted Gods kindness through
places all his cares in him.
Christ, and so can be confident of growing toward
Gertrude the Great, The Herald of Divine Love; cited in
salvation as they continue to set aside guile,
Hugh Feiss, Essential Monastic Wisdom: Writings on the
Contemplative Life (New York: HarperCollins, 1999) 31.
hypocrisy, and the like.
Stones upon the Stone, 2:4-6
Come to him, the Living Stone, deemed worthless by humans but
with God, chosen, precious, and as living stones yourselves be
builta spiritual house for a holy priesthood, in order to offer spiritual sacrifices acceptable to God through Jesus Christ. Because it
stands in scripture, Behold, I lay in Zion a stone, a cornerstone,
chosen, precious, and the one who believes on him shall not be put
to shame.
Imagine first-century congregations listening to this, believing as
they did that Simon Peter wrote it. Peter, as you know and they
knew well, was Simons nickname, and was the common word for
rock (petros). Throughout most of this section, however, the
author uses another word, lithos, also meaning stone or rock
(the lith in Paleolithic and lithograph comes from this word).
By using a different word, the author makes clear that he does not
mean to give himself any sort of special place in the various stone
metaphors he pulls together; yet it is hard to imagine that those
original listeners would not have thought about how perfect it was
that this stone passage was arranged by the Rock. The one spot
where he does not use lithos is in v. 8the words offending rock
are petra skandalou, perhaps reminding the audience of Peters experience of first being named Rock for giving the correct testimony
(You are the Messiah, the Son of God) but then being called a
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1 Peter 2
St. Peter Receiving the Keys from Christ
skandalon, an offense, for

rebuking Jesus when he
first spoke of the cross
(Matt 16:13-23).
Verses 6-8 link three Old
Testament passages, all
having the word lithos,
stone, in common:
Behold, I will lay for

the foundation of Zion a
stone, costly, chosen, a cornerstone, precious, for its
Saint Peter receiving the keys from Jesus. Enamel plaque from a reliquary or altar. 11801185.
foundation, and the one
England. Musee des Beaux-Arts, Dijon, France. (Credit: Erich Lessing/Art Resource, NY)
who believes/trusts on it
In this 12th-C. enamel plaque, Peter is confessing, You are the Messiah, Son
will not be put to shame
of the living God, and Jesus is handing him the keys to the kingdom of
(LXX Isa 28:16). First
heaven.
Peters text differs slightly
from the LXX of Isaiah, but Paul, who quotes the same text in
Romans 9:33, has some of the same differences. There were several
variations of the LXX circulating, and so possibly they are both
quoting from one of those alternate versions; possibly they are
quoting from a Christian version of the text, or even from a
Christian collection of Old Testament texts meant to support arguments that Jesus was the Messiah.10
The stone which the builders rejected, this one became the
head of the corner (LXX Ps 117[=118]:22). First Peter is identical
with the LXX text.
Sanctify him as Lord (or, Sanctify the Lord himself ), and he
will be your fear. And if you trust upon him, he will be a sanctuary
for you, and you will not meet him as a stumbling stone, nor as a
falling rock (LXX Isa 8:13-14). The first part of this text from
Isaiah shows up in 1 Peter 3:15, and he will be a sanctuary for
you may have influenced some of the language of 2:4-5.
Stumbling stone is the same in Isaiah 8:14 and 1 Peter 2:8, but
1 Peter 2:8 and Romans 9:33 have offending rock (petra skandalou) instead of falling rock.
The similarities between 1 Peter 2:6, 8 and Romans 8:33 and the
ways both texts differ in the same way from the LXX of Isaiah
argue either for the author of 1 Peter drawing on Romans or for
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1 Peter 2
both authors drawing on familiar Christian uses of certain Old

Testament texts. Either way, the audience listening to this section
would probably have found it a familiar exegetical path, so that
what seem like zigs and zags in the passage would not have
sounded so abrupt to them.
Come to him is another one of the participles that is often
translated as an imperative, as I have done. One can also keep it as
a participle: having come to him or by coming to him,11 but
the and that begins v. 5, just before the real verb, would argue
that the author of 1 Peter thought of v. 4 as a separate clause,
making the imperative sense more plausible.
The phrase living stone is not found in the LXX, and in the
New Testament only appears in 1 Peter 2:4-5. Living must then
be a reference to the resurrection, as in God . . . has re-begotten
you to a living hope through the resurrection of Jesus Christ from
the dead (1:3). Christ is the living stone because he lives forever.
Christ has been deemed worthless by humansnotice that
1 Peter does not say by the Jews or by his own people, and
probably is not thinking so much of reactions to Jesus during his
ministry as of current, general reactions to Jesus as he is preached to
the general public.12 Many people, Jews and Greeks, as Paul noted,
found the Christian message incomprehensible, unbelievable, and
distasteful: a mischievous superstition, a depraved and extravagant superstition. But the resurrection shows that God deemed
Jesus chosen, preciouswords that will show up in the quote in
v. 6. A living stone, then, one that humans generally find unattractive but that God has picked out specially and declared to be
extremely valuablethat is Jesus. Come to him, the author
arguesknowing that all those likely to be listening to the reading
of the letter have done just thatand experience the same thing
yourself.
The grammar of the first half of v. 5 is a little tricky. The verb I
translated be built could be translated you are being built, as a
description rather than an imperative. Most think the passive
imperative makes more sense, with God as the implied Builder: be
built means allow God to build. The audience is to come to
Jesus, the Living Stone, and as living stones themselves be built by
Godso that much is clear. But the words spiritual house are
nominative rather than accusativethat is, they further define the
subject you and are not the object of the verb. Translations like
be built into a spiritual house make sense, but are actually gram-
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1 Peter 2
matically incorrect. According to the grammar, the you addressed

in the verse are not commanded to be built into anything, but just
be built. But built, while it takes no object, does demand some
sort of target image. If the readers, as living stones, are being built
by God, what sort of construction are they becoming?
They are a spiritual house for a holy priesthood. The word
oikos means house or household in Greek and can refer to a
building or to the peoplefather, mother, children, extended
family, and slaveswho occupy it. Because the author will address
the readers as if they were members of a household (household
slaves, 2:18-20; wives, 3:1-6; husbands, 3:7), one can translate
this as spiritual household, meaning the Spirits household.13
Spiritual house, meaning house for the Spirit, would mean that
the readers are a temple. The arguments in
Christians as Temple
favor of Spirits household include the
All the following references use the Greek word
naos, temple, rather than oikos, house. But
household code texts in 2:183:7; the
they show that the idea that the Christian community
uses of household slaves in 2:18 and
could be considered a temple was pretty widespread.
household managers in 4:10; the (probable) use of oikos to mean household in
1 Cor 3:16-17: Dont you [pl.] know that you [pl.] are
the temple [naos] of God, and that Gods Spirit dwells in
4:17; and the fact that the word temple
you [pl.]? If anyone destroys Gods temple, God will
(naos), although common enough in the
destroy that one, for Gods temple is holy, and thats
New Testament, never appears in 1 Peter.
what you [pl.] are.
[Christians as Temple] The main obstacle to this
1 Cor 6:19: Or dont you know that your [pl.] body
[meaning the body of each one of you] is the temple
interpretation, however, is that it makes no
[naos] of the Holy Spirit among you, whom you have from
connection to living stones or be built.
God, and that you dont belong to yourselves?
One would be required to treat oikos pneu 2 Cor 6:16: For we are the temple [naos] of the
matikos as a new and separate clause: . . .
living God . . .
Eph 2:21: In whom [Jesus] the whole fit-together
and as living stones yourselves, be built up;
edifice grows into a holy temple [naos] in the Lord . . .
[you are] the Spirits household. This is
Barn. 4:11: Let us be spiritual, let us be a perfect
possible, but after the link between Christ
temple [naos] for God. (see also 16:1-10)
as Living Stone and the readers as living
Ign. Eph. 9.1: You are stones of the Fathers temple,
prepared for the building of God the Father.
stones, be built, as I argued earlier,
Ign. Magn. 7.2: You should all run together, as into
requires some sort of target image. The
one temple of God . . . .
audience needs to be able to visualize what
Ign. Phld. 7.2: Keep your flesh as the Temple of God.
God is making of them, and so the very
next words, spiritual house, provide the best image. In fact, even
if the author intended Spirits household, it is hard to imagine
early audiences failing to connect the be built with oikos pneumatikos and concluding that God is constructing them as a
spiritual house made of living stones.14
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1 Peter 2
In 1 Peter, the preposition eis typically designates the goal or

purpose of something. As a spiritual house, their aim is not
simply to exist as a container for the Spirit; instead, God builds
them and the Spirit inhabits them so that they will be a holy
priesthood, in order to offer spiritual sacrifices acceptable to God
through Jesus Christ. First Peter is the only New Testament author
to use this Greek word for priesthood, here and at v. 9, where it is
modified by royal. It only appears three times in the LXX:
Exodus 19:6: But you will be to me a royal priesthood and a
holy people-group; you will speak these words to the sons of Israel.
Exodus 23:22: If you will surely hear my voice and do all the
things whatsoever I command you and keep my covenant, then
you will be to me a people of my possession from all the nations,
for all the earth is mine, and you will be to me a royal priesthood
and a holy people-group. You will speak these words to the sons of
Israel.
2 Maccabees 2:17: But God, who saved his whole people also
gave to all the inheritance and the kingship and the priesthood and
the sanctification.
In the first two passages, God is commanding Moses to tell these
things to the Israelites in the wilderness; in the third, the Jews of
Jerusalem are writing to their kin in Egypt, informing them of their
intent to celebrate Hanukkah and asking them to join; in the view
of the author of this letter, the story of Judas Maccabeus and the
rededication of the temple was an act of God, who gave them the
Maccabean kingship and priesthood and, through it, the sanctification that enabled the Jews once more to sacrifice in the
temple. In the 2 Maccabees text, priesthood means the priestly
institution, the men from the particular family group whose task it
is to perform sacrifices in the temple. In the two Exodus texts,
Moses seems to be saying that Israel as a whole was a priesthood
not that every Israelite would be a priest, since in Exodus 19:24
God speaks of the priests and the people, but that the nation as a
whole is consecrated for God.
There was only one priesthood in Judaism, males who traced
their ancestry from Levi through Aaron down through the family
groups that were by New Testament times divided into twenty-four
courses. Members of 1 Peters audience who were ethnically
Jewish probably heard to be a holy priesthood as Exodus used it,
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1 Peter 2
as a vivid metaphor for how devoted Christians were to be to God.

Audience members who were native-born citizens of the cities of
Asia, Pontus, Bithynia, Cappadocia, and Galatia may well have
heard you are a priesthood differently, however. In a city like
Ephesus there were many priesthoodsofficial city priesthoods,
priesthoods responsible for various temples and shrines, and priesthoods attached to voluntary associations. Some of the most
important Roman priesthoods were available only to the well born,
and were an expected step on the cursus honorum, the path of
honor or ladder of success. But many priesthoods were available to
anyone willing to undertake the expense of caring for the temple
and providing the required sacrifices (see [An Influential Freedman] for an
example). First Peters audience would also be familiar with how
new cults honoring the emperor or his family had been created in
the main cities of Asia, as part of a political strategy for gaining
imperial favor. When a new temple was dedicated, a new priesthood was generally created as well, sometimes with an endowment
to provide sacrifices. NonJewish Christians might
Sacrificial Scene
well have understood v. 5
to mean that God was designating their community
as a priesthood, empowered
to offer sacrifices in the
name of Christ.
As a spiritual house and
as a holy priesthood, the
audience was to offer spiritual sacrifices; this is the
only place the author uses
the term sacrifice, and he
Altar of Vespasian, Temple of Vespasian (AD 6979), Pompeii. The relief shows a sacrificial scene:
leaves spiritual sacrifices
the sacrificer and his aide bring the sacrificial bull, while the priest, a veil over his head, pours the
undefined. The phrase does
libation over a tripod. Pompeii, Italy. (Credit: Erich Lessing/Art Resource, NY)
not appear in the LXX, but
This scene decorated the Temple of Vespasian at Pompeii, and shows how
several texts use sacrifice
Romans performed sacrifices for state occasions. The two shirtless men are
to define other worship
slaves who control the animal and kill it. The priest, who has covered his head
activities that do not
with part of his toga, is offering a libation on the altar while another attendant
holds open the tablet from which the priest reads the prayers. Behind the
require offering an animal:
priests head to his right is a flute player, to drown out street noises and
the sacrifice of praise
prevent the priest from becoming distracted. 1 Peters readers would never
(LXX Ps 49[=50]:14, 23);
have seen a sacrifice in the Jerusalem temple, but would have seen plenty
done like this.
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97
a sacrifice to God is a broken spirit; God will not despise a broken

and humble heart (LXX Ps 50[=51]:17; May my prayer be
directed before you as incense, the lifting of my hands as the
evening sacrifice (LXX Ps 140[=141]:2). The end of v. 9, after
naming the audience to be a chosen race, royal priesthood, etc.,
says that they were so named with the
Christians and Sacrifices
Christians did not sacrifice, and Greeks and Romans
result that they could proclaim the
did, so the growth of Christianity decreased the
mighty works of God, so that any of
numbers of sacrifices made to the traditional gods, on behalf
these biblical suggestions for spiritual
of the emperors, and on behalf of the ancestors. Roman
sacrificespraise, confession, or any
authors complained about this. Pliny, in his famous letter to
Emperor Trajan, says that after his small efforts at suptype of prayerwould fit. [Christians and
Sacrifices]
pressing Christianity in his area, the temples, which have

been almost deserted, are beginning to be frequented once
more, that the sacred rites which have been long neglected
are being renewed, and that sacrificial victims are for sale
everywhere, whereas, till recently, a buyer was rarely to be
found. Minucius Felix, in Octavius, has his non-Christian
complain that Christians despise the temples as no better
than sepulchers, abominate the gods, sneer at our sacred
rites (8.4). He continues, Why do they have no altars, no
temples, none of the usual images of the gods? (10.2).
When 1 Peters audience walked

around their city, they likely saw several
temples, built to be as impressive and
beautiful as their sponsors could afford.
Some of the hearers had probably
belonged to one or another of the cults
that occupied the temples; all of the
Pliny Ep. 10.96; translation in Henry Bettenson, ed., Documents of the Christian
non-Jewish members of the congregaChurch (London: Oxford University Press, 1977) 4.
tions would have participated in the
public festivals that honored their citys protective deities. Since
their conversion, their worship as Christians happened mostly in
private homes or apartments; there were no statues or dedicatory
columns, no historic priesthoods going back hundreds of generations, nothing that anybody else in their city would envy. Calling
them a spiritual house and a holy priesthood with important
religious work to do was a way to depict their current religious
behavior as honorable, meaningful, even admirable.
The citation of LXX Isaiah 28:16 that closes off this section is
meant to explain how Jesus could be set aside by most people but
honored by God (v. 4), and how faith in him could provide a suitable foundation for a spiritual house. God declares that God is,
even now, laying a stone in Zionthe hill in Jerusalem on which
the temple stood. This stone is then defined by three words: cornerstone, chosen, precious. Cornerstone is literally high corner,
and while it might mean the keystone, the stone in the middle of
an arch that by weight and shape holds the rest together, the fact
that people stumble over it in v. 8 probably means the author was
thinking of a cornerstone.15
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Cornerstone
Helios, Greek sun god. Cornerstone of a metope-triglyphs frieze from the Athena Temple in Troy (Ilion). After 300 BC. Marble. Antikensammlung, Staatliche
Museen, Berlin, Germany. (Credit: Bildarchiv Preussischer Kulturbesitz/Art Resource, NY)
This cornerstone from the Temple of Athena in Troy (Ilion) was decorated with the sun-god Helios.
The last line would have been important to the audience: the one
who believes on him shall not be put to shame. Shame was
a public value for 1 Peters readers: publicly determined,
publicly undermined or maintained.
Duties to Ancestors
No one shall have gods for himself, either new gods or
Abandoning ones ancestral faith
alien gods, unless they have been recognized by the
was shameful. [Duties to Ancestors]
state. Privately they shall worship those gods that they have duly
Becoming a Christian meant that the
received from their ancestors. In cities they shall have shrines; in
believer was shirking his or her duty
the country they shall have groves and places for the Lares. They
shall preserve the rites of the family and their ancestors. (Cicero,
to the ancestors and to the deities
Leg. 2.19; cited in Valerie M. Warrior, Roman Religion: A
that protected the household and the
Sourcebook [Newburyport MA: Focus, 2002] 25)
citysome ancient non-Christian
detractors labeled this hatred of
The soul becomes sad if it is left unattended by its descendants, Baba Quan explained. The farther we wander from the
humanity. If the believer had been a
earth and water of the burial ground, the weaker our ties to our
member of one of the cults, he or she
ancestors become, and the separation is not good for the soul. It
would be asked by the new faith to
drains the heart of blood and leaves a profound hollowness in the
go back on solemn oaths taken to the
center of our veins. (Lan Cao, Monkey Bridge [New York:
Penguin, 1998] 5960)
deity and to the other devotees. And
underlying the shame of leaving
Most of us know the parents or grandparents we come from.
undone what everyone else agreed
But we go back and back, forever; we go back all of us to the
must be done was the central fact of
very beginning; in our blood and bone and brain we carry the
memories of thousands of beings. . . . We cannot understand all
Christs shameful, shaming death on
the traits we have inherited. Sometimes we can be strangers to
the cross, a manner of execution
ourselves. (V. S. Naipaul, A Way in the World [New York: Alfred
intended to brand the person so
A. Knopf, 1994] 11)
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99
treated as utterly without honor. First Peters rhetoric admits the

reality of the shameful judgmenttrue enough, humans set
Christ aside as worthlessbut offers Gods counter-judgment
instead. God called Christ elect, precious, and anyone who trusts
in him, who as a living stone allows God to build him or her upon
the Living Stone, the Cornerstone, will, in the end, not be put to
shame.
Stumbling over the Stone, 2:7-8
Thus, for you who believe, honor; but for the unbelieving, the
stone which the builders rejectedthis one became the head of the
corner; and a stumbling stone and an offending rock. The ones
who disbelieve the word stumble, for which [event] they were set.
First Peter does not spend much space on the fate of the unbelievers. He notes that they will have to answer to God on Judgment
Day (4:5) and speculates that their suffering will be greater than
what the readers have gone through (4:17-18). But in contrast to
Revelation (from approximately the same period
Judgment Scenes in Apocalypse of Peter
and addressed to some of the same readers),
The Apocalypse of Peter was written
1 Peter does not offer comfort in the form of
between 100150. In it, Peter, James,
visions of God tormenting those who torand John get a tour of Hell and a brief glimpse of
Heaven. The Hell section is much longer than the
mented them. [Judgment Scenes in Apocalypse of Peter]
Heaven section, and gives fairly graphic descripBut he does give this brief, Scripture-supported
tions of the punishments of the wicked. For
argument that the fact that most people reject
instance, women who braid their hair in order to
the Christian message is unsurprising, predicted,
seduce men will be hung by their hair, and the
men who slept with them shall be hung by their
and predictable.
loins in that place of fire; and they shall say to one
The quote in v. 6 ends with you will not be
another, We did not know that we should come
put to shame, so the first part of v. 7 begins
to everlasting punishment. Murderers get put in
with the same idea, stated positively: for you
a fiery pit filled with venomous snakes; slanderers
and blasphemers have to gnaw their tongues;
who believe, honor. The NRSV applies the
etc.
word honor to Christ: To you then who
In J. K. Elliott, The Apocryphal New Testament (Oxford:
believe, he is precious (so also NIV, this stone
Clarendon, 1993) 593612.
is precious). This understanding is grammatically possible and makes honor parallel with chosen, precious
in v. 6, but the authors strategy in this part is to make connections
between what is true of Jesus and what is therefore true of those
who believe in him. He is the Living Stone; they therefore can be
built as living stones. He was rejected by humans and then honored
by God; if they trust in him, they will never be put to shame and
instead will receive honor.16
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Not everyone believes, unfortunately. To help the readers understand why, the author quotes two more stone texts. The first, LXX
Ps 117[=118]:22, shows how the rejected by most but honored
by God can be demonstrated from Scripture. Readers will have
heard this text used to refer to Jesus from Gospel readings (Mark
12:10-11 and pars;) or, in Christian interpretation of the Old
Testament, used to predict Jesus resurrection (e.g., Acts 4:11; Barn.
6.4). In this first text, Jesus status is reversed, from rejected to
honored. In the second quote, it is unbelievers who suffer reversal,
from walking to stumbling. They stumble, in fact, over the very
cornerstone that they rejected. Maybe the picture is supposed to be
would-be builders tripping over a large rock discarded but left in
the path, but has become the cornerstone comes before stumbling stone, so maybe we are supposed to visualize unbelievers
stubbing toes on the new edifice God is building.
The second half of v. 8 is offered to reassure the audience that the
unbelief of most of their neighbors is no proof that their faith is
worthless. God knew they would stumble over the word, or the
message of the gospel, and so the stumblers were set for a fall.
The grammar of 2:8b is also pretty elliptical: literally, those who
disbelieve the word stumble, for which also they were set. The
passive they were set surely implies God as the setter, but the
which leaves open the possibilities of God setting their disbelief
or their stumbling. In the first option, God chooses who believes
and who does not; in the second, God decides that stumbling is
the consequence of disbelief. Since 1 Peter does not return to this
topic, it is hard to say for certain whether the author would opt for
one version or another, and, as Jobes remarks, ones theology will
influence how one reads this text.17 However one decides this (or
however God chooses one will decide, I suppose), the rest of
1 Peter speaks of Christians living in such a way that they can
change the opinions of unbelievers. Even if God decides who will
or will not believe, 1 Peter urges us to live as if those decisions are
still open.
Who You Are: Identity Collage, 2:9-10
But you are a chosen race, a royal priesthood, a holy ethnic group,
a people for [Gods] possession, so that you may announce the
mighty deeds of the one who called you out of darkness into his
marvelous light. Those who were once not a people are now Gods
people; those not receiving mercy are now receiving mercy.
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The word-pictures pile up in these verses, each an important

statement from the Old Testament about Israel. First Peter simply
states, without any argument or explanation, that these titles now
belong to the audience. I will come back to this point just below,
but notice that 1 Peter says nothing about Israel or the Jews or
about whether, if his statements about the audience are true, the
prior affirmations about Israel remain true. He does not explain
whether the audience is a replacement for Israel, or a new subset of
Israel, or a separate-but-equal group alongside Israel. And in
making these assertions about the audience, there is no reflection
on how Gentiles might feel about being tagged the chosen race or
how non-Christian Jews or Jewish Christians might feel about the
same.
First, let us investigate what the monikers mean. Chosen race
(genos eklekton) repeats the word for elect or chosen that has
been used several times already (1:1 of the recipChosen
He saw that he was indeed elect and
ients; 2:4, 6 of Jesus). [Chosen] Genos means a
that the God of the universe was yet
group of people understood to have a common
more
terrible
than men reckoned. He could not be
ancestor18; it can describe a family group (the
eluded nor yet set aside nor circumscribed about
genos of Joseph, Acts 7:13), but it can also be
and it was true that He did contain all else within
Him even to the reasoning of the heretic else He
applied to all Israel (as at Acts 7:19). As Green
were no God at all.
notes, the audience imagined in this letter
Cormac McCarthy, The Crossing (New York: Vintage, 1994) 156.
bundles together many different ethnic groups,
and so calling them all members of the same
family group is a bold move.19 First Peter moves in the direction
some later Christians would go in arguing that the followers of
Jesus were a new race [Christians as a New Race], different from Jews
and Greeks. To call them a race implies that their voluntary association with a tiny new widely despised religious
Christians as a New Race
movement is more than just a choice, but that
The Epistle to Diognetus, probably written
conversion has transformed them permaaround 150, argues that Christians are
not
dangerous
or troublesome. The introductory
nentlyonly God, by re-begetting them,
section
calls
them
a new genos, a new race:
could make them all kin to each other and
Since I see, most excellent Diognetus, that you
members of a different genos. [Identity]
are extremely eager to learn about the religion of
Chosen race appears to come from LXX
the Christians . . . wishing to discover which God
they obey and how they worship him, neither
Isaiah 43:20-21, where God is promising to
giving credence to those thought to be gods by
rescue Israel from Babylon and make their
the Greeks nor keeping the superstition of the
homecoming glorious: I gave water in the
Jews, and what deep affection they have for one
wilderness and rivers in a dry place, to give water
another, and just why this new race or way of life
came into being now and not before, I welcome
to my chosen race (to genos mou to eklekton), my
this eagerness of yours . . . . (Diogn. 1)
people whom I obtained to announce my
1&2_Peter, Jude_int_tp2
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mighty deeds.20 First Peters readers may or may

My wallet is full of identity cards,
not have known the Isaiah text, but references to
library cards, credit cards. It is a
how God chose Israel are so widespread in the Old
pleasure to carry out the duties of a citizen
Testament that they must have known the phrase
and to receive in return a receipt or a neat
was originally applied to Israel. First Peter, as
styrene card with ones name on it certifying,
so to speak, ones right to exist.
already noted, does not speak to how Gods choice
Walker Percy, The Moviegoer (New York: Alfred A. Knopf,
of the readers affects Gods prior choice of the Jews.
1967) 67.
The readers, then, are not being told to think of
themselves as heirs of Israel,21 and although we
theologians may want to resolve the how into either the embeddedness of Christians in Israels story22a Pauline moveor, like
Hebrews, into a replacement of the first covenant by the second,
1 Peter does not. He simply avoids (ignores?) the question.
Royal priesthood is the translation most prefer of the next two
words in this list of titles, basileion hierateuma. The second word,
used earlier in v. 5, is a rare word that seems to mean priesthood
as an institution.23 The first is an adjective, meaning belonging to
a king, but it can be used as a noun to mean palace, and so the
pair of words could be translated as two things rather than one: you
are a palace, a priesthood.24 While this is possible, the pattern in
the list seems to be a noun qualified by an adjective or prepositional phrase: royal priesthood fits the pattern better.25 By the
late first century, basileus, which means king, was also commonly
used for the emperor (as at 1 Pet 2:13, 17),
Imperial Priesthoods
and there were imperial priesthoods, speThe Senate declared Augustus immortal,
cially created in many Asian cities to serve
assigned to him a college of priests and sacred
in the cult of the emperor and his family.
rites, and made Livia, who was already called Julia and
Augusta, his priestess . . . (Dio Cassius, Roman History
[Imperial Priesthoods] Being named to such a
56.46; cited in Lewis and Reinhold). These priests (the
priesthood showed that you were a person
Augustales) could come from any class of society,
of high status and in good favor with the
including freedmen (former slaves), who were barred
emperor. For 1 Peter to apply this title
from most of the more traditional priesthoods. The only
catch was that the Augustalis had to be able to bear the
to his audience is to praise them as valuexpense of the sacrifices necessary to the office (see
able, worthy, important. [Priesthoods and
Identity
[An Influential Freedman] for an example of a freedman

who paid for this sort of priesthood).
Associations]
The priesthood of all believers is the

notion that every Christian has the rights
and responsibilities of the clergy. First
Peter does presume that every member of the scattered congregations that formed his imagined audience was responsible for public
testimony to the faith (3:15), for good deeds done openly (3:16),
Naphtali Lewis and Meyer Reinhold, Roman Civilization (New York: Harper
& Row, 1966) 2:78.
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and for proclaiming Gods mighty acts Priesthoods and Associations

People formed associations in antiquity to further
to the world (later in 2:9). 1 Peter also
commercial interests (trade associations). They also
imagines elders whose authority must
formed private societies that mostly provided regular banbe exercised with care and accepted by quets for the members and an honorable funeral when the
others (5:1-5). This letters readers members died: In the consulship of Marcus Antonius Hiberus
probably did think that you are . . . a and Publius Mummius Sisenna [AD 133], January 1, the
royal priesthood applied to all of them Benevolent Society of Diana . . . and Antinos was founded,
Lucius Caesennius Rufus son of Lucius, of the Quirine tribe,
collectively and therefore to each of being for the third time magistrate and likewise patron . . . .
them individually.26 But since they
These societies often had patrons who funded their beginoffered spiritual sacrifices and not ning with an endowment, and then the members contributed
actual ones, in a spiritual house and dues, food, and wine: It was voted unanimously that
whoever desires to enter this society shall play an initiation
not in anything that their neighbors fee of 100 sesterces and an amphora of good wine, and shall
would have called a temple, they pay monthly dues of 5 asses [an as was a Roman coin].
Some societies, like this one, included slaves as members:
surely understood the term metaphorically: as a royal priesthood, they were
It was voted further that if a slave member of this society dies,
empowered by God the Great King to
and his master or mistress unreasonably refuses to relinquish
his body for burial, and he has not left written instructions, a
offer praise and to proclaim Gods acts
token funeral ceremony will be held . . . . It was voted further
to the world.
that if any slave member of this society becomes free, he is
They are also a holy ethnic group.
required to donate an amphora of good wine.
Ethnos, often rendered nation, is a
Members could aspire to become quinquennalis of the
body of persons united by kinship,
society,
a position requiring both administrative and priestly
culture, and common tradition.27 The functions:
Romans recognized the Jews as an
If a member dies intestate, the details of his burial will be
ethnosnot a nation in the political
decided by the quinquennalis and the membership. . . . It was
sense, since they were dispersed among
voted further that on the festive days of his term of office each
many political units, but united by reliquinquennalis is to conduct worship with incense and wine and
is to perform his other functions clothed in white, and that on
gion and common ancestry in ways
the birthdays of Diana and Antinos he is to provide oil for the
that made them different from the
society in the public bath before they banquet.
people they lived among. In Exodus
19:6, God is declaring the Hebrews, Quotes from Naphtali Lewis and Meyer Reinhold, Roman Civilization (New York:
just released from Egypt, to be a dis- Harper & Row, 1966) 2:27375.
tinct people-group; for 1 Peters
audience, the word has the same force. Like genos, it means that
they are linked to other believers in a fictive family. Holy, as elsewhere in 1 Peter, means that they are set apart from other Gentiles
to belong to God.
This is also the thrust of a people for [Gods] possession, found
in Exodus 19:5 and 23:22 (Isa 43:21 has my people whom I
obtained, the same words in a different form). By refusing to do
what everybody else does, Christians will turn themselves into
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Being Alien
There were real reasons why not hiding
our true selves would have been unthinkable, why shape-shifting had been so important
even by ordinary standards. America had rendered us invisible and at the same time awfully
conspicuous. . . . Were guests in this country.
And good guests dont upset their hosts, I had
been told. . . . We would have to go through the
motions and float harmlessly as permanent
guests, with no more impact on our surroundings
than the mild, leisurely pace of an ordinary day.
We would have to make ourselves innocuous and
present to the outside world a mild, freeze-dried
version of history.
objects of speculation and ridicule (4:3-4), but

that is part of being Gods people. [Being Alien]
The last part of v. 9 gives the purpose or result
of Gods creation of the recipients as race/priesthood/ethnic group dedicated to God: to
announce the mighty deeds of God. Mighty
deeds is the plural of the word aret, meaning
virtue. Like honor in V. 7, virtue was understood to be publicly performed. The historian
Polybius describes the funeral of a nobly born
Roman:
Whenever one of their distinguished men dies, in

the course of the funeral procession he is carried
with every kind of honor into the Forum to the so-called Rostra; . . .
All the masses stand around, as his son, if he has left one of adult age
who can be present, or if not some other relative, mounts the Rostra
and speaks about the virtues of the deceased and the successful
achievements of his life . . . . By this constant renewal of the famed
excellence of brave men, the renown of those who performed noble
deeds is immortalized and the glory of those who have served their
country is a matter of common knowledge and a legacy for future
generations. But the most important result is that young men are
inspired to undergo every extreme for the common good in the hope
of winning the glory that attends upon the brave.28
Lan Cao, Monkey Bridge (New York: Penguin, 1998) 42.
Christians, of course, do not recount the glorious deeds of heroic

menat least not in 1 Peters formulationbut of God, who
rescued them out of darkness. Like the worthless manner of life
you inherited from your forebears (1:18), darkness is a polemical
characterization of the customs and heritage of the letters recipients. That continues in the final verse of this section. Formerly, he
writes, you were not a people; but they wereAsians and Gauls
and Jews and so forth. Theologically, however, unless they were
Gods people, they did not count (like poor Harry Ashfield in
Flannery OConnors The River, told by the preacher that he did
not count before his baptism). Earlier, they had not been under the
mercy of God; now they are.
What a mission envisioned for these small house-churchesto
proclaim the mighty deeds of the one true God to the world, the
One who brought them into the light. Dorothea, heroine of
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Middlemarch, finding herself constrained by convention, by family,

and by her unfortunate marriage and thus unable to do great good
in her world, says that nevertheless her faith comforts her: That by
desiring what is perfectly good, even when we do not quite know
what it is and cannot do what we would, we are part of the divine
power against evilwidening the skirts of light and making the
struggle with darkness narrower.29 Amen, says 1 Peter.
Alien Life, 2:11-17
The hero in Carol Shields novel Larrys Party becomes entranced

(his viewpoint) or obsessed (his wifes viewpoint) with labyrinths.
On a trip to visit some of the historic labyrinths of England, he and
his wife settled in, renting a small Wandsworth flat and buying
their own groceries . . . . They never lost, though, the sense of being
travelers. All around them they could see similar men and women;
the modern inhabitants of the world were wanderers, pilgrims, and
the labyrinth was their natural habitat.30
In this next section, 1 Peter reintroduces the images of resident
aliens and sojourners from the beginning of the letter. He asks his
readers to think of themselves that way and then structure their
lives accordingly. A labyrinth is not 1 Peters metaphor, but it is not
bad for conjuring up the image of living ones life in this world as if
one were always heading toward a goal one knows is there but
cannot quite see. The walls of our imaginary maze could not be too
high, however, because 1 Peter does not think of the Christian life
as an escape from the world. But the Christian life is a path laid out
by Jesus, and has a goal of eternal life with God; our anastroph,
our manner of life, is enough at odds with the way the Gentiles
live that we can profitably think of ourselves as sojournersor as
people walking a labyrinth.
Structure
Most commentators agree that 2:11 marks a section break; 1:3 is
connected to 2:10 by the mention of mercy, and 1:32:10 is
marked by a stress on the audiences identity in the plan of God.
The author works back and forth between stating who they are
obedient children of God, re-begotten by Gods mercy, future
inheritors of salvation, etc.and what they must dohope strenuously, be holy, etc. First Peter 2:1-10, which draws together
themes of holiness, mercy, and election that were announced in the
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first chapter, keeps this balance, matching imperative (put away evil
things, come to him, be built) with declarative (you are a chosen
race, royal priesthood, a holy people-group). Beginning with
2:11-12, there is more stress on the imperative for the next few
pages of the letter; the author does not entirely leave off telling the
readers that they are good and faithful, but compared to 1:32:10,
the next part is more about what they should be. There are still few
hints that the readers are failing to do the right thing and no
descriptions of their situation that would allow us to think 1 Peter
has any direct knowledge of the specific circumstances of the Asian
congregations. But 2:11 has the author, rhetorically, look the
readers in the eye: I urge you to abstain, rather than abstain!
Beloved, the first word in 2:11, is repeated at 4:12, so it is possible that the writer thought of 2:114:11 as one long section, but
this is not clear. Some take 2:113:12 as a unit, 1 Peters equivalent
of the Household Code sections of Colossians and Ephesians. The
Scripture quote in 3:10-12, following a pattern the author has
already set, rounds off and supports the advice given in 3:8-9, and
this division would have the unit begin and end with instruction to
everyone.31 However, 3:13, And who will do evil to you if you are
zealots for the good? returns to the evil for evil theme of v. 9,
and the word and that begins the verse tends to link ideas in
1 Peter rather than divide them into sections.
Certainly the verses in 2:13-17 belong together, as advice for all
the readers about relations to persons in power. A section addressed
to household slaves begins at 2:18, but somewhere around v. 21
it becomes clear that the advice given to slaves applies to everyone.
In chapter 3, verses 1-6 advise wives of nonbelievers, 3:7 addresses
Christian husbands, and 3:8 begins, As for the rest [of you],
everyone should . . . . But where does the section begun by 3:8
end? The topicnot returning evil for evil, but suffering as Christ
didleads the author into the famous section about Christ being
put to death and preaching to spirits in prison (3:19), which leads
to Noah, which leads to baptism and then to prayer (3:21-22).
Then in 4:1-6 the author comes back to imitating Christ by living
entirely focused on Gods will, and 4:7-11 concludes with another
unit of advice addressed to all the readers. In the end, then,
although 3:84:11 at times seems to ramble, it probably should be
considered a unit and as the second half of the larger section that
began at 2:11.32
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1 Peter 2
My plan is to take 2:11-17 together, since the appeal to living as

aliens in 2:11 has much to say about how to relate to persons in
power, the subject of 2:13-17. Verses 18-25 belong together and are
close to the lectionary division for the fourth Sunday of Easter in
Year A (2:19-25). The section about wives and husbands (3:1-7)
can stand by itself, and then I will follow the lectionary in keeping
3:8-22 together (sixth Sunday of Easter, Year A, and first Sunday of
Lent, Year B). Finally, I will treat 4:1-11 together (4:1-8 is a reading
for Holy Saturday).
Honorable Living as Aliens, 2:11-12
Beloved, I urge you as resident aliens and sojourners to abstain
from fleshly desires which war against your souls, by having your
manner of life among the gentiles [be] good, so that when they
slander you as evil-doers, by observing [your] good works they may
glorify God on the Visitation Day.
Christian writers often called their audiences beloved even if
there was no particularly close connection between them (Paul calls
the Romans beloved in Rom 12:19, although he had not met
them; see also Heb 6:9; Jas 1:16; 2 Pet 3:1; 1 Clem. 7:1).
Sometimes it seems a way to soften a criticism or command: But
about you, beloved, even if we speak so [he had just called them
babies], we are convinced of better things . . . (Heb 6:9); We are
writing these things, beloved, not only to admonish you but also to
remind ourselves . . . (1 Clem. 7:1). The audience, hearing
beloved, might expect a tone shift, and combined with I urge,
they get it.
First Peter calls on them as resident aliens and sojourners. The
second word was used in 1:1, a form of the first in 1:17, so this is
not the first time the audience has heard the language. Resident
alien (Gk., paroikos) in antiquity meant much what it does now: a
person living on a long-term basis in a place other than his or her
homeland, without all the rights of citizenship. A paroikos might be
a citizen of some other citysay, a citizen of Philippi who had
decided to live in Corinth because of business opportunities or in
Athens to study with some famous teacher. On the other hand, a
paroikos might not have been a citizen anywheresay, a former
slave, emancipated by his Corinthian owner, who moved to
Ephesus after his former masters death and found work at the
docks. A paroikos was a free person (slaves were property, not
persons), and could be wealthy or poor, influential or not; many
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An Influential Freedman
From a memorial marker in Assisi:
foreigners, for instance, lived in Ostia, the main

seaport serving the ancient city of Rome, to run
shipping and trading companies. Some of them were
Publius Decimius Eros Merula, freedman of
Publius, clinical doctor, surgeon, oculist,
prosperous, and these (either as individuals or as
member of the board of six [he was a priest
associations) used their money to obtain the goodat one of the shrines dedicated to one of
will and influence of senators and others in power in
the emperors]. For his freedom he paid
50,000 sesterces. For his membership on
Rome. [An Influential Freedman]
the board of six he contributed to the comThe majority of resident aliens, however, were not
munity 2,000 sesterces. For the erection of
wealthy or powerful. They occupied professions or
statues in the temple of Hercules he gave
30,000 sesterces. For paving streets he
provided services that were useful or necessary to the
contributed to the municipal treasury
city where they lived, but were always subject to
37,000 sesterces . . . .
prejudice. As noted earlier in this commentary, city
Naphtali Lewis and Meyer Reinhold, Roman Civilization
governments sometimes deported them and some(New York: Harper & Row, 1966) 2:259.
times killed them with impunity. Relationships
between the Jews of Alexandria, Egypt,33 native Egyptians, and
ethnic Greeks living there became tense after Rome took over
Egypt in 30 BC. The Greeks and the Jews, as organized groups of
foreigners living in Egypt on a long-term basis, competed for
favored status with the Romans, hoping to get relief from taxes and
other concessions. In AD 38, Flaccus, the Roman prefect of Egypt,
allowed Greek mobs to burn synagogues; when the Jews tried to
defend their property, Flaccus put out a decree classifying the Jews
as aliens and foreigners rather than as resident aliens. The mob
took this as license for killing Jews, and the result was a pogrom:
The mob hounded Jews from other parts of the city into the ghetto,
tortured and massacred many before they could take refuge there,
and looted Jewish shops and over four hundred abandoned houses.
Overcrowding in the ghetto and exposure on the seashore, where
large numbers for whom there was no room in the ghetto were
forced to camp out near the cemeteries and rubbish-dumps, led to an
epidemic. Poverty became acute as normal trades and professions
could no longer be carried on, and when food ran short, Jews who
ventured out to the city markets in search of supplies were lynched in
various ingeniously disgusting ways. Jewish merchants arriving at the
harbor were robbed of their goods and murdered.34
The Jews appealed for justice to Emperor Gaius (Caligula), who

ignored them; once Claudius took office, he issued a decree
improving things somewhat. The episode illustrates both the ease
with which a government might sponsor or tolerate terrorist acts
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toward resident aliens and the importance of having the supreme

authorities well disposed toward ones ethnic group, if possible.
The second term in v. 13 is parepidmos, translated sojourner. It
is only used twice in the LXX (Gen 23:4; Ps 38:13) and only once
elsewhere in the NT (Heb 11:13). In Genesis and Psalms,
parepidmos is parallel with paroikos, indicating that it would mean
something close to resident alien, but in the Hebrews text it is
parallel to xenos, meaning foreigner, stranger. If 1 Peter makes any
distinctions between the two words, this one describes a person
who is a more short-term resident of a place where he or she is not
a citizena transient. In our terms, if the paroikos has a green card,
then the parepidmos has a travel permit or student visa. Chances
are, though, that 1 Peter uses both terms synonymously, to give the
sense of someone living in a place not his or her own.
Unlike all those great gospel songs, 1 Peter does not say or even
imply that the real home for his readers is heaven when they die.
Preachers and teachers will probably have to point this out, because
other New Testament authors do talk about our citizenship being
in heaven (Phil 3:20), or having been rescued from the power of
darkness and transferred into the kingdom of [Gods] beloved son
(Col 1:13). First Peters point is not that the readers have been
given a new country, nor that they are on a journey to somewhere
else, but that, having been re-begotten by God, they are now part
of a new people-group and thus resident aliens. Most of the
readers probably still lived where they lived before their conversion;
they spoke the same language, wore the same clothes, ate the same
foods. But they no longer worshiped their ancestral godsat least,
they did not if they were living as they had been instructedand
they no longer lived by the same ethical standardsagain, presuming that they were living the good Christian lifeand these
changes separated them in real and important ways from their
neighbors, friends, and families. [It Aint My Country]
Such a huge change was not easy. By this point in the letter,
1 Peter has already urged the readers more than once to focus on
God and to leave aside less worthy interests. In 1:14-16, he exhorts
them to be holy by not being conformed to the desires of their
former way of life. In 1:17-21, he calls them to a reverent manner
of life. In 2:1-3, the imperative is to long for Gods nourishment,
putting away every sort of community-destroying evil. Here, he
switches from the second-person plural imperative form used in all
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the previous exhortations to a first-person I

urge followed by the infinitive to abstain or to
put asideno less of a command, and with the
added hint of the authors presence behind it.
They are to abstain from fleshly desires which
war against your soul. As noted earlier in the
commentary, the problem of desire was an
important one for Christians in the first and
second centuries, as for other ancient moral
thinkers. Fleshly desires, like the desires you
had formerly in your ignorance (1:14) and
human desires (4:2), means cravings or emotions leading one away from God; the vice lists in
2:2 and 4:3 are probably good examples of what
Cormac McCarthy, All the Pretty Horses (New York: Vintage,
1993) 299.
1 Peter means. [Hermas on the Vices] The absence of
any stress in this letter on ascetic remedies to
fleshly desirenothing about fasting or celibacy, for example
makes it likely that by fleshly the author is not identifying the
human body as a danger. The sorts of sins listed specifically do not
include some of the typical sins of the fleshlust, adultery, fornication, gluttony. First Peter is not even particularly concerned
about the sexual practices of his readers (a big difference from Paul,
who nearly always feels the need to warn his readers away from
sexual sins). It is also worth contrasting
Hermas on the Vices
the advice and commands 1 Peter gives
The Shepherd of Hermas, in its Ninth Parable, illustrates how one may long for godly virtues with
about desireset it aside; do not be
something akin to erotic passion (see [Shepherd of Hermas
conformed by itwith that given by
on Godly Passion]). The virtues appear as twelve beautiful
other Christians of the period. Pauls
Virgins dressed in white who promise to stay with the hero
walk by the Spirit and by no means
always because they love him. In the same parable, Hermas
sees twelve more women, extremely beautiful in appearcomplete the desires of the flesh (Gal
ance, dressed in black, belted, with uncovered shoulders and
5:16) stresses the need for divine guidloose hair. These women seemed wild to me (86.5). These
ance in order to overcome negative
are the Vices that seduce the unwary, leading them away
desires. The closest 1 Peter comes to this
from the church (represented in the vision by a tower); when
people dress themselves in the garments of the women in
is in 2:1-3, where he urges readers to set
black rather than the women in white, they were cast out
aside evil things like deceit, hypocrisy,
from the house of God (90.8-9). Hermas names them as
jealousy, and slander by longing for
Disbelief, Lack of Self-control, Disobedience, Deceit, Sorrow,
God as an infant longs to drink milk.
Wickedness, Licentiousness, Short Temper, Lying,
Foolishness, Slander, and Hatred. The slave of God who
Mostly, despite the intensity of war
bears these names will see the kingdom of God but will not
against your soul, the advice is set
enter it (93.3).
desire aside, instead of cleanse your
It Aint My Country
What are you going to do?
Head out.
Where to?
I dont know.
You could get on out at the rigs. Pays awful
good.
Yeah. I know.
You could stay here at the house.
I think Im goin to move on.
This is still good country.
Yeah. I know it is. But it aint my country. . .
Where is your country? he said.
I dont know, said John Grady. I dont know
where it is. I dont know what happens to
country.
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hands, you sinners, and purify your hearts . . . lament and mourn
and weep (Jas 4:8-9) or fight the good fight of the faith (1 Tim
6:12).
The best defense against fleshly desires, according to v. 12, is a
good manner of life among the Gentiles. Manner of life, discussed earlier at 1:17, means how one lives according to ones
beliefs or principles. Maybe good seems like a bland word to
describe this, but because this word can also mean beautiful, it
helps communicate the idea of visibly good, or publicly virtuous.
By Gentiles, 1 Peter means nonbelievers (so also 3 John 7; Eph
4:17; Ign. Trall. 8.2; Herm. Vis. 1.4.2; and several more times in
The Shepherd of Hermas). They slander you as evil-doers, the first
specific instance in this letter of harmful things done by nonbelievers to the recipients of the letter. [Slanders against Christians]
What the author intended by the end of v. 12 is open to some
debate. The they who slander you as evildoers are the same ones
who glorify God on Visitation Daythat much is clear. But one
can imagine this happening in different ways. In one scenario, the
present-day slanderers become Judgment Day glorifiers because
they have been converted by their observation of the good deeds
Slanders against Christians
Most likely written around the end of the second
century, the Octavius of Minucius Felix is a (probably fictional) dialogue between two friends, one a
Christian, the other a practitioner of traditional Roman religion. In it, the non-Christian repeats what he says is
generally believed about Christians among the general
public. As it seems unlikely that a Christian would have
invented such terrible slanders only to have to refute
them, the Octavius is probably good evidence of the kinds
of slanders Christians endured:
Everywhere they practice among themselves a kind of cult
of lust, so to speak, and indiscriminately call each other
brother and sister, so that even ordinary fornication, under
the cloak of a hallowed name, becomes incest. (9.2)
I am told that, because of I know not what foolish belief,
they consecrate and worship the head of an ass, the
meanest of animals. . . . Others tell that they reverence
even the genital organs of their bishop and priest. . . . This
suspicion may be false, but at any rate, it has been
attached to their secret and nocturnal rites. And anyone
who says that the objects of their worship are a man who
suffered the death penalty for his crime, and the deadly
wood of the cross, assigns them altars appropriate for

incorrigibly wicked men, so that they actually worship what
they deserve. (9.3-4)
M. Felix then recounts how Christians actually eat the

flesh and drink the blood of a foundling infant (9.5), and
then tells of how the common meals of the Christians are
actually orgies:
Their form of banqueting is notorious; far and wide
everyone speaks of it, as our fellow citizen of Cirta witnesses in his speech [M. Cornelius Fronto, whose speech
condemning Christians does not survive]. On the appointed
day, they assemble for their banquets with all their children, sisters, and motherspeople of both sexes and
every age. After many sumptuous dishes, when the
company at table has grown warm and the passion of
incestuous lust has been fired by drunkenness, a dog
which has been tied to a lamp is tempted by throwing a
morsel beyond the length of the leash by which it is bound.
It makes a dash, and jumps for the catch. Thus, when the
witnessing light has been overturned and extinguished, in
the ensuing darkness which favors shamelessness, they
unite in whatever revoltingly lustful embraces the hazard of
chance will permit. (9.6-7)
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done by Christians.35 In another, the slanderers, who know they

are lying when they disparage the good-deed-doing Christians, are
forced to tell the truth on Judgment Day, providing independent
confirmation of the recipients good manner of life.36 In a third,
the slanderers are scared out of their lying by a visitation from
God at some day down the road and then, converted, they glorify
God; or perhaps observing Christians doing good deeds is the day
of visitation that sometimes turns slanderers into glorifiers.37 As
indicated by the use of capital letters in my translation, I suspect
that Visitation Day is the same for 1 Peter as Judgment Day
that is the sense of the phrase in LXX Isaiah 10:3, and 1 Peter
includes references to the last time (1:5), the revelation of Jesus
Christ (1:7), the end of all things (4:1), when his glory is
revealed (4:13), and when the chief shepherd appears (5:4).
Green observes that whether the detractors are converted or not,
they will still glorify God on Judgment Day, as everyone will.38
True enough, but it is still worth wondering whether 1 Peter has
any serious hopes that public do-goodery will result in the conversion of the skeptics. Clearly he does in the case of the
non-Christian husband married to the exemplary Christian wife
(3:1-2), and if he was at least somewhat optimistic about the abilities of the Christians to convert their detractors, it might explain
why he has little to say about eternal punishment for the wicked.
Respect and Reverence, 2:13-17
Be subordinate to every human creature on account of the Lord,
whether to the emperor as supreme, or to governors as the ones
sent by him for punishment of evildoers but praise of do-gooders;
because Gods will is thus: by doing good, to silence the ignorance
of foolish people, as free people and not as ones having freedom as
a covering for evil, but as Gods slaves. Honor everyone, love the
brotherhood, fear God, honor the emperor.
Go into any bookstore and you will find a self-help section with
books on self-care, self-discipline, and time management. In that
section, or nearby, there will be books about relationships that give
different models for understanding ones parents, children, spouse,
coworkers, etc., and tips for making things better. Yet another
section will be devoted to fix-it books: how to rewire a lamp, tile a
bathroom, build a closet. You can find advice on travel, on
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Hierocles, On Duties
manners, on political strategies, on investThe Stoic philosopher Hierocles wrote a handbook
ments, on managing others.
on how to carry out ones most important duties.
All of this was available in antiquity as
He wrote in the second century AD; unfortunately only
well (well, not how to wire a lamp),
selections of his book survive in an anthology from 300
years later. It addressed how to complete ones obligations
sometimes in the same compendious
to the gods, to ones native country, to parents, friends,
treatment, other times in separate focused
and members of ones own household. Here are a couple
essays. [Hierocles, On Duties] There is, in fact,
of examples of how he writes:
a tradition going back to Aristotle, where
After discussing the gods, it is most reasonable to set forth
philosophical or ethical writers give
how to conduct oneself towards ones fatherland. For, by
advice to heads of household on the prinZeus, it is as it were some second god, and our first and
ciples of household management (oikos is
greatest parent . . . . This word [patris] also dictates that
we honor our one fatherland equally with our two parents,
Greek for household; nomos is Greek
that we prefer it to either of our two parents separately, and
for law or principle; so an oikonomos
that we not honor the two together more than it, but that
we respect them equally. (On Duties 3.39.3436; in
is a household manager or steward, and
Malherbe, 89)
oikonomia is the proper way to manage a
householdthe word economic derives
After discussing the gods and the fatherland, what person
should be mentioned before our parents? . . . . So, in order
from oikonomia). Aristotle treated the
to choose our duties to them easily, we should always have
household as the smallest unit of the citythis summary statement at hand, namely, that our parents
state; in his day, there was no Greece
are the images of the gods . . . . (On Duties 4.25.53; in
Malherbe, 91)
with a national government, but a collection of competing cities like Athens and
Abraham J. Malherbe, Moral Exhortation: A Greco-Roman Sourcebook
(Philadelphia: Westminster, 1986).
Sparta. The householderspropertyowning, resident menwere the
deciders, so a treatment of proper relations between the householder and the other members of the household (wives, children,
and slaves) was a good first step toward understanding proper relations between householders, or between householders and their
civic leaders. One can see, then, why 1 Peter thought a discussion
of the ways Christians related to political authorities was connected
to how Christian wives related to their husbands and to how
Christian slaves related to their masters.
Commentators sometimes debate whether the advice in 2:133:7
was intended (a) to make Christians look as harmless and normal
as possible to nonbelievers, especially in response to slanders that
Christians are anti-social; or (b) to encourage mutual support
between Christians as a way of coping with harsh treatment; or (c)
to help Christians find the proper balance between total separation
from and complete assimilation to the worthless manner of life
inherited from their ancestors. It seems to me that 1 Peter gives all
three as reasons to follow his advice, and that these motives are not
mutually exclusive.39
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Be subordinate is the main idea in 2:13-17, and the audience is

given specifics on to whom and how far. The verb, hypotass, is
repeated to slaves (2:18), to wives (3:1), and to youths (5:5). The
word means to order something below something else; the passive
imperative in 2:13 has the sense of set yourselves under or be
subject to. It surely implies obey, but as 1 Peter uses it, not obey
unquestioningly; the author sets up a hierarchy of loyalties that
limits how submissive a Christian might be to the emperor, for
instance. It also implies act appropriately for your station, which
is not highrecall that the author addressed them as resident aliens
and sojourners, not as citizens or householders.40 Many modern
readers, including me, will almost reflexively resist being ordered to
submit or to keep to ones placetell me I should not wear white
socks to church and I may do it even if I would not have considered it otherwise. But for a first-century Christian, un-infected
with American mule-headed individualism, who had not grown up
with the expectation that ones education, marriage,
Trimalchio the Vulgar Freedman
residence, and vocation could all be freely chosen,
Petronius wrote the Satyricon in
the mid-first century AD, making fun
be subordinate probably went almost without
of wealthy freedmen who had money but
saying. Be subordinate to the governor? Duhwhat
no culture. In this section, Trimalchio and
choice do I have? As a slave, be subordinate to my
his guests are reclining at an unbelievably
master? For sure, since I do not relish being beaten or
ostentatious banquet, and the former slave
is boasting of his wealth. Scaurus refers
crucified. Highborn elite Greek and Roman writers
to a member of one of the oldest senatorial
were of the opinion that acting according to ones
families in Rome; Trimalchio is name-dropstation was honorable and that overreaching was
ping, on the order of Whenever Rockefeller
shameful.41 [Trimalchio the Vulgar Freedman] 1 Peter gives
comes to town, he always stays with me:
other reasons, as we will see.
But if I am allowed to extend my estates to
Be subordinate to every human creature is a tall
Apulia, Ill have done well enough in my
order
and a broad responsibility. Creature is literlifetime. Meanwhile, with Mercury [god of
commerce] watching over me, Ive built
ally created thing (ktisis, the result of an act of
this residence. As you know, it was a
creation, whether human or divine), and the intercottage; now its fit for a god. Its got four
pretive question is whether the ktisis is made by a
dining rooms, twenty bedrooms, two
marble colonnades, and the upstairs aparthuman or is a human made by God. Commentators
ments, my own bedroom where I sleep,
and translators who take the first option often make
this vipers boudoir [his wifes bedroom],
the phrase human institution,42 but v. 17, honor
an excellent porters lodge, and enough
guest rooms for all my guestsin fact,
everyone, tilts toward persons created by God rather
when Scaurus came here he didnt want to
than human institutions like the empire. If this is
stay anywhere else, even though he can
stay at his fathers friends by the sea.
correct, then starting with human creature and
moving to the emperor as the first example is a
Petronius Satyricon 77.45; cited in Naphtali Lewis and
reminder that, for Christians, no human can occupy
Meyer Reinhold, Roman Civilization (New York: Harper &
Row, 1966) 2:259.
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Triumph of Septimius Severus

Gods place. The emperor may
be supreme in terms of
human authority, but despite
all the imperial propaganda,
the emperor was no god.
Be subordinate on account
of the Lord begins to sort out
relative
authorities
for
believers. A Christian should
be subordinate to humans
such as the emperor because
that is Gods will; the author
The Triumphal entry of Septimius Severus in Leptis Magna (Gloria Augustorum). Detail
repeats this in the first line of
showing the emperor on his chariot. Full-size cast of the bas-relief on the Arch of Septimius
Severus in Leptis Magna, Lybia. This Severan triumphal arch was built in AD 203. Museo della
v. 15. This is not a divine
Civilta Romana, Rome, Italy. (Credit: Vanni/Art Resource, NY)
right argument like the one
This is from a triumphal arch erected to honor the emperor in AD 203. The
in Romans 13:1-2; it is Gods
emperor is in his chariot to accept the acclaim of the crowds after a miliwill that you obey the
tary victory.
emperor, but 1 Peter does not
say that God put the emperor
in place or that the emperor is the instrument of Gods will. [Early
Christian Opinions on Christian Relations to Government] A Christian obeys the
emperor to please God, not because the emperor demands it.
[Honoring Rulers] The same applies to governors appointed by
emperors (v. 14). Could the last part of v. 14 be a bit ironic?
Officially, imperial officers were supposed to advance the good and
punish the wicked, but everyone, including the emperors, agreed
that many governors, consuls, legates, prefects, and ambassadors
saw foreign service as an opportunity to make loads of cash from
bribes and sweetheart deals. Even if 1 Peter meant the line to be
delivered straight, we can imagine some eye-rolling in the audiences that heard it as they considered the motives of their local
imperial representatives.
Because it is Gods willthat is the first reason to be subject. The
second is in the second half of v. 15: by doing good, to silence the
ignorance of the foolish. Doing good in ancient Greek literature
often meant doing public good deeds: paving the central market in
ones city or refurbishing an ancient temple. In this context,
however, it is more likely to mean the opposite of being an evildoer; the term shows up again in the advice to slaves (2:20), where
one is beaten despite doing good. Be publicly and obviously vir-
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Early Christian Opinions on Christian Relations to

Government
Romans 13:1-7: Let every person be subject to
the governing authorities; for there is no
authority except from God, and those authorities that
exist have been instituted by God. Therefore whoever
resists authority resists what God has appointed, and
those who resist will incur judgment. For rulers are not a
terror to good conduct, but to bad. Do you wish to have
no fear of the authority? Then do what is good, and you
will receive its approval; for it is Gods servant for your
good. But if you do what is wrong, you should be afraid,
for the authority does not bear the sword in vain! It is
the servant of God to execute wrath on the wrongdoer.
Therefore one must be subject, not only because of
wrath but also because of conscience. For the same
reason you also pay taxes, for the authorities are Gods
servants, busy with this very thing. Pay to all what is due
themtaxes to whom taxes are due, revenue to whom
revenue is due, respect to whom respect is due, honor
to whom honor is due.
1 Timothy 2:1-4: First of all, then, I urge that supplications, prayers, intercessions, and thanksgivings be made
for everyone, for kings and all who are in high positions,
so that we may lead a quiet and peaceable life in all
godliness and dignity. This is right and is acceptable in
the sight of God our Savior, who desires everyone to be
saved and to come to the knowledge of the truth.
Titus 3:1-2: Remind them to be subject to rulers and
authorities, to be obedient, to be ready for every good
work, to speak evil of no one, to avoid quarreling, to be
gentle, and to show every courtesy to everyone.
Revelation 17:1-6: Then one of the seven angels who
had the seven bowls came and said to me, Come, I will
show you the judgment of the great whore who is
seated on many waters, with whom the kings of the
earth have committed fornication, and with the wine of
whose fornication the inhabitants of the earth have
become drunk. So he carried me away in the spirit into
a wilderness, and I saw a woman sitting on a scarlet
beast that was full of blasphemous names, and it had
seven heads and ten horns. The woman was clothed in
purple and scarlet, and adorned with gold and jewels
and pearls, holding in her hand a golden cup full of
abominations and the impurities of her fornication; and
on her forehead was written a name, a mystery:
Babylon the great, mother of whores and of earths
abominations. And I saw that the woman was drunk
with the blood of the saints and the blood of the witnesses to Jesus.
Revelation 18:1-4: After this I saw another angel
coming down from heaven, having great authority; and
the earth was made bright with his splendor. He called
out with a mighty voice, Fallen, fallen is Babylon the
great! It has become a dwelling place of demons, a
haunt of every foul spirit, a haunt of every foul bird, a
haunt of every foul and hateful beast. Then I heard
another voice from heaven saying, Come out of her, my
people, so that you do not take part in her sins, and so
that you do not share in her plagues.
1 Clement 60:361:3: . . . and deliver us from those
who hate us wrongfully. 4 Give concord and peace to us
and all who dwell upon the earth, even as Thou gavest
to our fathers, when they called upon Thee in faith and
truth, submissive as we are to Thine almighty and allexcellent Name. To our rulers and governors on the
earthto them Thou, Lord, gavest the power of the
kingdom by Thy glorious and ineffable might, to the end
that we may know the glory and honor given to them by
Thee and be subject to them, in nought resisting Thy
will; to them, Lord, give health, peace, concord, stability,
that they may exercise the authority given to them
without offense. 2 For Thou, O heavenly Lord and King
eternal, givest to the sons of men glory and honor and
power over the things that are on the earth; do Thou,
Lord, direct their counsel according to that which is
good and well-pleasing in Thy sight, that, devoutly in
peace and meekness exercising the power given them
by Thee, they may find Thee propitious.
Epistle to Diognetus 5:9-10, 14-16: 9 They pass their
days on earth, but they are citizens of heaven. 10 They
obey the prescribed laws, and at the same time surpass
the laws by their lives. 14 they are dishonored, and yet
in their very dishonor are glorified. They are evil spoken
of, and yet are justified; 15 they are reviled, and bless;
they are insulted, and repay the insult with honor; 16
they do good, yet are punished as evil-doers. When punished, they rejoice as if quickened into life;
Justin, First Apology 17: More even than others we try
to pay the taxes and assessments to those whom you
appoint, as we have been taught by him. [quotes the
give to Caesar story] So we worship God only, but in
other matters we gladly serve you, recognizing you as
emperors and rulers of men, and praying that along with
your imperial power you may also be found to have a
sound mind.
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tuous, and by those means silence the slanders Honoring Rulers

In the Martyrdom of Polycarp, the proconsul
against you. Notice that the author does not
has been trying unsuccessfully to get the
urge the readers to argue with their accusers,
aged Bishop Polycarp to curse Christ or to swear
and later commands them to resist trading allegiance to the emperor. Polycarp tells him hes
insults. Their exemplary lives will be their best wasting his time: If you are so foolish as to think
that I will swear by the Fortune of Caesar, as you
defense.
Verse 16 is a marvelous paradox. The readers say, and if you pretend not to know who I am, listen
closely: I am a Christian. But if you wish to learn an
are to do good as free people and as Gods account of Christianity, appoint a day and listen.
slaves. The letter, addressed to all the The proconsul then suggests that Polycarp try to
Christians in four provinces, must be useful to persuade the crowd in the stadium to set him free.
slave and free; the author will, in a couple of Polycarp replies, I think you deserve an account, for
we are taught to render all due honor to rulers and
verses, begin a section addressed to the slaves. authorities appointed by God, in so far as it does us
But there is no follow-up section describing no harm. But as to those, I do not consider them
duties that only fall to the free, or to slave worthy to hear a reasoned defense.
owners; instead, there is this verse, which Mart. Pol. 10.1-2.
makes the whole audience simultaneously free
and slave. They are Gods slaves, even if they are free, since it is
God who redeemed them (1:18); if they are slaves belonging to a
human master, they are still Gods slaves first. Yet this relative
freedom should not encourage them to act irresponsibly; freedom
should not be a covering for evil.
Here is how to acthere are your general responsibilities toward
others. Notice that no distinctions are made for the status of the
Christianit is not that Christian slaves must treat people any differently than free Christians. The distinctions come based on who
is at the other end of your good deeds. You can think of 2:17 as
1 Peters version of the Great Commandment.
Honor everyoneTreat everyone, every single created person on
Gods green earth, with respect. [Honor Everybody]
Love the brotherhoodYou have a deeper commitment to your
brothers and sisters in the faith. To them you owe more than
respect; they deserve your love. [Love]
Fear GodWhere fear appears elsewhere in 1 Peter, I have
normally translated it as reverence to make plain that it is
directed toward God (e.g., 2:18, where the slaves fear is not
toward the master but toward God). This is fear as it is used,
for example, in the proverb the fear of the Lord is the beginning
of wisdom. Fear in this context means deep respect and steady
devotion.
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Honor Everybody
The first bit of advice, therefore, is very clear,
easily obtained, and common to all people.
For it is a sound word which everyone will recognize
as clear: Treat anybody whatsoever as though you
supposed that he were you and you he. For someone
would treat even a servant well if he pondered how
he would want to be treated if the slave were the
master and he the slave. Something similar can also
be said of parents with respect to their children, of
children with respect to their parents, and, in short, of
all people with respect to all others.
Honor the emperorThe emperor, like

every other human on Gods green earth,
deserves your respect, but nothing more.
Your reverent fear and worship belongs only
to God. [Honor the Emperor]
How to Be a Slave, 2:18-25
In commenting on the previous section

(2:13-17), I asked you to consider the
Hierocles, On Duties 4.27.20; cited in Abraham J. Malherbe, Moral
analogy between this part of 1 Peter and the
Exhortation: A Greco-Roman Sourcebook (Philadelphia: Westminster,
self-help section of a big-chain bookstore. In
1986) 9394.
antiquity, I wrote, learned men used to write
advice to other literate men about all sorts of
Love
things, including how to manage their
The question was not death; living things die.
It was love. Not that we died, but that we
households. First Peters readers, having just
cared wildly, then deeply, for one person out of bilheard advice about how Christians should
lions. We bound ourselves to the fickle, changing, and
relate to government, would not be surprised
dying as if they were rock.
to find that the next topic was household
Annie Dillard, The Maytrees (New York: HarperCollins, 2007) 34.
relationships. After all, philosophers from the
time of Aristotle forward had often taken the
household as the most basic unit in the city-state; properly run
households were considered foundational for a well-managed city.
[Aristotle on the Relationship between Household and State]
Butand this is a pretty big but, more or less fatal for my selfhelp analogynobody in antiquity, prior to the New Testament,
ever wrote to slaves on how to be a good slave (more precisely, no
surviving ancient literature predating the New Testament addresses
Honor the Emperor
O Master . . . give harmony and peace both to us
and to all who inhabit the earth, just as you gave
it to our ancestors when they called upon you in a holy
way, in faith and in truth; and allow us to be obedient to
your all powerful and virtuous name, and to those who
rule and lead us here on earth. You have given them, O
Master, the authority to rule through your magnificent and
indescribable power, that we may both recognize the
glory and honor you have given them and subject ourselves to them, resisting nothing that conforms to your
will. Give to them, O Lord, health, peace, harmony, and
stability, so that without faltering they may administer the
rule that you have given to them. (1 Clem. 60.361.1)
For, in our case, we pray for the welfare of the emperors

to the eternal God, the true God, the living God, whom
even the emperors themselves prefer to have propitious
to them before all other gods. . . . Looking up to Him, we
Christianswith hands extended, because they are
harmless, with head bare because we are not ashamed,
without a prayer leader because we pray from the
heartconstantly beseech Him on behalf of all emperors.
We ask for them long life, undisturbed power, security at
home, brave armies, a faithful Senate, an upright people,
a peaceful world, and everything for which a man or a
Caesar prays. Such petitions I cannot ask from any other
save from Him. (Tertullian, Apol. 30.15)
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1 Peter 2
slaves directly).43 Aristotle, writing about

the husband-wife, father-child, and masterslave dynamics, addresses only the
head-of-household male, who is the
husband/father/master, the more powerful
agent in each of the pairs. Stodgy old Cato,
in his handbook on how to run a farm,
gives the farm owner advice on how slaves
should be kept in line, but even then he
mostly assumes that the master will not
dirty his hands by dealing directly with
slaves, but will either buy or employ a
manager. Here is an example:
119
Aristotle on the Relationship between Household

and State
The family is the association established by
nature for the supply of mens everyday wants. .
. . But when several families are united, and the association aims at something more than the supply of daily
needs, the first society to be formed is the village. And
the most natural form of the village appears to be that of
a colony from the family . . . .
Seeing then that the state is made up of households,
before speaking of the state we must speak of the management of the household. The parts of the household
management correspond to the persons who compose
the household, and a complete household consists of
slaves and freemen. Now we should begin by examining
everything in its fewest possible elements; and the first
and fewest possible parts of a family are master and
slave, husband and wife, father and children.
[The manager] must sort out disputes

Politics, trans. W. D. Ross, ed. Richard McKeon (New York:
amongst the slaves. If anyone has done any- Aristotle,
Modern Library, 1947) 1.23 (1252b53b).
thing wrong, he must punish him fairly in
proportion to the damage he has caused. The
slaves must not be badly treated or suffer from cold or hunger. He
must keep them hard at work to stop them getting involved in
trouble or things that dont concern them. If the manager doesnt
want them to make trouble, they wont. If he does let them make
trouble, the master must not let him get away with it.44
See the distinction? People in antiquity wrote about what characterized a good slave or a bad slave, gave advice to owners about how
to get the most out of ones slaves, and sometimes encouraged the
owners not to mistreat slaves. But as far as we can tell, before the
New Testament, nobody wrote on how to be a slave with the
assumption that slaves would be the audience.
In the New Testament, there are four advice sections addressed
directly to slaves: 1 Corinthians 7:21-24; Colossians 3:224:1;
Ephesians 6:5-9; and Titus 2:9-10. First Timothy 6:1-2 discusses
proper slave conduct, but is addressed to Timothy, who is charged
to teach the slaves how to behave. Pauls short paragraph in
1 Corinthians 7 speaks to slaves but only on the issue of how the
near return of Christ should affect their desire to be free; it does
not discuss how slaves ought to behave toward masters, and so is
not much parallel to our 1 Peter passage. The others just named do
indeed give advice on proper slave behavior toward masters, and it
will be interesting to compare them to 1 Peters thoughts.
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Before analyzing this specific text, let us pause to consider the

incontrovertible facts that (1) no one in the Bible ever said clearly
that slavery was evil; (2) Christians in the first and second centuries
and beyond who owned slaves used texts like 1 Peter 2:18-25 to
argue that slaves should know their placein other words, not
only did texts such as these regulate, rather than critique, a systemic
evil, but they also helped to quash attempted critiques. While The
Shepherd of Hermas speaks of redeeming the slaves of God from
their calamities (38.10; = Herm. Mand. 8.1.10), Ignatius exhorts
Polycarp not to allow slaves to be too anxious to be manumitted
out of the common fund, lest they be found slaves of passion
(Ign. Pol. 4.3). The good slave, in other words, will not allow his
or her desire for freedom to get in the way of service.
All this is disgusting, tragic, discouraging, and embarrassing.
Early Christian responses to slavery ought to be for us a powerful
warning to be aware of our own blind spots. There are ways our
culture organizes life that we should resist, but we do not because
of how fixed or right they seem. We can see clearly how our ancestors in the faith should have spoken up and spoken out; where will
our descendants criticize us?
Obedient, Suffering Slaves, 2:18-20
You household slaves45 [must be subordinate to everyone] by
being subordinate to your masters, in all reverence, not only to the
good and gentle but also to the harsh. For this is to your credit, if
through a consciousness of God someone endures sorrow, suffering
unjustly. For what glory is it, if you endure being beaten when you
sin? But if you do good deeds and endure suffering, this is credit
with God.
First, a vocabulary lesson: As explained earlier, the Greek word
for household is oikos. That word means the building, but even
more the people who occupy it: the head of household
(oikodespots, master of the household, or just despots, master);
the wife, children, and any other family members living with them;
a household manager (oikonomos), if the household was large
enough to warrant one; and slaves. Doulos (slave, or male slave)
and doul (female slave) are the words most often used in the
New Testament to refer to slaves, and are the most generic terms.
The term used by 1 Peter is oikets, household slaveperhaps
because he just used doulos in v. 16 to refer to all the believers
(Gods slaves), he used another term to make it clear he meant
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121
actual, not metaphorical, slavery. Perhaps the author also assumes

that the only slaves who might have opportunity to hear his letter
read were household slaves.
Next, some background for understanding first-century slavery:
Most ancient slaves were slaves by virtue of (1) being captured in
war or (2) being born to slave parents. Other, less frequent causes
of enslavement include (3) being kidnapped (this is a great theme
of ancient plays and novels, so it must have happened at least
sometimes), (4) selling themselves or being sold for debts, (5) being
orphaned or exposed as an infant and being sold by whatever
temple or slave-dealer took the infant on, or (6) voluntary slavery,
which foreigners sometimes undertook on the promise or presumption that they would receive freedom and citizenship upon
the masters death in return for faithful service. Slavery was practiced everywhere we know about, and the impression from ancient
literature is that only the poorest householders would have made
do with no slaves at all. Slaves did all sorts of manual labor, from
the most miserable who worked in copper mines or at the oars in
galleys to those who performed farm labor, manufacturing jobs,
child care, house cleaning, and cooking. Being property, a firstcentury slave had no legal recourse to the treatment he or she
received from the master. Slaves could be beaten, put on short
rations, orif the slave was considered intransigenthanded over
to professional torturers for punishment or crucifixion. [Scars Prove
the Slave] They could be used sexually by the master or mistress (see
[Seneca on Abuse of Slaves]) or by anyone to whom
Scars Prove the Slave
the master granted permissionhouse guests,
In Plautuss comedy The Rope, a pair of
young women are the property of a pimp
for instanceand so long as the freeborn
named
Labrax.
In this scene, Labraxa free man,
person remained in control, not acting lovealthough low in status because of his occupastruck or smitten, there was no shame attached
tionis being harassed by the slave Trachalio.
to such behavior.
Labrax calls Trachalio gallows-baitbecause
slaves can always be crucified by their masters if
No legal recourse is not the same as helpthey are too hard to handleand Trachalio the
less. The Tricky Slave, a staple of the popular
slave answers, All right, gallows-bait am I, and
comedies of the day, is a caricature built on the
youre a gentleman. But then Trachalio suggests
fact that slaves often found ways to resist
that Labrax may not be a gentleman after all, but
may have been enslaved at some point in his life:
the wills of their masters. Plautuss slaves lie,
Come on, he challenges Labrax, strip and Ill
dodge work, hatch schemes, and in general act
prove it to you. If there arent more blisters on
dishonorablyexcept for the slaves who are
your back than bolts in a battleship, never believe
actually free-born people captured by pirates
me.
and illegally made slaves. The underlying and
The Rope, ll. 735-55, in The Rope and Other Plays (trans. E. F.
Watlington; New York: Penguin, 1964) 12021.
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commonly accepted premise of

Plautuss characterization is that
slaves were naturally servile and
without honor. One cannot expect
them to behave like gentlemen.
Household slaves must be subordinate is perhaps another example
of a participle that many suspect is
acting like an imperative. But the
same verb appears as a true imperative in v. 13, and probably 1 Peter
means be subordinate to every
human creature as a universal
command, of which v. 18 is a specific instance. In all reverence is
literally in (or with) all fear, and
were it not for the careful distinction between fear God; respect the
emperor in v. 17, one might think
Note the exaggerated, even inhuman features characteristic of
1 Peter meant for the fear to go
the belief that slaves were not persons.
toward the master.46 Other
Terracotta statuettes of comic actors in slave masks and costumes, Etruscan, 2d C.
BC. British Museum, London. (Credit: R. Vinson)
Christian texts from the late first to
early second century about slaves obeying masters are divided on
this issue:
Comic Actors in Slave Masks and Costumes
Colossians 3:22: Slaves, obey in everything your lords

according to the flesh, not in pretense as eye-pleasers, but with
sincere hearts, as those who fear the Lord.
Ephesians 6:5-6: Slaves, obey your masters according to the
flesh with fear and trembling in the sincerity of your hearts, as if
[you were obeying] Christ, not in pretense as eye-pleasers but as
Christs slaves, doing the will of God from the soul.
Titus 2:9-10: Slaves, be subordinate to your own masters in
everything, so that you are well-pleasing, not fractious, not
thieving, but demonstrating all good faith, so that in all things they
may adorn the teaching of God our Savior.
Didache 4:11: You slaves, be subordinate to your lords as a
type for God in modesty and fear.
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123
In Colossians, the fear is clearly for the Lord; in Ephesians and

Didache, it could go either way; Titus does not mention fear. If the
master is to be seen as a type of God or Christ, as in Ephesians and
Didache, then it makes sense for fear, in the sense of reverence, to
be given to the master. But 1 Peter does not make the connection
between master and Christ, but between the slave and Christ, so
in all fear is meant to be the slaves attitude toward God.47 [Fear as
a Motivator for Slaves]
So the slave must be subordinateobedient, set in order under

the master (see the earlier discussion about this word in comments
on 2:13). No surprise there to 1 Peters audience; frankly, what
choice did they have, if they wanted to survive?
Fear as a Motivator for Slaves
But the first motivein all reverencemakes
This is your proof of a good slave who
looks after his masters business, sees to
subordination a Christian act, in keeping with
it,
gives
it
his care and consideration . . . . The
the larger principle that Christs followers must
fellow thats got his wits in the proper place
be subordinate to everybody. Just so we are
ought to think more of his back than his gullet,
certain 1 Peter means every-dang-body, he spells
more of his shanks than his belly. Hed better recollect how good-for-nothings, lazy, rascally
it out: not only to the good and gentle but also
fellows, are rewarded by their masters: whipto the harsh. Good, gentle, and harsh are
pings, shackles, work in the mill, exhaustion,
all meant to modify masters, and as specific
famine, freezing stiffthese are the rewards of
advice to slaves, one might again ask what
laziness. Im badly afraid of such bad things, personally; thats why Ive made up my mind to lead
options slaves had on this score. They could
a good life rather than a bad one . . . . Thats why
work slower, act less competent, indulge in what
I follow masters orders, attend to them properly
one might think of as passive-aggressive strateand sedately . . . . I must have a sense of fear, I
gies of resistance, but in the end they would
must keep straight, so as to be on hand for
master anywhere.
have to obey mean and cruel masters. Other
Plautus, Men. 96882.
non-slave members of the congregation,
however, might not feel obligated to be subordinate or even respectful to the harsh and overbearing. First Peter is
using the address to the slaves to teach the wider congregation
something about the extent to which Jesus disciples must humble
themselves before the world.
Many commentators conclude that this section only addresses
slaves who serve non-Christian masters.48 This is certainly a possible reading, since there is no corresponding masters section to
balance this address to slaves. It is unlikely that 1 Peter imagined
there were no Christian slave owners among the congregations he
was addressing; slavery, as noted, was widespread, and Acts,
Philemon, Colossians, Ephesians, and 1 Timothy all testify to how
Christians owned other Christians as slaves. While Paul may pos-
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sibly hint that Philemon should free Onesimus, he does not

command it, and none of the other texts show any embarrassment
about one believer owning another. Furthermore, Ignatius, writing
to Polycarp, bishop of Smyrna in Asia, advises the bishop to
caution slaves about wanting to use church funds to purchase their
freedom (Ign. Pol. 4.3), and Polycarp himself apparently had
household slaves who betrayed him to the authorities (Mart. Pol.
6). It is likely, then, that the author of 1 Peter knew that most congregations in his imagined audience would contain slaves and slave
owners, some of the latter owning some of the former. Did he have
no advice for the owners? It is unlikely; since they must have been
presumed to be in the audience, we can be certain that 1 Peter
included them in the general advice.
Back to the point: in advising Christian slaves to be subordinate
to all sorts of masters, the good and gentle as well as the harsh,
1 Peter does not distinguish between slaves who serve Christians
and slaves who serve nonbelievers. That could be because 1 Peter is
only considering the latter case, but might just as easily be because,
from the slaves point of view, the defining issue is how the master
behaves more than whom he worships. Christian slave owners,
hearing 2:18 read in their congregation, would most likely have
assumed that 1 Peter was talking about them, rather than to
themwere they the good and gentle type or the harsh?
Slaves could expect to sufferit was in the nature of things. Even
good and gentle masters considered it sensible to punish slaves if
they did wrong, as Cato says, in proportion to the damage he has
caused. Xenophon writes, Is it not the case that [masters] control
any inclinations [of slaves] towards lechery by starving them? . . .
Force the laziness out of them with beatings?49 As for the
harshthe medical writer Galen, urging moderation in corporal
punishment of slaves, says there are other people who do not just
hit their slaves, but kick them and gouge out their eyes and strike
them with a pen if they happen to be holding one.50 [A Slaves Life]
So just as the author of 1 Peter could assume that slaves were listening to the letter being read, he could assume that they suffered
physically from time to time, depending on the temperament of
their masters. How should the Christian slave think about this? If
the slave had done something wrong1 Peter actually uses the
word sin, forcing the slaves to think of disobedience as a theological rather than simply a pragmatic issueand punishment
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A Slaves Life
followed, well, no glory there. First Peter is
In the comedies of Plautus, the second-century
not interested in those cases, where the rules
BC Roman playwright, a tricky slave is almost
were applied equitably within an unjust
always trying to pull the wool over the eyes of his
system. That is life. But if you slaves do
master. Although Plautuss slaves are comic characters, they also speak honestly from time to time about
good and, on account of your conscioushow awful the experience of slavery was.
ness of God, bear and patiently endure
unjust suffering, that counts. The phrase is
Its a dogs life, working for a man with money . . . .
I say its no fun being a rich mans slave. Work, work,
literally this is grace with God, and poswork, from morning till night, and night till morning. Do
sibly the intent is to say that Gods grace is
this, go there, say thatyou cant get a wink of sleep.
what enables the bearing up. But charis,
While he, the rich master, never does a stroke of work.
Anything he happens to think of, he wants it done; just
grace, gift, also can mean credit, in the
takes it for granted, never mind the trouble it gives you.
sense of a point in your favor, and as it
No, its no fun being a slave. And its not just the work,
seems to be parallel in meaning to kleos,
but knowing youre a slave, and nothing can alter it.
(Amph., 16675, in Rope, 23334)
fame, glory, the latter sense seems to be
what 1 Peter intended.51 Both Greeks and
Later in Amphitryon, the god Mercury has changed
Romans tended to think all human and
himself to look precisely like a slave named Sosia, who
divine interactions worked that way. A
is trying to return to his masters house. Sosia says,
He might easily be me . . . leg, foot, height, haircut,
patron, for instance, endows an association
eyes, nose, mouth, cheeks, chin, beard, neck . . . the
for less well-off craftspeople and is naturally
lot. Theres no denying it. If hes got a back striped with
made the associations first officer. He serves
whip scars, hes me. (Amph., 44346; in Rope, 245)
his term, and when he hands the trappings
The Rope and Other Plays (trans. E. F. Watlington; New York: Penguin,
of his office to the next person, the associa1964).
tion votes him an honorary title for life,
with special remembrances on his birthday and an inscribed stone
that publicly celebrates his generosity. He does good and gains
credit, standing, and reputation in the communitysome small
measure of fame. [The Rag Dealers Honor Their Patron] In like manner, the
slave who bears up gains charis, but with God, rather than with the
community or with the master.
Think about how Christian slave owners might hear this.
Doubtless some of them had handed out undeserved beatings to
their slaves. Being reminded that God keeps track of unjust suffering might prompt them to be more careful. As for the slaves
themselves, it may have helped to be told that their unmerited suffering mattered to God. In fact, the authors strategy in this section
seems to be to make slavery a theological vocation. Slaves subordinate themselves in all fear or with all reverence to God (v. 18);
the opposite of being subordinate is sin rather than being insubordinate (v. 20); unjust suffering is favorably noted by God
(vv. 19, 20); and the motivation for patient suffering is because of
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The Rag Dealers Honor Their Patron

In the [sixth] consulship of the Emperor
Caesar Marcus Aurelius Commodus . . . ,
in the temple of the Society of Laborers and Rag
Dealers of Regium.
Whereas on the proposal of the treasurers . . . it
was stated that Tutilius Julianus, a generous gentleman distinguished for his manner of life, his
unassuming nature, and his innate modesty, ought
to be adopted by our society as its patron, so that
the evidence of our decision might serve as an
example to other [prospective benefactors] . . .
that he should be besought to undertake, if he
please, the function of patron of our society, and
that a bronze tablet inscribed with this resolution
should be placed in his house.
From Reggio Emilia, Italy, AD 190; cited in Naphtali Lewis and
Meyer Reinhold, Roman Civilization (New York: Harper & Row,
1966) 2:276.
consciousness of God (v. 19). Consciousness

is syneidsis, normally translated conscience in
the New Testament, but conscience of
God/Gods conscience makes no sense. But
since conscience means something like
moral awareness, awareness of God gets us
to the gist of the phrase. So slaves, if supported
by their deep awareness of God, bear up
patiently under undeserved suffering, have
Gods charis; think about how broad 1 Peter is
making the category of rewarded behavior! Any
undeserved suffering, even if it has no direct
connection to Christian behavior, is considered
favorably and remembered by God. [Patience in
Suffering]
Before moving to vv. 21-25, we also ought to

consider the effect of 1 Peters ordering of his
material. He begins a section on proper living by commanding
everyone to be subordinate to everyone else (2:13). Just before he
addresses house slaves, he names subordination as the principal
Christian interpersonal virtue. Still
Patience in Suffering
speaking to the whole congregation, he
A man is not really patient if he is only prepared to
tells them to be subordinate as free
submit to what he thinks right from the person
people and as Gods slavesthey are all
whom he chooses. The really patient man does not mind
who it is that puts him to the test . . . . Whenever anything
of them both of those things (2:16).
happens that is hard to bear, however difficult it is and
Then, before addressing wives and huswhoever causes it, he accepts it all with thanks as a gift
bands or parents and children, and
from the hands of God. In his eyes it is a great benefit,
without naming slave masters directly,
because God will not let anything that is endured for his
sake, however small it is, pass by without reward.
he focuses on the slaves he knows will
Thomas Kempis, The Imitation of Christ 3.19 (trans. Betty I. Knott; London:
be listening. As most commentators
Collins, 1963) 140.
note, this is both a privileging of
slavesa way of honoring a group rarely considered capable of
honorand a way of forcing all the non-slave members to think
about what it is like to be a Christian slave. If one is to take seriously be subordinate to the whole blinking world and live as
Gods slaves, what better test case than the real-live slaves sitting
among us?
We also should remind ourselves that this letter was received by
Christians in the late first and early second century as truly by the
apostle Peter, and that those who received it almost certainly knew
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the tradition that Peter had been martyred (see my introduction for a full
discussion). While Peter had never been a
slave, he ministered among those who
suffered dreadfully, and then gave his own
life for the faith. That gives weight to his
words about bearing up patiently. In fact,
the section coming next, in which the
readers are told that Christs passion
should be their model, is only credible
coming from a martyr.
127
Crucifixion of Saint Peter
Obedient, Suffering Christ, 2:21-25

For you were called to this, because
Christ also suffered on your behalf,
leaving behind an example for you so that
you should follow in his footsteps; who
committed no sin, nor was deceit found
in his mouth; who when reviled did not
Caravaggio (Michelangelo Merisi da) (15731610). Crucifixion of Saint
Peter. 16001601. S. Maria del Popolo, Rome, Italy. (Credit: Alinari/Art
revile in turn, did not threaten when he
Resource, NY)
suffered, but handed himself over to the
one judging justly; who bore our sins in
When you grow old, you will stretch out your hands.
(John 21:18)
his body on the tree, so that by dying to
sins we might live to righteousness; by
whose wounds you may be healed. For you, like sheep, were wandering, but you have now returned to the shepherd and overseer of
your souls.
We begin with a deceptively simple grammatical question: what
is the antecedent of this in the first line of 2:21? The this in v.
21 appears to repeat the this of v. 19: For this is to your credit, if
through a consciousness of God someone endures sorrow, suffering
unjustly. Verse 20 repeats this is credit with God, linking Gods
favorable attitude with a persons suffering unjustly after doing only
good. Here is the complication: does 1 Peter mean that believers
are called to sufferin the sense that it was Christs destiny to
sufferor does the passage mean that if one must suffer, a
Christian is called to do so as Jesus did? In other words, is suffering
necessarily part of following Christ, or an unfortunate part of the
deal for some Christians in some settings?
Three considerations make the first optionthat suffering is part
of a Christians callingmore likely to have been what 1 Peter
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intended in this verse. First, there is the little word also in the
second clause of v. 21. Christ also suffered on your behalf means
that the example Jesus set for the readers is not just in how he suffered, but in that he suffered.52 Second, 1 Peter chose to make
slaves the first specific example of how all Jesus followers are to
subordinate themselves to all people. As argued above, slavery
included suffering as an unpleasant fact of existence. Thus in this
part, where 1 Peter is describing Christ as a model not just for
slaves but for all believers, all believers must consider the slaves life
with its inevitable suffering as their paradigm. Third, the two
images in the last part of v. 21 stress the close parallels between the
experiences of Christ and the readers. In leaving behind an
example for you, the author chooses a term (hypogrammon,
example) that literally means the patterns for the letters of the
alphabet that children traced over in order to learn their ABCs.53
With so that you should follow in his footsteps, the author calls
the readers to walk where he walked and not just how; note that he
comes back to this image at the end by calling the readers formerly
wandering sheep who have now returned to the shepherd.
You were called to this begins the passage, but the flow of
things quickly turns to focus on Christ rather than on the audience. In order to explain the example and the footsteps Christ
left behind, the author turns to Isaiah 53, the incomparable poem
about Gods servant who suffers both innocently and redemptively.
First Peter is not the only New Testament author to apply Isaiahs
Suffering Servant to Jesus; the image probably lies behind the
Passion Narrative in Mark and certainly lies behind Lukes version
of Marks account. In Acts 8:26-40, Philip the evangelist meets an
Ethiopian who is reading Isaiah 53, and when the Ethiopian
expresses confusion about the identity of the Servant, Philip identifies him as Jesus and uses the Old Testament text as an opportunity
for proclaiming the gospel. But nowhere else in the New Testament
is Isaiah 53 used so plainly to explain the meaning of Jesus suffering and death. This may be this authors own important
contribution to the development of Christian theology, or it may
be that 1 Peter put in writing exegetical moves that others were
making at the end of the first century.54
In order to see the connections better, look at the comparison
below:
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1 Peter 2
1 Peter
Suffered (epathen) on your behalf
who committed no sin,
nor was deceit found in his mouth;
who when reviled
did not revile in turn
handed himself over
to the one judging justly
he bore our sins
by whose wounds
you may be healed
you like sheep were wandering
LXX Isaiah 53
he was in pain (odynatai) for us
(53:4)
he did no lawless act,
nor was deceit found in his mouth
(53:9)
he was dishonored (53:3)
he does not open his mouth (53:7)
the Lord handed him over (53:6)
to justify the just one (53:11)
he bore the sins of many (53:12)
he carries our sins (53:4)
he will bear their sins (53:11)
by his wounds
we are healed (53:5)
All we like sheep were wandering
(53:6)
Clearly there is not a point-for-point match between the passages. There is nothing in Isaiah 53 to support the last part of
1 Peter 2:24, so that by dying to sins we might live to righteousness, nor the conclusion of the passage, you have now returned to
the shepherd and overseer of your souls. On the other side of
things, there are many features of Isaiah 53 that 1 Peter does not
reference: the Servant is reckoned among the lawless (53:12) and
has an ignoble and unlovely form (53:2-3), for instance.
Commentators also note that the order of the verses in 1 Peter may
have been suggested by the order of the proclaimed gospel: Jesus
lived a blameless life but was arrested for no good cause; he was
silent during his trial and during the physical and verbal abuse he
suffered in the process; he was killed on the tree so that all who
believe in him could live.55
Christ suffered for you and who bore our sins in his body on
the tree are reasonably clear indications that 1 Peter understood
Jesus death as vicarious, since there would be no reasonable direct
connection between the misdeeds of the letters recipients and the
verdict against Jesus. He suffered for you and bore your sins in his
body on the tree; the point is not that you caused him to die, but
that his death matters for you. Now, as a result of Gods grace
revealed in Christs death, you, having died to sin, may live to (or
for, or in) righteousness. This much is clear, but the theological
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mechanics of how in the mind of

this author Christ bore our sins is
unexplained. First Peter does not
employ sacrificial language here, as
other early believers did. Note, most
surprisingly, that he does not even
explicitly speak in this passage of
Christs death, although on the
tree clearly implies it. First Peter
wants to focus more on what Christ
sufferednot to suggest that
Christs sufferings, apart from his
death, were redemptive, but because
what slaves in this audience faced as
a daily threat was suffering rather
than death. Their backs were scarred
from beatings, their legs bruised
from kicks, their muscles sore from
being overworked and underfed.
This early 4th-C. terracotta statuette is of an actor playing the role
Christ also suffered, said 1 Peter
of an overloaded slave. The figure has a wineskin in his right hand,
an amphora (usually filled with wine or oil) in his left, over his
for you. Look, this biblical text says
shoulder, and a basket on his back.
somy Servant (my pais, which
Terracotta statuette of an actor in a slave mask, heavily loaded, c. 300. British
often means slave-boy) bore our
Museum, London. (Credit: R. Vinson)
sins. Christ suffered just like a
slave, even to the point of dying a slaves death, the servile death
on the accursed tree. [Seneca on Crucifixion] Christ felt the same pain
you often feel, and his exemplary conduct under duress shows you
how your life of suffering may also have meaning.
How? Live to righteousness, says 1 Peter, by returning to the
Shepherd and Overseer of your souls. Shepherds tend flocks of
sheep, leading them to good pasture, keeping them out of dangerous places, and defending them from predators when necessary.
Overseer (episkopos, often translated bishop in the New
Testament) was a title sometimes given to gods as guardians of
human customs and to officers of an association who had some
degree of oversight within the group.56 Both were completely
common titles in ordinary society, but both are also found applied
to God in a remarkable passage in Ezekiel 34. After blasting the
leaders (shepherds) of Israel for their lack of care of and even
rapacity toward the sheep, the people of Israel, Ezekiel says for
Actor in a Slave Mask
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131
God: For thus says the Lord, Behold, Seneca on Crucifixion

Can anyone be found who would prefer wasting away
I will seek my sheep, and I will visit
in pain dying limb by limb, or letting out his life drop
(episkepsomai, which could be read I
by drop, rather than expiring once for all? Can any man be
will oversee) them . . . and I will lead found willing to be fastened to the accursed tree, long sickly,
them out from the Gentiles and gather already deformed, swelling with ugly weals on shoulders and
them together from the regions, and I chest, and drawing the breath of life amid long-drawn-out
will lead them into their own land . . . agony? He would have many excuses for dying even before
mounting the cross.
I will seek the lost one, and I will
Seneca, Ep. 101.
return the wandering one (LXX Ezek
34:11, 13, 16).
God, who shepherds and oversees you in Christ, has provided a
pattern for you in Christs response to undeserved suffering. He did
not match insult with insult, did not make any threats of his own,
but handed himself over to the one judging justly. The vocabulary of vv. 23-24 would have reminded the audience of the stories
of Jesus passion from the Gospels (or preaching
The Cross as a Prayer of Faith
based on those stories): insulted and scourged,
When we pray, we display a divine
Jesus does not curse his tormentors, but directs
power which is in us because we are in
Christ, sharing his life. We speak to the Father
his speech toward God. [The Cross as a Prayer of Faith]
with the voice of his Son because we have been
The verb translated handed over appears as a
taken up to share in their Spirit. The great prayer,
theme in the Passion: Judas hands Jesus over to
the first prayer, was the cross, when Jesus, for
the council, who hands Jesus over to Pilate, who
the sake of his fellow men and women, accepted
total failure, crucifixion and death and left it all to
hands Jesus over to be crucified. How fitting, in
the will of his Father. This was the prayer that
this section that moves from advice to slaves to
was answered in the resurrection of Jesus and
advice to all by making slaves paradigmatic for
the redemption of the world.
the whole congregation, that this image of
Herbert McCabe, God, Christ, and Us (London: Continuum,
2003) 7.
handing over is transformed from a betrayal
into an act of faith.
Connections
Writing about the stone section (2:1-10), Martin Luther finds
plenty of proof for his notion that there is no essential distinction
between clergy and laitythe priesthood of believers:
This is the true priesthood. As we have heard, it embraces
these three things: to offer spiritual sacrifices, to pray for the congregation, and to preach. He who can do this is a priest.57
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It would please me very much if this word priest were used as

commonly as the term Christian is applied to us. For priests, the
baptized, and Christians are all the same.58
Thus we see that the first and foremost duty we Christians
should perform is to proclaim the wonderful deeds of God.59
It is undoubtedly anachronistic to claim that 1 Peter supports
Luthers priesthood of believers, since in the late first century
there was no Christian priesthood as it existed in later times. First
Peter does speak of elders who shepherd the flock, and so recognizes Christian leaders who exercise authority; but we have no way
of knowing whether these persons were ordained, whether the
elders were elected or appointed, or whether elder applied to all
the more senior members or only to some. Was elder an office
performed for some limited term, or for life? We have no information. Consequently we cannot imagine, when 1 Peter calls all the
Christians a priesthood, that he meant all of them were clergy, or
that there was no distinction between clergy and lay, since we do
not know that those categories existed for him.
But 1 Peter probably does mean that all these readers are
priestsif collectively they make up a priesthood, then individually they are acting as priests when they announce the mighty
deeds of the one who called you and when they offer spiritual
sacrifices. As noted in the comments on vv. 4-5, spiritual sacrifices goes undefined in 1 Peter and could be any sort of prayer or
praise to God. Announcing Gods mighty deeds probably includes
in-worship behaviorpreaching, praying, singingbut probably
also includes giving an account of ones faith to outsiders, as
3:15-16 says readers should be ready to do. All the recipients are
empowered and expected to do this by virtue of being set as stones
upon the Living Stone, by virtue of being made into a spiritual
house, by virtue of being named Gods people. If thats what we
mean by priesthood of believers, then once 1 Peter got his head
around the anachronistic language, I think he would have agreed.
The alien life section (2:11-17) calls the readers to what
Miroslav Volf has described as soft difference:
It might be appropriate to call the missionary distance that 1 Peter
stresses soft difference. I do not mean a weak difference, for in
1 Peter the difference is anything but weak. It is strong, but it is not
hard. Fear for oneself and ones identity creates hardness. The differ-
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1 Peter 2
ence that joins itself with hardness always presents the other with a
choice: either submit or be rejected, either become like me or get
away from me. In the mission to the world, hard difference operates
with open or hidden pressures, manipulation, and threats. A decision
for a soft difference, on the other hand, presupposes a fearlessness
which 1 Peter repeatedly encourages his readers to assume (3:14;
3:6). People who are secure in themselvesmore accurately, who are
secure in their Godare able to live the soft difference without fear.
They have no need either to subordinate or damn others, but can
allow others space to be themselves. For people who live the soft difference, mission fundamentally takes the form of witness and
invitation. They seek to win others without pressure or manipulation, sometimes even without a word (3:1).
To be a Christian means to live ones own identity in the face of
others in such a way that one joins inseparably the belief in the truth
of ones own convictions with a respect for the convictions of others.
The softness which should characterize the very being of
ChristiansI am tempted to call it ontic gentlenessmust not be
given up even when we are (from our own perspective) persuaded
that others are either wrong or evil. To give up the softness of our difference would be to sacrifice our identity as followers of Jesus
Christ.60
Communities that can embody 1 Peters principles can honor

the emperor without needing to bow down to him and can fear
God without spending a lot of energy calling the emperor a
godless pagan bound for hell. In our canon, we have hard difference texts like Revelation, warning the good guys that any slip will
remove them from the Lambs book of life, and excoriating the bad
guys; the wise pastor or Bible teacher will probably reserve the
latter approach for the most desperate circumstances, since calling
your opponent a seven-headed beast from hell or the mother of all
whores probably curtails future dialogue. In times where conversation with Gentiles is possible without apostasy, 1 Peters soft
difference is the better option.
As a comment on the final section directed to slaves, consider
this by Frederick Douglass, from the Appendix to his autobiography:
I love the pure, peaceable, and impartial Christianity of Christ:
I therefore hate the corrupt, slaveholding, women-whipping, cradleplundering, partial and hypocritical Christianity of this land. Indeed,
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I can see no reason, but the most deceitful one, for calling the religion of this land Christianity. . . . We have men-stealers for ministers,
women-whippers for missionaries, and cradle-plunderers for church
members. The man who wields the blood-clotted cowskin during the
week fills the pulpit on Sunday, and claims to be a minister of the
meek and lowly Jesus. The man who robs me of my earnings at the
end of each week meets me as a class-leader on Sunday morning, to
show me the way of life, and the path of salvation. He who sells my
sister, for purposes of prostitution, stands forth as the pious advocate
of purity.61
First Peters author probably could not imagine a time when

slavery would not existit was so constitutive a part of the
economy of the ancient world. When he told slaves that their
unjust suffering is well known to God and that, in fact, they
imitate Christ when they patiently endure such mistreatment, his
words had the potential to redeem something awful and give
meaning to something cruelly commonplace. But when he told
them that God has called them to this situation, his words helped
to make slavery all that much harder to eradicate. By linking the
suffering of slaves to the suffering of Christ and thence to Isaiahs
Suffering Servant, our text makes (at least potentially) slave-whipping part of Gods overarching plan for the world, foreseen by the
prophet and laid down for our edification.
So those who interpret this and the other New Testament slave
texts must be cautious. As a powerful argument for a nonviolent
response to violence, 1 Peter 3:18-25 is terrific. The move it takes
of making any undeserved suffering into an imitation of Christ is
bold, and can provide many helpful ways to reflect on how our
society devalues and mistreats workers at the bottom end of the
wage scale. But we must be careful that making metaphorical gold
out of real-live straw does not substitute for Christians changing, or
trying to change, unfair practices. If we tell the hotel worker that
her bosss tricks to pay her less than a minimum wage or our
countrys unwillingness to provide her with affordable healthcare
gives her a chance to imitate Christ, we may give her a way to
suffer with dignity and grace. But surely we do not think God
requires her suffering or approves of our silent acceptance of her
condition.
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Notes
1. Robert Frost, Mending Wall, in Robert Frosts Poems (ed. Louis Untermeyer;
New York: Pocket, 1946) 94.
2. Carol Shields, The Stone Diaries (New York: Penguin, 1993) 5859, 65.
3. Paul J. Achtemeier, 1 Peter (Hermeneia; Minneapolis: Fortress, 1996) 14647;
John H. Elliott, 1 Peter (AB; New York: Doubleday, 2000) 400.
4. BADG, 598, pertaining to being carefully thought through, thoughtful; when
the word is used as a noun instead of an adjective it means one endowed with
reason. See also the arguments in Karen Jobes, 1 Peter (Baker Exegetical Commentary
on the New Testament; Grand Rapids MI: Baker Academic, 2005) 13336, against
taking the word to mean of the word.
6. Edward Gordon Selwyn, The First Epistle of St. Peter (London: MacMillan, 1952)
39398; Elliott, 1 Peter, 395; M. Eugene Boring, 1 Peter (ANTC; Nashville: Abingdon,
1999) 91; but Jobes, 1 Peter, 131, thinks the word became so widely used to urge
laying aside vices that it lost any possible connection to baptismal practice.
7. So Achtemeier, 1 Peter, 144, n. 22.
8. Achtemeier, 1 Peter 144, suggests that it refers to habitual disparagement of
others. Elliott, 1 Peter, 398, argues for slander, as does Boring, 1 Peter, 91.
9. E.g., Selwyn, First Epistle of St. Peter, 1923, 365400; discussions of various
theories that 1 Peter draws on baptismal liturgies or homilies can be found in Ernest
Best, 1 Peter (Grand Rapids MI: Eerdmans, 1971) 2032, and in Elliott, 1 Peter, 2835.
10. A collection like this was called a testimonium, and many commentators
have proposed that one lies behind 1 Peter 2 and Romans 8, where the two Christian
authors citations are different in some identical ways. Achtemeier, 1 Peter, 15051,
argues that since Rom 8:33 does not include a reference to Ps 117, the existence of a
stone testimonium is rather questionable, but Boring, 1 Peter, 9697, argues that
the connection of the three stone texts had already become traditional by the time
1 Peter was written.
11. Achtemeier, 1 Peter, 149, 153, translates it as a causal participle: Because you
come to him. Elliott, 1 Peter, 406409, opts for manner: continuing to come to him; so
also Jobes, 1 Peter, 144.
12. So Boring, 1 Peter, 97.
13. So, emphatically, Elliott, 1 Peter, 41418.
14. Elliott, 1 Peter, 41418, argues that there is not even a whiff of temple in the
passage. Several other commentators treat it as a secondary allusion (so Achtemeier,
1 Peter, 15556). Others, like Jobes, 1 Peter, 14849, and Boring, 1 Peter, 9899,
argue that the author intended to compare the readers to a temple.
15. So Achtemeier, 1 Peter, 15960; Elliott, 1 Peter, 425; BDAG, 3940.
16. Joel B. Green, 1 Peter (Two Horizons Commentary; Grand Rapids MI:
Eerdmans, 2007) 5659.
17. Jobes, 1 Peter, 15556.
18. Jobes, 1 Peter, 15859; Elliott, 1 Peter, 435, who suggests elect stock.
19. Green, 1 Peter, 61, suggests the translation elect clan.
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21. Boring, 1 Peter, 98100; Achtemeier, 1 Peter, 152, the church has now taken
over the role of Israel.
22. Green, 1 Peter, 63; Elliott, 1 Peter, 44647.
23. Elliott, 1 Peter, 41921, 43738, argues for priestly community on the
grounds that nouns of this sort (those ending in -euma in Greek) denote collective
bodies of people rather than abstract concepts. However, when hierateuma is used in
2 Macc 2:17, it is parallel to kingship and sanctification, and the author appears to
mean the restored priesthood under the Maccabees. It is a rare word, and hard to pin
down precisely.
24. Elliott, 1 Peter, 43637, argues that LXX Exod 19:6 should also be translated
this way.
25. So Jobes, 1 Peter, 16061; Achtemeier, 1 Peter, 164.
26. Contra Elliott, 1 Peter, 43637, 44953, especially where he writes, The term
cannot apply to the believers as individuals, but only to the believing community as
community; Achtemeier, 1 Peter, 16465, and Jobes, 1 Peter, 16061, agree.
27. BAGD, 276.
28. Polybius, History 6.5354.3; cited in Valerie M. Warrior, Roman Religion:
A Sourcebook (Newburyport MA: Focus, 2002) 3233.
29. George Eliot, Middlemarch (1872; repr., New York: Barnes & Noble, 2003) 372.
30. Carol Shields, Larrys Party (Toronto: Random House of Canada, 1977) 221.
31. So Boring, 1 Peter 102103.
32. So Achtemeier, 1 Peter, 16970; Green, 1 Peter, 6465; Jobes, 1 Peter, 165.
Elliott, 1 Peter, 47476, takes 2:11-12 as a transition between the first and second
parts of the letter, but does not agree that 2:114:11 is a unit.
33. Birger A. Pearson, Alexandria, ABD 1:153, estimates the Jewish population
of Alexandria to be in the hundreds of thousands in the first century of the Common
Era.
34. E. Mary Smallwood, The Jews Under Roman Rule (Leiden: Brill, 1976) 240.
35. Jobes, 1 Peter, 172; Boring, 1 Peter, 114, proposes either present-day conversion or merciful treatment on Judgment Day.
36. Achtemeier, 1 Peter, 17778; Green, 1 Peter, 6970, who notes that option 2
does not preclude option 1.
39. So Jobes, 1 Peter, 18182; Boring, 1 Peter, 10613, is an excellent discussion
of the purpose behind this section of 1 Peter.
40. Greens treatment of the Household section (1 Peter, 70101) is insightful and
helpful. Nevertheless, I disagree that hypotass is used here to mean find your place in
society and to urge the readers not to withdraw from society. Slaves and wives could
not choose between submit and withdraw, and could not, for the most part, select
their place in society.
42. Jobes, 1 Peter, 17677; BAGD, 573; Green, 1 Peter, 75.
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1 Peter 2
43. Jobes, 1 Peter, 185; Elliott, 1 Peter, 513.
44. Cato, On Agriculture, 5, in Thomas Wiedemann, Greek and Roman Slavery
(Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1981) 14849.
45. By form oiketai is nominative, but by v. 20 it becomes clear that the author is
speaking directly to the slaves; thus, I agree with those who translate oiketai as a vocative. So Jobes, 1 Peter, 18485; Achtemeier, 1 Peter, 189.
46. So the NRSV, Slaves, accept the authority of your masters with all deference.
47. Achtemeier, 1 Peter, 19495; Elliott, 1 Peter, 517; Boring, 1 Peter, 119.
48. Elliott, 1 Peter, 516; Boring, 1 Peter, 117; Perkins, First and Second Peter, 52.
49. Xenophon, Mem. 2.1.16 (cited in Wiedemann, Greek and Roman Slavery,
173).
50. Galen, The Diseases of the Mind, 4, in Wiedemann, Greek and Roman Slavery,
180.
51. So BDAG, 1079; Achtemeier, 1 Peter, 196; Green, 1 Peter, 80; Boring, 1 Peter,
119, however, objects that this understanding is at the farthest pole from the authors
thought.
53. BAGD, 1036; Achtemeier, 1 Peter, 199; Boring, 1 Peter, 121.
54. Many have expressed the opinion that 1 Peter here is reproducing earlier
Christian reflections on Isaiah 5253, perhaps begun by Jesus own teaching and
extending through the period of oral tradition; see Elliott, 1 Peter, 54347; Selwyn, First
Epistle, 90101; David Horrell, The Epistles of Peter and Jude (Peterborough UK:
Epworth, 1998) 4041; Leonhard Goppelt, A Commentary on 1 Peter (ed. Ferdinand
Hahn; trans. John E. Alsup; Grand Rapids MI: Eerdmans, 1993) 20710. Others think it
more likely that the author of 1 Peter is doing his own reflection on Jesus death, using
Isaiah 53 to explain things.
56. BAGD, 379; Henry George Liddell and Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon
(Oxford: Clarendon, 1996) list examples where it means an inspector sent from Athens
to subject states, or civic officials. It is sometimes also a title for officers in a private
guild or association; see Philip A. Harland, Associations, Synagogues, and
Congregations (Minneapolis: Fortress, 2003) 182.
57. Luther, Catholic Epistles, 55.
58. Ibid., 63.
59. Ibid., 65.
60. Miroslav Volf, Soft Difference: Theological Reflections on the Relation
between Church and Culture in 1 Peter, Ex Auditu 10 (1994): 1719.
61. Frederick Douglass, Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an American
Slave; cited in Roger Lundin and Mark A. Noll, Voices from the Heart (Grand Rapids:
Eerdmans, 1987) 19293.
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Conduct at Home and in

the World
1 Peter 3
COMMENTARY
How to Be a Wife or Husband, 3:1-7
Some have felt that these blundering lives [of women] are due to the
inconvenient indefiniteness with which the Supreme Power has fashioned the natures of women . . . .1 Probably George Eliot would
count 1 Peter in that some, since it calls women the weaker vessel
and urges them to submissive silence. We will have to wrestle with
this text, first to be certain that we understand it on its own terms,
and then to find approaches to it that do not perpetuate religiously
sanctioned oppression of women.
This passage is the third example the author gives of what it means
to be subordinate to everyone (2:13). The first section (2:13-17)
addressed everyone, suggesting how to be subordinate to persons in
power in light of ones Christian faith: respect everyone, love the
brotherhood, fear/reverence God, respect the emperor was the summation. The second section (2:18-25) addressed household slaves,
advising them on how to relate to masters, especially masters who
mistreated them. By the end of the slave section, the audience
widened to include every believer, who had already been addressed
both as free and as slaves (2:16). This third section, about wives and
husbands, cannot be as broadly applicable. First Peter is comfortable
telling his audience that they are all Gods slaves, but he never calls
them Gods wives (see 2 Cor 11:2; Rev 21:2; Eph 5:25-33).
There was no masters section to go along with the advice to slaves,
but 1 Peter includes a brief statement to husbands following the
advice to wives. In what follows, I will try to point out what is
distinctive about 1 Peters treatment of this topic by comparison
or contrast with what others in early Christianity say. (There are
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passages directly addressing wives and husbands in 1 Cor 7, Eph

5:22-33, and Col 3:18-19; there are other passages about womens
behavior in 1 Cor 11 and 14; 1 Tim 2:8-15; Titus 2:1-5; 1 Clem.
1:3, 21:6-7; Pol. Phil. 4:2-3.)
When we think about 1 Peters advice to wives and husbands, it
will also be helpful to compare this Christians thinking with nonChristian texts on the same topic from the same era. Here we will
have to do some careful weighing. For instance, Plutarch, in his
famous essay Advice to Bride and Groom, states, A wife ought not
to make friends of her own, but to enjoy her husbands friends in
common with him(Conj. praec. 19). Just because Plutarch advised
it does not make it common practice, and the opinion of one elite
first-century male may not indicate what others thought or what
their wives did; Juvenals Satires complain about wives who are
entirely too independent and outspoken. Expectations of proper
wifely behavior also differed according to race, nationality, class,
and century, and 1 Peter, as we recall from the introduction, was
written to a mixed audience. The moral is that we shall have to be
cautious about what we say was typical.
Wives Wordless Evangelism, 3:1-2
Likewise wives [should be subordinate to everyone] by being
subordinate to their own husbands, so that even if some [husbands]
are disobedient to the word, they may be gained without a word by
the behavior of their wives, when they observe their holy lifestyle
[conducted] with reverence.
Most non-Christian and non-Jewish Greek and Roman households worshiped the traditional gods and goddesses. The Olympian
deities had shrines and temples all over the region 1 Peter
addressed, particularly in the cities. A normal level of piety would
include attendance at festivals that honored the gods as well as the
occasional sacrificial offering accompanying a request for something or as thanksgiving for a blessing. Temples had priests who
could sacrifice the animal for you or at least assist you with the
task, but a head of household might perform a thanksgiving sacrifice himself on his own grounds or in a grove of trees sacred to
some deity. [A Head of Household Offers Sacrifice] In addition, typical
Greek and Roman piety included making regular, even daily,
offerings to the protective deities who guarded the household.
[The Testimony of a Lar] The offering did not have to be substantial;
regularity counted for more than quantity, because the point was
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A Head of Household Offers Sacrifice
[A householder, rejoicing that his daughter has
been restored to him, yells to his wife]: Get
things ready for a thank-offering, will you, to the household gods [the Lares], as soon as I come back. We
ought to celebrate the increase in our family. Weve got
some lambs and pigs for the purpose. (Plautus, The
Rope, 12051209)
Whether you are a god or goddess for whom this grove
is sacred, since it is your right to receive the sacrifice of
141
a pig for clearing this grovewhether I or someone at

my bidding does it, may it be rightly done. Therefore,
because of this offering I pray that you be willing and
propitious to me, my house, family and children. (Cato,
Agr. 139)
The Rope and Other Plays, trans. E. F. Watlington (New York: Penguin,
1964) 144.
Cato trans. C. Robert Phillips III, in Mark Kiley, ed., Prayer from Alexander
to Constantine: A Critical Anthology (London: Routledge, 1997) 130.
to show ones fides et pietas (faithful devotion), gratia (willingness to

acknowledge indebtedness), and constantia (dependability).
Households who could afford them had wooden shrines with tiny
statues of their favored gods, of the protective deities of their
household, and of their more famous ancestors, whose spirits were
also to be honored regularly. In some households, these shrines and
deities were painted onto the wall of a room in the more private
part of the house. While we cannot
know how many people actually per- The Testimony of a Lar
That no one may wonder who I am, I shall inform you
formed these daily ritualshow many
briefly. I am the Household God (Lar) of that family
people say they pray daily when it is from whose house you saw me come. For many years now I
actually more like weekly or have possessed this dwelling and preserved it for the sire and
monthly?the presence of the arti- grandsire of its present occupant. Now this mans grandsire as
a suppliant entrusted to me, in utter secrecy, a hoard of gold;
facts in excavated houses and literary he buried it in the center of the hearth, entreating me to guard
references to them make it unlikely it for him. When he died he could not bearso covetous was
that many people simply ignored their heto reveal its existence to his own son, and he chose to
leave him penniless rather than apprise him of this treasure.
perceived duties to the gods.
Some land, a little only, he did leave him, whereon to toil and
Instead of weekends, the Roman cal- moil for a miserable livelihood.
endar had several regularly scheduled
After the death of him who had committed the gold to my
keeping,
I began to observe whether the son would hold me in
religious festivals scattered throughout
greater
honor
than his father had. As a matter of fact, his
the year, with public ceremonies and
neglect grew and grew apace, and he showed me less honor. I
sacrifices, theatre performances, ban- did the same by him: so he also died. He left a son who occuquets, parades, and games. In addition pies this house at present, a man of the same mould as his
to these public events there were sire and grandsire. He has one daughter. She prays to me conprivate ones sponsored by trade guilds stantly, with daily gifts of incense or wine or something; she
gives me garlands. Out of regard for her I caused Euclio to disand burial societies. By the late first cover the treasure here in order that he might the more easily
century, celebrations marking the find her a husband, if he wished . . . .
I shall make the old gentleman who lives next door here ask
anniversary of the current emperors
for
her hand today. My reason for so doing is that the man
accession and/or birthday were also
who wronged her may marry her the more easily.
common.
Plautus, Aul. 1-38.
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Shrine of Lares
The Lararium (shrine of household gods). Roman wallpainting. Casa dei Vettii, Pompeii, Italy.
(Credit: Scala/Art Resource, NY)
The figure in the center is the Geniusthe governing spirit of the householders paternal ancestorswith his toga pulled up over his head and
ready to sacrifice. The two figures on either side are Lares, household
gods. They hold drinking horns, symbolizing happiness and good fortune.
The snake is thought to be a symbol of fertility, and it is moving to eat the
sacrifice provided on a small altar. Sites like this in each household
probably much simpler in poorer homeswould be where the members
of the family offered regular sacrifices to their protective gods.
The point is this: normal life

in these provinces at the end of
the first century included lots
of non-Christian, non-Jewish
religious practices, some done
in private, some in public.
Greeks and Romans knew that
Jews who were serious about
their faith abstained from the
worship of the gods and thus
were absent from these events.
But it would have been hard
for a non-Jewish Christian to
skip out on all these things
unnoticed.
Plutarch, the first-century
ethical essayist, gives the following advice about womens
religious practice:
A wife ought not to make

friends of her own, but to
enjoy her husbands friends
in common with him. The
gods are the first and most important friends. Wherefore it is
becoming for a wife to worship and to know only the gods that her
husband believes in, and to shut the front door tight upon all queer
rituals and outlandish superstitions. For with no god do stealthy and
secret rites performed by a woman find any favor.2
Plutarch may well be reacting to the popularity of mystery religions. [The Mysteries] Some of these were especially appealing to
women, including some married women who joined them without
their husbands. Josephus tells of a well-born Roman matron, a
devotee of Isis, who was raped in the Temple of Isis by a man pretending to be the god Anubis.3 (In her case, her husband was not a
member of the cult but had no objection to his wifes involvement.)
Because of scandals like these, political leaders in the empire sometimes felt they had to crack down on these groupsJosephus says
that Tiberius crucified the priests of Isis, destroyed the temple, and
threw the cult statue into the Tiberbut because of its immense
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The Mysteries
Mystery Religions is a term for religions that
became important to Greek and Roman societies beginning in the period after Alexander. Many of
them involved the worship of foreign deitiesIsis was
originally Egyptian, Magna Mater (the Great Mother)
was Anatolian/Syrian. Whereas every person was
expected to honor the deities associated with his or her
family of origin, place of birth, and place of residence,
the mysteries were a matter of choice: persons joined a
mystery cult and were initiated into it. A persons obligation to participate in family, ethnic, and civic religious
acts was based on the belief that the deities honored
supported the group and could withdraw support if not
properly recognizedan Athenian who failed to honor
Athena endangered the city. Participation in the mysteries, however, promised personal benefits to the
worshiper: immortality, greater blessings in ones
143
present life, or a greater chance to experience the

power of the divine through religious rituals.
Mysteries had their public facetemples, parades,
public festivals, and celebrationsas well as their
hidden, secret sides. Initiates were not supposed to
reveal what they saw or heard in the innermost parts of
the temple. Apuleius includes a conversion to the Isis
cult at the end of his comic and satirical The Golden Ass,
managing to titillate without ever giving concrete details
of what went on: the priest gave me certain orders too
holy to be spoken above a whisper; I entered the presence of the gods of the underworld and the gods of the
upper-world, stood near and worshipped them. The
mysteries secrecy, like their antiquity and foreign
origins, were part of their attraction for people in the
empire, but the same factors also often kept persons in
authority suspicious of them.
popularity, the Isis cult was given official sanction by Caligula and
the cult of the Magna Mater (another female fertility deity) by
Claudius. It was thus possible, whatever Plutarch thought, for a
married woman to be a practicing member of a cult to which her
husband did not belong, without her creating any sort of scandal or
affecting the public career of her husband.
Butand this is the telling pointin the late first century and
early second century, Christians had no temples or priests or cult
statues. Their worship took place in houses, in apartment complexes, in rented buildings, and in comfortable outdoor spots.
Christians had no public parades and pageants like the Isis cult,
described so lavishly in Apuleiuss The Golden Ass. [A Parade Honoring
Isis]
A Christian woman whose husband was not a believer, and who

committed herself to worship only as a Christian, would have to
explain not only why she no longer participated in her own ancestral religious rites, but also why she now joined in rites honoring a
crucified man that were conducted in someone elses home.
Tertullian, writing around AD 207, comments on the obstacles a
Christian woman faced if she was married to an unbeliever:
But let her see to (the question) how she discharges her duties to her
husband. To the Lord, at all events, she is unable to give satisfaction
according to the requirements of discipline; having at her side a
servant of the devil, his lords agent for hindering the pursuits and
duties of believers: so that if a station is to be kept, the husband at
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daybreak makes an appointment with his wife to meet him at the

baths; if there are fasts to be observed, the husband that same day
holds a convivial banquet; if a charitable expedition has to be made,
never is family business more urgent. For who would suffer his wife,
for the sake of visiting the brethren, to go round from street to street
to other mens, and indeed to all the poorer, cottages? Who will willingly bear her being taken from his side by nocturnal convocations, if
need so be? Who, finally, will without anxiety endure her absence all
the night long at the paschal solemnities? Who will, without some
suspicion of his own, dismiss her to attend that Lords Supper which
they defame? Who will suffer her to creep into prison to kiss a
martyrs bonds? nay, truly, to meet any one of the brethren to
exchange the kiss? to offer water for the saints feet? to snatch (somewhat for them) from her food, from her cup? to yearn (after them)?
to have (them) in her mind? If a pilgrim
brother arrive, what hospitality for him in an
A Parade Honoring Isis
alien home? If bounty is to be distributed to
Presently the vanguard of the grand procession came in view. It was composed of a
any, the granaries, the storehouses, are forenumber of people in fancy dress of their own
closed . . . . Cast not, saith He, your pearls
choosing; a man wearing a soldiers sword belt;
to swine, lest they trample them to pieces, and
another dressed as a huntsman, a thick cloak caught
turn round and overturn you also. Your
up to his waist with hunting knife and javelin; another
pearls are the distinctive marks of even your
who wore gilt sandals, a wig, a silk dress and expendaily conversation. The more care you take to
sive jewelry and pretended to be a woman. Then a
man with heavy boots, shield, helmet, and sword,
conceal them, the more liable to suspicion you
looking as though he had walked straight out of the
will make them, and the more exposed to the
gladiators school . . . . At the head walked women
grasp of Gentile curiosity. Shall you escape
crowned with flowers, who pulled more flowers out of
notice when you sign your bed, (or) your body;
the folds of their beautiful white dresses and scatwhen you blow away some impurity; when
tered them along the road . . . next came women with
even by night you rise to pray? Will you not be
polished mirrors tied to the backs of their heads,
which gave all who followed them the illusion of
thought to be engaged in some work of magic?
coming to meet the Goddess, rather than marching
Will not your husband know what it is which
before her. Next, a party of women with ivory combs
you secretly taste before (taking) any food? and
in their hands who made a pantomime of combing the
if he knows it to be bread, does he not believe
Goddesss royal hair . . . . Next came musicians with
it to be that (bread) which it is said to be? And
pipes and flutes, followed by a party of carefully
will every (husband), ignorant of the reason of
chosen choir-boys singing a hymn in which an inspired
poet had explained the origin of the procession. The
these things, simply endure them, without
temple pipers of the great god Serapis were there,
murmuring, without suspicion whether it be
too, playing their religious anthem on pipes . . . . Then
bread or poison?
followed a great crowd of the Goddesss initiates,
men and women of all classes and every age, their
pure white linen cloths shining brightly. The women
wore their hair tied up in glossy coils under gauze
head-dresses . . . .
Apuleius, The Golden Ass (trans. Robert Graves; New York: Farrar,
Straus and Giroux, 1951) 26869.
First Peters first statement echoes what he

said to slaves: be subordinate to your own
husbands. Other early Christian texts on
the subject begin in the same place:
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Colossians 3:18: Wives, be subordinate to your husbands as is

proper in the Lord.
Ephesians 5:21-24: Be subordinate to each other in reverence
for Christ, wives to their own husbands as to the Lord, because a
husband is head of his wife just as Christ is also head of the church,
himself the savior of the body; but as the church subordinates itself
to Christ, so also wives [subordinate themselves] to their husbands
in everything.
1 Clement 1:3: You [the Corinthians] taught [your wives] to
manage their households respectfully, living under the rule of submission, practicing discretion in every way.
Not every early Christian text for wives begins with obedience or
submission, but they usually come around to it eventually:
1 Clement 21:6-7: We should set our wives along the straight
path that leads to good. Let them display a character of purity,
worthy of love; let them exhibit the innocent will of their meekness; let them manifest the gentleness of their tongues through how
they speak; let them show their love not with partiality, but equally
to all who stand in reverential awe of God in a holy way.
Polycarp, Philippians 4.2: Then we should also teach our wives
[to walk] in the faith given them in love and holiness, being affectionate towards their own husbands in all truth
Wifely Submission
and loving everyone equally with all self-control,
Caleb Garth . . . told his wife that Mrs.
and to raise their children in the upbringing of
Casaubon had a head for business most
uncommon in a woman. . . . Most uncommon!
the fear of God.
Subordination implies obedience; here wives
to husbands, as earlier slaves to masters. But
notice that 1 Peter does not write in all things
as he does in 2:18 and as do Ephesians 5 and
1 Clement 1. What must a Christian wife do if
her non-Christian husband commands her to
give up her faith? First Peter does not tackle the
issue, but perhaps omitting in all things gives
the woman a chance to think about it. [Wifely
repeated Caleb. She said a thing I often used to

think myself when I was a lad: Mr. Garth, I should
like to feel, if I lived to be old, that I had improved
a great piece of land and built a great many good
cottages, because the work is of a healthy kind
while it is being done, and after it is done, men
are the better for it. Those were the very words:
she sees into things in that way. But womanly, I
hope, said Mrs. Garth, half suspecting that Mrs.
Casaubon might not hold the true principle of subordination.
George Eliot, Middlemarch (1872; repr., New York: Barnes &
Noble, 2003) 523.
Submission]
So that even if some [husbands] are disobedient to the word,

they may be gained implies (a) that 1 Peter means to apply wifely
subordination to all husbands Christian and non-Christian, (b)
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that 1 Peter considers that wifely insubordination to a nonChristian husband might be a barrier to his conversion, and (c)
that the conversion of the husband might be a sufficiently motivating interest for the Christian wife to continue being
subordinate. Slaves had no choice about obedience if they wanted
to avoid beatings; in fact, as 1 Peter observes in 2:18-20, sometimes
they were beaten even when they did nothing wrong. Wives,
however, were not considered property in the late first century;
they could not be killed for disobedience, although they could be
divorced or abandoned. It is possible, then, that be subordinate to
your own husbands, even if . . . is meant to forestall any discussion
of Christian wives divorcing or leaving their husbands so that they
could be free of involvement with non-Christian religious practices.
Paul counsels Christians married to non-Christians to stay married,
despite the religious tensions, for the same reason 1 Peter gives:
Wife, for all you know, you might save your husband. Husband,
for all you know, you might save your wife (1 Cor 7:16).
The evangelistically motivated subordination, in 1 Peters mind,
will be done without a word, as the non-Christian husband
observes his Christian wifes exemplary conducta holy lifestyle
conducted with reverence. Without a word is partly a rhetorical
flourish, a riff on disobedient to the word, meaning husbands
who have not accepted the gospel. But other writers also speak of
wifely silence in more sweeping ways:
1 Corinthians 14:33b-35: As in all the churches of the saints,
women (or wives) must be silent in the churches. For it is not permissible for them to talk, but they must be subordinate, just as the
Law also says. So if there is anything they wish to learn, let them
ask their own husbands at home, for it is shameful for a woman (or
a wife) to talk in church.
1 Timothy 2:11-12: Let a woman (or a wife) learn in silence, in
all subordination; it is not permissible for a woman to teach or
exercise authority over a man, but to be in silence.
Aristotle, Politics 1260a: All classes must be deemed to have
their special attributes; as the poet says of women, Silence is a
womans glory, but this is not equally the glory of man.
Plutarch, Advice to Bride and Groom 32: Pheidias, in representing the Elean Aphrodite with her foot upon a tortoise, meant
women to take it as a symbol of home-keeping and silence. A
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woman should talk either to, or through the medium of, her
husband; nor should she resent it if, like a player on the clarinet,
she finds a more impressive utterance through another tongue than
through her own.
Plautus, The Rope 1114: A womans silence is
Silence
Lydgate by this time had had
always worth more than her speech. [Silence]
many interviews with [Madame
Laure], and found her more and more
adorable. She talked little, but that was an
additional charm.
It is possible that 1 Peters advice is meant simply to

relieve the wife from feeling compelled to proclaim
the gospel to her unconverted husband; her deeds
George Eliot, Middlemarch (1872; repr., New York:
Barnes & Noble, 2003) 144.
and character are enough. But in view of the texts
cited above, he may be advising silence more as a
characteristic behavior.
Late first- and early second-century readers, as far as we can tell,
accepted this letter as truly from Jesus number-one apostle. It is
my opinion that someone else wrote it, but we should consider the
impact of a letter from a married apostle/martyr giving advice on
wifely behavior. The New Testament tells us nothing about Mrs.
Cephas, except that she seems to have accompanied Peter in his
itinerant ministry (1 Cor 9:5) and that she and Peter lived in the
same house with her mother (Mark 1:29-31). Exhortations to
wifely silence and submission from Paul and Pauls imitators carried
plenty of authority in the ancient church, but Paul is clear about
being contentedly single. The same opinions in Peters voice gain
the added authority of coming from a married manexcept that,
of course, he did not know what it was like to be a woman married
to a nonbeliever.
Wives Unpretentious Presentation, 3:3-6
Let their [person] not be the external, with braided hair and
wearing gold jewelry or putting on adorning clothes, but the
hidden person of the heart, with imperishable [traits] of meekness
and quietness of spirit, which is wealth in Gods sight. For thus
once also saintly women who hoped in God decorated themselves
by being subject to their husbands, as Sarah used to obey Abraham,
calling him lord; whose children you became when you do good
and fear nothing terrible.
Verses 3-4do not be concerned with exterior finery but with
virtuewas standard advice to or about women in the first
century. We can find similar statements from Greek, Roman, and
Jewish writers of the period. [Virtue Matters more than Adornment] Other
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Virtue Matters more than Adornment

The Laudatio Turiae is a funerary inscription made
by a husband for his deceased wife. It is unusually long for a grave marker, and seems to have been the
entire text of the eulogy that the husband read aloud at
her memorial service. It comes from Rome and dates
from the first century bc. Below are some selections that
emphasize the womans virtues, especially her willingness
to use her personal wealth to defend her husband when
he had to go into exile for political reasons.
Left-hand column, (30) Why should I mention your
domestic virtues: your loyalty, obedience, affability, reasonableness, industry in working wool, religion without
superstition, sobriety of attire, modesty of appearance?
Why dwell on your love for your relatives, your devotion to
your family? You have shown the same attention to my
mother as you did to your own parents, and have taken
care to secure an equally peaceful life for her as you did for
your own people, and you have innumerable other merits
in common with all married women who care for their
good name. It is your very own virtues that I am asserting,
and very few women have encountered comparable circumstances to make them endure such sufferings and
perform such deeds. Providentially Fate has made such
hard tests rare for women.
Right-hand column, (2a) You provided abundantly for my
needs during my flight and gave me the means for a dignified manner of living, when you took all the gold and
jewelry from your own body and sent it to me and over and
over again enriched me in my absence with servants,
money and provisions, showing great ingenuity in
deceiving the guards posted by our adversaries.
Hermann Desau, ed., Inscriptiones Latinae Selectae (Eng. trans. E.
Wistrand; Berlin: Berolini, 1906) 8393.
Christian writers also warn against womens ostentation. First

Timothy 2:9-11 is perhaps the most familiar example: Likewise [I
desire] that the women should dress themselves with modesty and
self-control in a becoming manner, not with braided hair and gold
or pearls or expensive clothes, but through good works, as is fitting
for a woman professing godliness. Later writers pick this up and
expand itTertullian wrote a whole treatise On the Apparel of
Women. [Tertullian, On the Apparel of Women]
Because do not worry about your hair, your clothes, and your
jewels is such a stereotypical thing for a male writer of the
period to say regarding women,
Tertullian, On the Apparel of Women
we cannot be sure whether
We use the word dress when we refer to what they call
womanly grace, whereas make-up is more fittingly called
1 Peter imagined that any
womanly disgrace. Articles of dress are considered gold and silver and
women in his audience would
jewels and clothes, whereas make-up consists in the care of hair and
have been wealthy enough to
of the skin and of those parts of the body which attract the eye. On
have needed the advice.4 [Greek,
one we level the accusation of ambition; on the other, that of prostitution. (1.4.2)
Now, gold and silver, the principal materials of worldly dress, are necessarily the same as that from which they come, namely, earth. To be
sure, they are earth of a nobler sort. For, wet with the tears of those
condemned to penal labor in the deadly foundries of the accursed
mines, those precious metals leave the name of earth in the fire
behind them and, as fugitives from the mines, they change from
objects of torment into articles of ornament, from instruments of punishment into tools of allurement, from symbols of ignominy into signs
of honor. (1.5.1)
Roman, and Jewish Writers on Womens

Extravagance] But 1 Peters late first-
century audiences would have

heard this advice as aligned with
the official values of the Empire,
as opposed to the actual conduct
of the Gentiles that 1 Peter
condemns (4:3-4). From time to
time the Senate passed sump-
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tuary laws prohibiting displays of wealth. After the disastrous

defeat of a whole Roman army at Cannae in 216 BC, the Senate
passed the Oppian laws that prohibited women from owning more
Greek, Roman, and Jewish Writers on Womens
Extravagance
22. When the Roman was admonished by his
friends for having divorced a wife who was
chaste, rich, and beautiful, he stretched out his shoe and
remarked: Yes, and this looks fine and new, but no one
knows where it chafes me. The wife must not rely upon
her dowry, her birth, or her beauty. The matters in which
she touches her husband most closely are conversation,
character, and companionship. Instead of making these
harsh and vexatious day after day, she must render them
compatible, soothing, and grateful.
25. To young men who are fond of looking at themselves in the mirror Socrates recommended that the
ugly should correct their defects by virtue, while the
handsome should avoid spoiling their beauty by vice. It is
a good thing for the married woman also, while she is
holding the mirror, to talk to herself, and, if she is plain,
to ask, And what if I show myself indiscreet? if beautiful, And what if I show myself discreet as well! The
plain woman may pride herself on being loved for her
character, and the handsome woman on being loved
more for her character then her beauty.
26. When the Sicilian despot sent Lysanders daughters a set of costly mantles and chains, he refused to
accept them. These bits of ornaments, said he, will
rather take from my daughters beauty than set it off.
Lysander, however, was anticipated by Sophocles in the
lines: Nay, twould not seem, poor fool, to beautify,/ But
to unbeautify, and prove thee wanton.
As Crates used to say, Adornment is that which
adorns, and that which adorns is that which adds to a
womans seemliness. This is not done by gold or jewels
or scarlet, but by what-ever invests her with the badges
of dignity, decorum, and modesty. (Plutarch, Advice to
Bride and Groom, 1st century AD)
The temperate, freeborn woman must live with her
legal husband adorned with modesty, clad in neat,
simple, white dress without extravagance or excess.
She must avoid clothing that is either entirely purple or
is streaked with purple and gold, for that kind of dress is
worn by hetarerae [courtesans] when they stalk the
masses of men. But the adornment of a woman who
wishes to please only one man, her own husband, is her
character and not her clothing . . . . You should have a

blush on your cheeks as a sign of modesty instead of
rouge, and should wear nobility, decorum and temperance instead of gold and emeralds. For the woman who
strives for virtue must not have her heart set on expensive clothing but on the management of her household.
(Pseudo-Melissa, Letter to Klearata [a Pythagorean
ethical tract dating from the 1st century BC or 1st
century AD); cited in Malherbe, 83)
But above all a woman must be chaste and self-controlled; she must, I mean, be pure in respect of unlawful
love, exercise restraint in other pleasures, not be a slave
to desire, not be contentious, not lavish in expense, nor
extravagant in dress. (Musonius Rufus, from Fragment
3 [a Stoic of the 1st century AD); cited in Malherbe,
133)
A silent wife is a gift from the Lord, and nothing is so
precious as her self-discipline. A modest wife adds
charm to charm, and no scales can weigh the value of
her chastity. Like the sun rising in the heights of the
Lord, so is the beauty of a good wife in her well-ordered
home. (Sirach 26:14-16)
[writing of a group of women trying to seduce the
Israelites]: They adorned themselves with costly garments, and necklaces, and all those other appendages
with which women are accustomed to set themselves
off, and they devoted all their attention to enhancing
their natural beauty . . . . (Philo, On the Virtues 39)
[explaining how women helped make the tabernacle]:
they also contribute their own ornaments without hesitation, seals, and earrings, and finger-rings, and
armlets, and tablets, and all jewels of goldeverything, in short, of which gold was the material, gladly
giving up the ornaments of their person in exchange for
piety. (Philo, On the Migration of Abraham 97)
Abraham J. Malherbe, Moral Exhortation: A Greco-Roman Sourcebook
(Philadelphia: Westminster, 1986).
150
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than half an ounce of gold (this would have been mostly in jewelry)
or wearing a multicolored garment. After the defeat of the
Carthaginians, the laws were repealed, and although there was a
series of laws regulating how much could be spent on a fancy
dinner, the limits kept being raised because the
Livia Praying
wealthy continuously ignored them. Emperor
Tiberius (emperor when Jesus was crucified)
wrote a letter to the Senate deploring the
growing extravagance but despairing of ever
containing it: What am I to start with prohibiting and cutting down to the standards of
old? The vast size of country manors? The
number of slaves of every nationality? The
weight of silver and gold? . . . The indiscriminate dress of men and women, or that luxury
peculiar to the women alone which, for the
sake of jewels, diverts our riches to foreign and
even hostile peoples?5
Rather than external thingshair, clothes,
jewelsthe woman is to focus on the hidden
person of the heart. No other New Testament
writer used this phrase, although Paul wrote of
the outer and inner person (2 Cor 4:16).
Orant Livia. Imperial Roman, early 1st C. Marble bust. Galleria dei
Ancient writers imagined that people thought
Busti, Museo Pio Clementino, Vatican Museums, Vatican State.
(Credit: Vanni/Art Resource, NY)
and made decisions in their hearts, so the
author is directing the women in his audience
This 1st-century statue of Augustuss wife Livia
toward their faculties of judgment and comshows her praying. She is wearing traditional and
mitment. They should try to be noticed for
modest dress, as befits the First Lady of the
Empire; her hair is curled but not braided. Whatever
their imperishable [traits] of meekness and
the Empress may have worn in real life, this
quietness of spirit. Quiet and meek are
sculptor wanted to depict her as pious and modest,
ideal qualities for a wife [Meekness and Quiet for
the ideal for Roman women to imitate.
Women], but they are also commended for
Christians generally (meekness: Gal 5:23; Jas 1:21; quietness: 1
Tim 2:2; 2 Thess 3:12; Did. 3.7-8, be meek, since the meek will
inherit the earth. Be patient and merciful and innocent and quiet
and good . . .; 1 Clem. 21:7, let [our wives] exhibit the innocent
will of their meekness; let them manifest the gentleness of their
tongues through how they speak). These qualities are valuable
with God, says 1 Peter, implying that they are worth much more
than gold. By commending meek and quiet as a contrast to
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wearing gold and stylish Meekness and Quiet for Women

People never dress in bright clothes when approaching an eleclothes, 1 Peter probably
phant, nor in red when approaching a bull, since the animals in
thought that the ideal wife is
question are particularly infuriated by those colors. Of tigers it is said
subdued and not apt to call that, if you beat drums all around them, they go mad and tear themattention to herself. As we will selves to pieces. Surely, then, inasmuch as some men cannot bear to
see, he gives the same advice to see scarlet or purple clothes, and some are irritated at cymbals and
everyone (3:15-16), so perhaps tambourines, it is not asking too much for women to leave such things
alone, and not harass or exasperate their husbands, but practice quiwe would more accurately say etude and consideration in their society. (Plutarch, Advice to Bride and
that the ideal believer is unpre- Groom 45)
tentiouswilling to answer
questions, but not otherwise The woman who strives for virtue . . . must please her husband by doing
what he wishes, for a husbands wishes ought to be an unwritten law to
making lots of noise.
an orderly wife, and she should live by them. She should be of the
In vv. 5-6, the author offers opinion that, together with herself, she brought to him her orderly
examples of conduct for the behavior as the most beautiful and greatest dowry. (Pseudo-Melissa,
wives, just as he set forward Letter to Klearata, cited in Malherbe, 83)
Jesus as the example for the Do not bring as a wife into your home a bad and wealthy woman, for
slaves. The anonymous saintly you will be a slave of (your) wife because of the ruinous dowry. We seek
women give way quickly to the noble horses and strong-necked bulls, plowers of the earth, and the very
specific example of Sarah, who best of dogs; yet we fools do not strive to marry a good (wife), nor does
a woman reject a bad man when he is rich. (Pseudo-Phocylides 199-204
is said to have obeyed [1st century
BC to 1st century AD, Jewish, written in Greek; in
Abraham, calling him lord. Charlesworth, ed., 2:581)
As most commentators note,
Sarah is a curious person Doubtlessly marriage does turn out to be intolerable for many men. For
they do not take wives for the sake of procreating children and sharing
to cite, since Abe obeyed
their lives with their wives, but some marry because of the size of her
her (LXX Gen 16:2; see also dowry, others because of her beautiful figure, and others for other such
21:11-12) rather than she him, reasons. By using these bad advisers they seek no knowledge of the
and since the only time she calls brides disposition and manner but celebrate the wedding to their own
destruction; and with their doors decked out with garlands they introhim lord is under her breath,
duce into their homes a tyrant instead of a wife, and do it however
when she laughs at the idea that incapable they are of standing up to her and competing with her for first
at his age he could father a place. (Hierocles, On Duties [Stoic, 2d century AD; in Malherbe,
child: So Sarah laughed, saying 102103)
in herself, It has not yet hapAbraham J. Malherbe, Moral Exhortation: A Greco-Roman Sourcebook (Philadelphia:
pened to me until now, and my Westminster, 1986).
lord is an old man (LXX Gen James H. Charlesworth, ed., The Old Testament Pseudepigrapha (2 vols.; Garden City NY:
18:12). Some commentators Doubleday, 1983).
think 1 Peter must be drawing
on Jewish interpretive traditions, such as the one in the firstcentury AD Testament of Abraham, where Sarah is perfectly
submissive, always addressing her husband as my lord Abraham.6
Others note that Sarah, like Abraham, was a resident alien and
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sojourner and as such makes a good prototype for the Christian

women addressed by this letter.7 That is true; however, Sarahs
husband is the prototypical man of faith, and so Sarah is still an
odd choice for women married to nonbelievers.
The real problem here is with the choice of material available to
1 Peter. The Septuagint is not loaded with exemplary tales of wifely
obedience; think of Rebecca, tricking poor old blind Isaac, or
Zipporah, pulling a knife on Moses, or Abigail, fluttering her eyelashes at David while apologizing for her husbands boorishness.
Nor are there exemplars of the long-suffering believing wife whose
silent goodness converts her recalcitrant pagan husband. The LXX
version of Esther comes closest, but the king does not convert, and
Ester says in her prayer, I abhor the couch (or marital bed) of the
uncircumcised (LXX Esth 4:17). For the slaves, the example of
Jesus worked perfectly; but 1 Peter cannot hold Jesus up as a model
for wifely submission to an unbeliever. So Sarah is not a perfect fit,
but is there a better in Scripture? [Wifely Courage]
At the end of v. 6, the author makes a remarkable move that he
has not made to this point in the letter. Even though he has been
calling outsiders Gentiles and the recipients Gods own people,
until 3:6 he has not identified any of the audience as kin to anyone
in Israelthey are Gods children and God is their father, but they
are not said to be part of Israel. Here, however, these Christian
women, some of them married to unbelievers, are Sarahs children.
Since the author shows no interest anywhere in the letter in
addressing how the common markers of being Jewishkeeping
Sabbath, eating kosher, circumcision, and the likeconnect with
his audience, we can presume he does not literally mean that these
Gentile women have become Jewish, and can also presume that he
does not mean that they became Sarahs offspring at some point or
another (e.g., their conversion or their baptism). They are Sarahs
daughters because they resemble her in some way, and that is
explained in the final part of the verse.
The verb you have become is completed by two infinitives,
agathopoiousai (lit., to do good) and phoboumenai (lit., to fear).
One can translate Greek infinitives like this in several ways:
as conditions (you became . . . if you do good and do not fear);8
to show purpose or result (you became . . . so that/with the
result that you do good and do not fear);9
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153
Wifely Courage
The 1st century BC funerary inscription called Laudatio Turiae offers a husbands praise for his deceased wife
(see also [Virtue Matters more than Adornment]). At one point in their marriage, the husband had to flee for
his life, and his wife interceded for him, receiving some injuries and insults as a result. This husbands full and heart-felt
praise shows that not every husband in antiquity preferred his wife to be meek and silent.
(6a) You begged for my life when I was abroadit was your courage that urged you to this stepand because of your
entreaties I was shielded by the clemency of those against whom you marshaled your words. But whatever you said was
always said with undaunted courage.
(9a) Meanwhile when a troop of men collected by Milo, whose house I had acquired through purchase when he was in exile,
tried to profit by the opportunities provided by the civil war and break into our house to plunder, you beat them back successfully and were able to defend our home.
[About 12 lines missing]

(0) . . . exist . . . that I was brought back to my country by him (Caesar Augustus), for if you had not, by taking care for my
safety, provided what he could save, he would have promised his support in vain. Thus I owe my life no less to your devotion
than to Caesar.
(4) Why should I now hold up to view our intimate and secret plans and private conversations: how I was saved by your
good advice when I was roused by startling reports to meet sudden and imminent dangers; how you did not allow me imprudently to tempt providence by an overbold step but prepared a safe hiding-place for me, when I had given up my ambitious
designs, choosing as partners in your plans to save me your sister and her husband Cluvius, all of you taking the same risk?
There would be no end, if I tried to go into all this. It is enough for me and for you that I was hidden and my life was saved.
(11) But I must say that the bitterest thing that happened to me in my life befell me though what happened to you. When
thanks to the kindness and judgment of the absent Caesar Augustus I had been restored to my county as a citizen, Marcus
Lepidus, his colleague, who was present, was comforted with your request concerning my recall, and you lay prostrate at his
feet, and you were not only not raised up but were dragged away and carried off brutally like a slave. But although your body
was full of bruises, your spirit was unbroken and you kept reminding him of Caesars edict with its expression of pleasure at my
reinstatement, and although you had to listen to insulting words and suffer cruel wounds, you pronounced the words of the
edict in a loud voice, so that it should be known who was the cause of my deadly perils. This matter was soon to prove harmful
for him.
(19) What could have been more effective than the virtue you displayed? You managed to give Caesar an opportunity to
display his clemency and not only to preserve my life but also to brand Lepidus insolent cruelty by your admirable endurance.
Hermann Desau, ed., Inscriptiones Latinae Selectae (Eng. trans. E. Wistrand; Berlin: Berolini, 1906) 8393.
to show means (you became . . . by doing good and not

fearing);10
or to identify attendant circumstances, things that happened
more or less simultaneously (you became . . . when you do good
and do not fear).11
Although all these are possible, the final option seems most likely.
Whenever the Christian women do these things, they are Sarahs
children. Doing good, as in the advice to slaves (2:20), probably
has the broad sense of doing what is right, and not the specific
sense of beneficent actions. Do not fear any fearful thing (m
phoboumenai mdemian ptosin) reflects the language of LXX
Proverbs 3:25 (ou phobths ptosin), And you will not fear a
fearful thing coming upon you.12 In Proverbs 3, this sort of secu-
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1 Peter 3
rity comes from seeking out Lady Wisdom and meditating on her
teaching, for she is more honorable than costly stones; no wicked
thing can stand up to her (LXX Prov 3:15). The Christian
womans wisdom comes through focus on the hidden inner
person as enlightened by Christ.
The fearful thing that these women need not fear likely
includes their husbands displeasure over their Christian praxis;13
the long passage by Tertullian above illustrates only a few of the
possible points of friction. He, in fact, is citing these dangers to
urge Christians to avoid marriage to unbelievers if possible; and
Paul, in 1 Corinthians 7:12-16, although he thinks married people
ought to avoid divorce if at all possible, allows that a Christian
married to a non-Christian is not bound by Jesus command to stay
married at all costs. By contrast, 1 Peters attitude seems to be that
the believing wife should continue to be submissive, doing the
right thing, fearing nothing. But what is the right thing if the
unbelieving spouse commands his wife to resume worship of the
gods? At this point, the reader might recall how Sarah (twice!)
acceded to her husbands plans to pretend to be her brother rather
than her husband because he was afraid for his life. In both cases,
God preserved Sarahs honor and Abrahams life; might this be a
clue that 1 Peter would recommend obedience, even if it went
against principle? Or is the last part of v. 6 meant to encourage the
women to do right according to Gods standard and fear no fearful
thing, even if that meant beatings and/or divorce or abandonment?
The text fails to answer this question. The heroine of the secondcentury Acts of Paul (and Thecla) faces death repeatedly for refusing
to become someones obedient spouse, and each time God delivers
her. But in real life, real women faced tough choices, as many still
do, and one hopes that Christian communities were and can be as
supportive and non-judgmental as possible.
Advice to Husbands, 3:7
Likewise husbands [should be subordinate to everyone] by living
together wisely with the women, as with a weaker vessel, by
demonstrating respect as to those who are also joint heirs of the gift
of life, with the result that your prayers are not prevented.
Only one short sentence to husbands, but it contains several
debatable points. First, the verse does not have a finite verb. Like
3:1, it begins with likewise and a participle, and so one must
decide whether to translate synoikountes as if it were an imperative
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(live with!) or as a circumstantial participle, depending on some

other verb. I have taken it as depending on 2:13, be subordinate
to everyone, and understand this verse to be the specific way that
Christian married men should show subordination to all, just as
2:18ff does for Christian slaves and 3:1ff does for Christian
wives.14 Second, the word translated women above might also be
translated wives.15 However, it is not the normal word for wife
(which appears in 3:1 and 3:5), and the switch to an uncommon
word in the New Testament is best explained if the author means
for the men to think about their behavior toward all the women in
their household: wife, daughters, and female slaves.16 Third, many
commentators presume, not unreasonably, that the situation
addressed in this verse is that of the Christian couple, from the
mans point of view: there were probably very few cases in which
the husband had become Christian without the wifes joining him
in the Christian community.17 As those who are also joint heirs
does indicate that the head of household/husband is to treat the
women as Christians, and could mean that 1 Peter intends to
address only the Christian husbands responsibility in an allChristian household. But it seems to me that just as one cannot
suppose that in the late first century there were no Christian men
married to non-Christian women or having non-Christian female
slaves in his household, just so one must also allow that 1 Peter
may intend for a Christian head of household to treat all females
living there as he would other believerswhether they were or
not.18
In the first century, a male head of household had absolute
authority over his female slaves and unmarried daughters.
Legallywhich, as noted earlier, is not a reliable guide to what
ordinarily happenedthe paterfamilias could contract a marriage
for his daughter without her consent or sell her as a remedy for
bankruptcy. [I Am the Paterfamilias] He could abuse a female slave physically and sexually if he wished; he could give her to his friends to
enjoy or to another slave as wife, and punish, sell, or execute her
according to his whim. His wife had more recourse, especially
among wealthier Romans, where it was possible for a woman to be
married without transferring her dowry completely into her
husbands control (Plutarch complains about this practice, saying
that there ought to be only one household account that
is ours rather than his and her accounts). Even conservative
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I Am the Paterfamilias
McCullough is imagining a conversation between Julius Caesars
father and his younger daughter (so roughly 100 years earlier
than 1 Peter), but the law was the same at the time when 1 Peter was
written. Law is not the same as social practice, however, and instances
of fathers actually killing their adult children were very rare and treated as
oddities by the Romans.
writers on household management urge men to exercise

their authority over their wives
carefully, avoiding violent
treatment, since the goal is
harmony and not fear. [On
Treating Women with Care]
It seems I must refresh your memory, daughter. Do you know who I am? . . .
I am the paterfamilias, the absolute head of this household. My very word is
law. My actions are not actionable. Whatever I choose to do and say within
the bounds of this household, I can do and I can say. No law of the Senate
and People of Rome stands between me and my absolute authority over my
household, my family. For Rome has structured her laws to ensure that the
Roman family is above the law of all save the paterfamilias. If my wife
commits adultery, Julilla, I can kill her, or have her killed. If my son is guilty of
moral turpitude, or cowardice, or any other kind of social imbecility, I can kill
him, or have him killed. If my daughter is unchaste, Julilla, I can kill her, or
have her killed. If any member of my householdfrom my wife through my
sons and my daughters to my mother, to my servantstransgresses the
bounds of what I regard as decent conduct, I can kill him or her, or have him
or her killed.
Thus 1 Peters advice begins

predictably: live together
wisely, as with a weaker vessel.
[Vessel] That womens bodies
and constitutions were weaker
than mens was an ancient
truism, but there was no single
idea about what precisely the
weakness was.
Aristotle writes, The male

is by nature superior, and the
female inferior; and the one
rules, and the other is ruled; this principle, of necessity, extends to
all mankind.19
The medical writer Galens theory was that women were weaker
because they were colder than hotOn Treating Women with Care
When a rider is too weak or effeminate to vault
blooded men, and because their sexual
upon a horse, he teaches the animal itself to bend
organs were imperfectly formed.20
its legs and crouch. In the same way some men who
Xenophons opinion is that men are
marry high-born or wealthy women, instead of improving
more suited for outdoor tasks and women
themselves, put indignities upon their wives, in the belief
that they will be more easily ruled when humbled. The
for indoor, since God has made her body
proper course is, while using the rein, to maintain the
less capable of the endurance needed for
dignity of the wife, as one would the full height of the
labor in the fields.21
horse.
The Testament of Reuben says that
The Sun vanquished the North Wind. When the wind
endeavored to take off the mans cloak by violence and
women are more easily overcome by the
blowing a gale, he only tightened his mantle the more and
spirit of promiscuity than are men
held it the closer. But when, after the wind, the sun
(T. Reub. 5.3)women are actually
became hot, the man began to grow warm. When at last
powerfully evil, according to this work,
he sweltered, he took off not only his cloak but his tunic.
This parable applies to the generality of women. When
but only because, being weak, they resort
their husbands take violent measures to do away with
to magic and demonic aids to entrap men
extravagant indulgence, they show fight and temper; but if
(T. Reub. 4-6).
Colleen McCullough, The First Man in Rome (New York: Avon,1990) 21920.
you reason with them, they give it up peaceably and practice moderation.
Plutarch, Advice to Bride and Groom 8, 12.
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The Letter of Aristeas states instead that

the female sex is bold, positively active for
something which it desires, easily liable to
change its mind because of poor reasoning
powers, and of naturally weak constitution
(Let. Aris. 250).
157
Vessel
The only other New Testament use of
skeuos, vessel, that might parallel this one
is in 1 Thess 4:3-4: For this is Gods will, your sanctification, to abstain from sexual immorality; that
each of you learn to control (or acquire) his own
vessel in holiness and honor . . . . The verb ktasthai
can mean to acquire or to possess, and if Paul
was using skeuos to mean a woman, then the verse
urges men to avoid sexual immorality by getting
married. But as Linda McKinnish Bridges points out,
the context of 1 Thess 4:1-8 does not address marriage anywhere, but is concerned instead with the
baleful effects of immoral conduct within an early
Christian community. She suggests plausibly that
skeuos here is a euphemism for a mans penis (as in
Get hold of yourself!) rather than for a wife.
But no matter what philosophers, medical

writers, or ethical tracts had to say about
womens weakness, nobody decided that
because they were weak they were exempt
from hard physical labor. Hierocles the Stoic
observes that womens work involves things
that are toilsome and require bodily strength,
for example, grinding, kneading bread, Linda McKinnish Bridges, 1 & 2 Thessalonians (Macon GA: Smyth &
Helwys, 2008) 98102.
cutting wood, drawing water, moving large
vessels around, shaking out bedclothes, and
everything else on that order. This applied even more to female
slaves than to wives:
We have no need of a maid except one to weave, to grind meal, to
cut wood, to do her stint of spinning, to sweep the house, to stand a
beating, to do the family cooking day in and day out. Not a single
one of these things can that girl do . . . . Ill buy your mother some
big lusty wench, a good one, though not good looking, as befits the
mother of a familysome Syrian or Egyptian. She shall grind meal,
do her share of spinning, take her thrashingsa maid like that will
bring no disgrace to our doors. (Plautus, Mercator 39698)
Because of this presumed weakness of women,

ancient writers often advised men to take a firm but
considerate hand in directing their wives, so 1 Peters
wisely, as with a weaker vessel is pretty much status
quo for his day. [Caring for a Wife] But the rest of the
verse pursues a more specifically Christian approach.
By demonstrating respect as to those who are also
joint heirs of the gift of life demands that the
Christian man treat household women not just as
weaker vessels, but also as co-inheritors of the gift of
life. First Peter, writing to such a broad audience, had
no way of knowing which households were entirely
Caring for a Wife

He was a husband now, and his
chattering, fretful Dorrie, no longer
a girlfriend but a wife, was slipping down
sideways against his arm . . . . For her sake
he would stay alert. He would keep guard
over her, drawing himself as straight as
possible in the seat without disturbing her
sleeping body. Hed clamp his jaw firmly
shut in a husbandlike way, patient, forbearing, and keep his eyes steady in the
dark. He would do this in order to keep
panic at a distance.
Carol Shields, Larrys Party (Toronto: Random House of
Canada, 1997) 21.
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Christian and which divided.

But just as he could exhort the
entire audience to respect
everyone (2:17), so he can now
urge the heads of household to
treat all the women respectfully.
One would hope that the male
listeners would get the point
do not beat or rape your slaves;
do not mistreat your daughter
or your wife.
If they were not persuaded by
the exhortation to mutual
respect, then perhaps the threat
might work: with the result
that your prayers are not prevented implies that if they fail
to live up to the advice, God
will not be attentive to their
prayers. Other New Testament
passages suggest that prayers
may be hindered for other
Fragment from the front of a sarcophagus. Marble relief (probably Proconnesian), showing a
Roman marriage ceremony. AD 2d C. British Museum, London, Great Britain. (Credit: The
causes: failing to forgive (Matt
Trustees of The British Museum/Art Resource, NY)
6:15), doubting (Jas 1:5-8), or
asking for something to satisfy a
This is part of a sarcophagus from the second century, showing how
this couple wished to be remembered. They hold right hands, symboldesire (Jas 4:3). For serious
izing the strong bond of their union, and the scroll he holds is probably
believers, the prospect of having
the marriage contract. The woman behind them is probably a goddess,
God turn a deaf ear would be
either Concordia or Hymen; the man beside him is probably their son.
most troublesome. If 1 Peters
audience knew the Matthean tradition giving Peter the keys to the
kingdom, promising that what he bound on earth would be
bound in heaven as well (Matt 16:19), they might take this
warning to heart.
The advice to husbands in the deutero-Pauline Household Codes
is more focused on the duty to love:
Marital Concord
Colossians 3:19: Husbands, love your wives and do not be

bitter towards them (or, do not treat them bitterly).
Ephesians 5:25-33: Husbands, love your wives, just as Christ
loved the church . . . so husbands also ought to love their wives as
their own bodies . . . let each one love his own wife as himself.
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Were 1 Peter writing only about how husbands relate to their

wives, it would be surprising that he left off love, especially since he
considered love as part of ones Christian duty (2:22). But as
general advice for how the head of household is to treat all the
women under his charge, live wisely and pay respect makes
more sense.
How to Handle Evil Treatment, 3:8-22
First Peter, writing to the members of a tiny, despised religious

group, tries in this section to prepare them for how to respond to
evil treatmentto slander, to verbal abuse, perhaps in some cases
to physical abuse or to the threat of death. These are people whose
lives in the places they call home have become difficult enough that
the author can call them resident aliens and sojourners. A character in A Way in the World reflects on how common this kind of
injustice is:
These people were without money, job, without anything like a
family, without the English language; without any kind of representation. . . . They were people who had been, as in a fairy story, lifted
up from the peasantry of India and set down thousands of miles
awayweeks and weeks of sailingin Trinidad. In the colonial
setting of Trinidad, where rights were limited, you could have done
anything with these people; and they were tormented by the people
of the town.
We all lived easily with this kind of cruelty. We saw it, but we
seldom thought about it.22
The majority population did not need to think about it, but it
weighed heavily on the minds of those who suffered under this
kind of cruelty. For the recipients of 1 Peter, the mistreatment
resulted from their choice to be called Christian and to refuse to
return to the religion of their ancestors. An Indian living in
Trinidad could be neither British like the colonial government nor
Trinidadian like the indigenous population; but a Christian in
ancient Bithynia could choose apostasy and regain whatever identity he or she had before conversion. Governor Plinys letter (see
introduction) is evidence that some indeed gave up their new
faithsome to avoid torture, but others without any apparent
threat whatsoever. So in this section, 1 Peter needs to caution his
readers not only against retaliation but also against discouragement.
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Structure
Here is a text so nice they chose it twice, once for the sixth Sunday
of Easter in Year A, and then again for the first Sunday of Lent in
Year B. The Easter part comes near the end, and includes the
famous preaching to the spirits in prison section, plus the part
about how baptism is like Noahs ark, or maybe like the waters of
the flood. The Lenten part is the first part, about Christian virtues
and suffering.
It is a long section, and yet (as discussed earlier) it does not divide
easily. Verses 8-12 hang together, and the Psalms quote rounds it
off neatly. But v. 13 returns to the theme of v. 9, and then the
passage is off and running from how to face ones enemies with
Christian grace to how Christ did the same, to how and when he
preached to the aforementioned spirits, to Noah, to baptism, and
then, with the sort of wrench of the neck you get in a rollercoaster,
back to Christ. For the sake of those who use this commentary, I
will create the following sections, with the caveat that it is not clear
to me that 1 Peter thought of them as separable units: 3:8-12,
3:13-17, and 3:18-22.
Do not RetaliateBless! 3:8-12
Finally, let everyone be harmonious, sympathetic, mutually affectionate, tenderhearted, humble, not repaying evil for evil or insult
for insult, but blessing each one because to this you were called, so
that you may inherit a blessing. For whoever wishes to love life and
to see good days, let him stop [his] tongue from evil and his lips so
as not to speak guile; let him recline away from evil and let him do
good; let him seek peace and pursue it. Because the eyes of the
Lord are upon the righteous and his ears towards their request, but
the face of the Lord is upon/against those who do evil.
Finally seems like it ought to introduce a conclusion of some
sort, and yet the letter goes on for another two-and-a-half chapters.
But recall that 1 Peter began back in 2:13 to describe how the
readers should subject themselves to everyone, and gave advice on
how that went in three specific situations: how all the readers
should relate to persons in power (2:13-17); how slavesactual
slaves and metaphorical slaves of Godshould react when they
are unfairly mistreated (2:18-25); and how wives and husbands
should behave (3:1-7). This finally could then be taken to mean
as for the rest of you, especially since the author turns back to the
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whole audience, giving advice that is meant

to apply equally to everyone.
There follows a virtue lista string of
things that the readers ought to try to be.
Harmonious (homophrones) is literally
like-minded. The author seems to mean
with each other and not so much with
him. Sympathetic is almost a transliteration (sympatheis) and means feeling the
same things. [Sympathy and Mutual Affection]
Mutually
affectionate
translates
philadelphoi, brother (and sister)-loving,
which helps to specify which same things
the author wants the audience to feel.
Tenderhearted is our metaphorin our
culture, you feel love in your heartfor
what the ancients termed good-boweled
(eusplanknoi) since they considered the
innards as the place where you felt strong
emotions. Humble is literally thinking
like a poor person (tapeinophrones), and it is
one of the things Christians identified as a
virtue that many Greeks and Romans
thought of as a vice.23 Josephus used a
cognate noun (tapeinophrosyn) to mean
cowardly (J.W. 4.494), and generally the
culture surrounding first-century Christians
would have thought that beggarly
behavior was contemptuous [When Humility Is
Not a Virtue].
The first half of v. 9 sounds a lot like a
gospel saying that gets repeated by early
Christians:
161
Sympathy and Mutual Affection

At Friendship Park in San Diego, a chain-link
fence divides the Mexican from the American
side. Currently it is a meeting place for families on
either side to reconnect: I have witnessed people kiss
through the fence, cry together through the fence, buy
and sell tamales through the fence and say goodbye to
dying loved ones through the fence (24). Plans are to
build two more fences with patrol/maintenance roads
between them, eliminating the practice. There has
been for several years an annual Christmas event
linking Christians on both sides. Fanestil, a Methodist
minister, decided to hold a love feast on June 1,
2008. As we made our preparations, we were told by
Border Patrol agentsfor the first time in our years of
gathering at this locationthat we were not to pass
anything through the fence. Doing so, we were told,
would constitute a customs violation (25). The
Americans complied, and were deeply troubled by the
spectacle of sharing bread on one side of the fence but
not with their fellow believers on the other side.
Two months later, on August 3, we gathered again, and
this time I couldnt bring myself to tolerate what seems
to me a farcical prohibition. . . . This time I was determined to celebrate the sacrament. I consecrated the
bread and juice and passed them through the fence to a
Methodist colleague from a church in Tijuana. People
formed two lines, one in each country, and came
forward solemnly to receive Communion. People were
given the choice of receiving the elements from either
celebrant, the people on the U.S. side having been forewarned that the act of taking a small piece of bread
through the fence might be considered by some an act
of civil disobedience.
I have never taken so much pleasure in not serving
Communion. One by one, my friends on the U.S. side
shook their heads at me as they approached the serving
station and reached out their hands to receive the body
of Christ through the fence. (25)
John Fanestil, Border Crossing, ChrCent 125/20 (7 October 2008):
2225.
Luke 6:27-38: But I say to you who are listening: Love your
enemies, do good to those hating you, bless those insulting you,
pray for those abusing you.
Romans 12:14, 17: Bless those persecuting you; bless and do
not curse. . . . Repay evil for evil to no one, but consider the good
in the presence of all people.
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When Humility Is Not a Virtue

The word 1 Peter uses for humble-minded
(tapeinophronen) is closely related to one
used by Thucydides to describe the low condition of
the Athenian army on retreat: Their disgrace and the
universality of the misery, although there might be
some consolation in the very community of suffering,
were nevertheless at the moment hard to bear, especially when they remembered from what pride and
splendor they had fallen into their present low estate
[tapeinots]
(Thucydides, Peloponnesian War 7.75).
Didache 1.3: Bless those insulting you

and pray for your enemies . . . and you
should love those hating you, and you will
not have an enemy.
Ignatius, Ephesians 10.2: For their anger,
you [should be] meek; for their boasting,
you [should be] humble [same word 1 Peter
uses in 3:8]; for their blasphemies/insults,
you [should offer] prayers . . . .
Polycarp, Philippians 12.3: Pray . . . for
those who persecute and hate you . . . .
First Peter does not repeat Jesus command to love ones enemies,
but emphasizes instead non-retaliation; love, in 1 Peter, is only
directed toward God or toward other believers.24 Unlike the
Didache, 1 Peter does not recommend non-retalBlessing an Adversary
iation as a strategy for winning the hearts and
When I asked students in class one day
minds of ones enemies. The motive clause, in
to come up with specific, practical examples of how someone might bless an adversary,
the last part of v. 9, focuses on how acting this
the story was shared of a Christian soldier living in
way is part of Gods call to believers and brings
a barracks with his unit. Each evening, when he
with it the promise of blessing on Judgment
would read his Bible and pray before retiring, he
Day.25 [Blessing an Adversary]
was reviled and insulted by the soldier across the
aisle. One night a pair of muddy combat boots
Commentators note how name-calling and
came flying at the Christian. The next morning,
insults were simply part of ancient culture, espethe hostile soldier found his boots at the foot of
cially between representatives of competing
his bed, cleaned and polished and ready for
groups. We see some of this in the Gospels,
inspection. Several soldiers in this company eventually became Christians as a result of the inner
when the Pharisees call Jesus a glutton and a
strength of one who could return blessing for
drunkard, a friend of tax collectors and sinners,
insult.
and Jesus in turn calls them white-washed tombs
Karen Jobes, 1 Peter (Baker Exegetical Commentary on the New
Testament; Grand Rapids MI: Baker Academic, 2005) 218.
and vipers offspring. Romans, writing about
early Christians, called them a depraved superstition run by charlatans who could only attract the dregs of
society:
The call to membership in the cult of Christ is this: Whoever is a
sinner, whoever is unwise, whoever is childishyea, whoever is a
wretchhis is the kingdom of God. And so they invite into membership those who by their own account are sinners: the dishonest,
thieves, burglars, poisoners, blasphemers of all descriptions, grave
robbers.26
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Christians ancient and modern have often slung mud as vigorously as their opponentstake a look at Jude 8-16, 2 Peter 2:1-22,
or Revelation 1718. But 1 Peter, except for the one mention of
how the profligate Gentiles will one day have to give an account for
their behavior to God (4:3-5), prefers to focus on the behavior of
believers. Earlier (2:23) the author had noted how, in his Passion,
Jesus did not abuse or threaten his persecutors, choosing instead to
trust in Gods justice.
To drive home his point, 1 Peter quotes LXX Psalm 33(34):
12-16; modern critical editions of the LXX are close to 1 Peters
wording, except that 1 Peter has a third-person imperative form
where the LXX has a more direct second-person imperativestop
your tongue (LXX) instead of let him stop his tongue (1 Peter).
In the psalm, life means present-day life, and the psalmist recommends, for the one who wants to live the best sort of life, seeking
God and turning away from evil as the best policy. First Peter
would not disagree with that, but probably wanted to include the
idea of eternal life, and so may have changed the LXX text from
who is the man who wishes life, loving to see good days? to for
whoever wishes to love life and to see good days . . . .27 The advice
of the psalmist is right in line with 1 Peters emphases:
Psalm
Stop your tongue from evil
And your lips from speaking
guile
Incline away from evil
Do good
Seek peace, and pursue it,
34:13-14
1 Peter
Dont return evil for evil, 3:9
Set aside . . . all guile, 2:1
Set aside all evil, 2:1
Do good, 2:15, 20; 3:6
May peace be yours, 1:2; 5:14
The psalmists affirmation (LXX Ps 33:15-16) that God will take

care of the righteous and will punish evildoers is also 1 Peters belief
(2:23; 4:3-5). But 1 Peter does not imagine that Gods care of the
good guys is like a magic shield protecting them from harm, as we
will see in the next section.
Do not Be AfraidTestify! 3:13-17
And who will mistreat you if you become zealots for good? But
even if you might suffer for righteousness, you are blessed. Do not
be afraid or terrified of them, but sanctify Christ as Lord in your
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hearts, always [being] ready to give a reply to anyone who asks you
a word concerning the hope in you, but with meekness and fear,
having a good conscience, so that whenever they slander you, those
who revile your good manner of life in Christ may be ashamed. For
it is better, if God should wish it so, to suffer for doing good rather
than for doing evil.
Having just quoted the lines from LXX Psalm 33 urging readers
to do the right thing, 1 Peter turns to how this might work out in
readers lives. Who will mistreat you cannot be a straightforward
statement, given what the author has already written about slaves
who are beaten because their masters are cruel (2:18-20), and given
what he will say in this section about slander. To be plain: 1 Peter
cannot mean that if his readers were especially good they could
avoid mistreatment. So perhaps v. 13 is meant hopefully: be conspicuously good, and most of the time outsiders will leave you
alone.28 [Most People Are OK] Or, be conspicuously good, and you
will win over those who may have been inclined to mistreat you.29
Or perhaps 1 Peter means to stress that Gods
Most People Are OK
protection is ultimate, and that even if your
Most people live sensible and thoughtful
lives. Its a fact. Its something Ive
adversaries do terrible things to you, you cannot
noticed. Except for hardened criminals, most
be irrevocably harmed because you belong to
people manage to form meaningful attachments.
God.30 Or perhaps it is ironic: Who will misThey take care of one another.
treat you? Well, we could start a list of those
Carol Shields, Larrys Party (Toronto: Random House of Canada,
1997) 174.
who already have. It is hard to judge between
these alternatives. First Peter hoped Christian
wives could win their husbands to the faith by their conduct (3:12), and expressed the hope that good conduct would silence slander
(2:15), so the first two options are plausible. First Peter clearly
believes that no ultimate harm can come to the believer, so the
third reading is possible, but I do not think that is what the first
part of v. 13 (tis ho kaksn hymas, Who is the one mistreating
you) is about. The author only uses this verb (kako) here, but uses
the kakopoie in v. 17 to mean do bad stuff, not do ultimate
harm (so also at 2:14); likewise the noun form kakopoios, evildoer, in 2:12 and 4:15 means an ordinary bad person. Given 1
Peters use of the word, ordinary harm or mistreatment is most
likely.31 So either he means it in some modified sensethey (possibly, quite likely) will not harm you if you are vigorously goodor
he does notthey will not harm you. Dont you wish! In favor of
the first, more hopeful reading is the proximity of v. 13 to the
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Peters Denial
psalm quote. In favor of the
second, ironic reading are (a)
the quick shift to but if you
do suffer and (b) the suffering that the readers know
that Peter observed and experienced on behalf of the
gospel.
However one resolves this,
v. 14 faces the potential sufferings of the righteous. Koine
Greek had several ways of
making hypothetical statements. This one, using a verb
The doorkeeper recognizes Saint Peter. 6th-C. Mosaic. S. Apollinare Nuovo, Ravenna, Italy.
in the optative mood, is meant
(Credit: Erich Lessing/Art Resource, NY)
to show that the author is not
convinced that the condition
In this 6th-century mosaic, Peter is denying that he knew Jesus. The fact
in the if clause will
that these exhortations to bear up under suffering are coming from one
32
known to have failed must have helped the readers identify with the
happen. There are various
author; after all, he knew how hard it was to stand up for his faith.
ways to explain the authors
hesitation: he is addressing
groups of Christians who live in all sorts of situations, and he
cannot possibly know which ones are in danger and which ones are
safe; he hopes that their good deeds will sway their potential
enemies, but realizes that sometimes bad things do happen to good
people;33 during this period, actual persecution of Christians was
sporadic and episodic, largely depending on how much ones
neighbors were appalled by the presence of Christians.34 All of
these are plausible and are not mutually exclusive; whatever the
cause, the author wants to say that suffering for righteousness is not
every believers experience.
But if it should happen, blessings! Makarioi probably is a predicate, as the translations have it, and presumably is the second half
of the conditional sentenceif perchance this would happen, then
you would be blessedbut the single word could also be taken as
a wishmay God bless you! Because this sounds so much like
the beatitudes in Matthew 5:10-11 (Blessed are those persecuted
for the sake of righteousness . . . . Blessed are you whenever they
insult you and persecute you and say all sorts of evil things against
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you), the author could presume that it would remind the audience
of Jesus teachings.
The last part of v. 14 is a quotation from Isaiah 8:13-14, wherein
the prophet is warned against following the majority opinion in the
Syro-Ephraemite crisis. God tells Isaiah, Dont be afraid of
them,35 nor be terrified; sanctify the Lord himself, and he will be
your fear (LXX Isa 8:13-14). Isaiahs problem seems to have been
that most peopleKing Ahaz, his advisors, and other prophets
attached to the courtwere so scared of the alliance between Israel
and Syria that they were ready to sign on as vassals to the
Assyriansan any port in a storm attitude. But the fears 1 Peter
wanted his readers to avoid were their own fears of the consequences that might follow if they were open about their
Christianity. If they allow fear of being mistreated to silence them
altogether, the movement might stop.
First Peter presents the alternative to fear as sanctify Christ as
Lord in your hearts. Sanctify and Lord came from his Isaiah
quotation, where the prophet is being called to feel religious awe
holy fearonly toward God, making any other fear less important.
To sanctify someone is to prepare them to enter a holy place
1 Peters readers, no matter what their religious practices had been
prior to their becoming Christians, would have known what sort of
cleansing rituals were expected of them before they entered a shrine
or temple (or the Jerusalem temple). [Approaching a Sanctuary] But
Christ, resurrected from the dead, needs no
Approaching a Sanctuary
further sanctification. The phrase is a bit like
Two girls have been shipwrecked and are
hallowed be thy name in the Lords Prayer
begging sanctuary at a temple of Venus.
how can we make Gods name holier than it
The priestess says, This is no state in which to
approach the shrine, you know. Where are your
already is? How can we further sanctify the
white garments and thank-offerings?
Risen Lord? The answer, in both cases, is in our
Plautus, Rope, 27071; in The Rope and Other Plays (trans. E. F.
conduct. We who bear Gods name should, as
Watlington; New York: Penguin, 1964) 100.
1 Peter says earlier, be holy, for I am holy, so as
not to bring Gods name into disrepute. In the same way, we sanctify Christ as Lordwe raise him up as the Holy One, our
Masterwhen we commit ourselves entirely to him, ready to bear
anything for his sake. In your hearts is not so much in the secret
places your neighbors cannot see (especially since the verse immediately turns to how one gives verbal testimony) as in your wills
or in your decision-making.36
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Polycarp Refuses to Give an Account

Verses 15b-16a may have been something you
According to the Martyrdom of Polycarp,
once memorized, if your youth group was anythe aged bishop refused to give a
thing like mine: always [being] ready to give a
defense (an apologia) to the crowds in the
reply to anyone who asks you a word concerning
stadium on the day of his execution. The proconsul kept urging him to swear by Caesars
the hope in you, but with meekness and fear.
Fortune, and Polycarp told him that he would not,
An apology (the Greek word translated reply
since he was a Christian, but that if the proconsul
is apologia) is literally a word from someone,
wanted to hear about Christianity, he should
usually to explain or to justify a decision. It can
name a day and listen. When the proconsul
invited him to try to persuade the crowds to let
mean defense in the sense of an argument
him go, he refused, saying that he was willing to
made in a courtroom to refute an accusation or
explain himself to the lawful ruler, since Christians
to explain why actions were justified.37 [Polycarp
are taught to respect those in authority. But as to
Refuses to Give an Account] It can also have the more
those [people in the stadium], I do not consider
them worthy to hear a reasoned defense.
general sense of an answer to a question or an
Mart. Pol. 10.2.
investigation (as at LXX Wis 6:10, those who
guard holiness in a holy manner will be declared
holy, and those who have been taught these things will find an
answer [apologian]). Have your answer ready is the sense of
v. 15b, for anyone who questions you about your hope. Here
hope is probably being used to mean your Christian faith or
your relationship with Christ and not just the readers hopes for
eternal life.38 [Hope] First Peter has already commended meekness
to wives (3:4), where it was paired with quiet as a contrast to
someone who wore gold jewelry or fancy clothes. The ideal wife
quietly living her Christian life around her non-Christian
husbandwas urged to give more thought to her inner character
than to her appearance. Now all believers are exhorted to be prepared to answer, but with meekness cautions them against
arrogance. Fear is directed toward
Hope
God, not toward ones adversaries
. . . the Christian hope we celebrate is not optimism .
(3:14b), but ones fear of Godones
. . .What we have is not optimism, but hope. We
believe
that
humankind can and will by the power of the Spirit
reverential respect for the power of the
become not ever wealthier but more richly human, less frightLordis supposed to keep us properly
ened, more free, more secure in the peace that comes from
situated, neither so cowed by outsiders
justice and friendship; but only through overcoming the world
that we never speak of our faith, nor so
in Christ . . . . Our hope is the kind that goes through defeat
and crucifixion to resurrection. We know that we shall somebelligerent about our coming salvation
times have to fail rather than betray the very justice that we
that our answers are disrespectful.
struggle for; we shall have to fail rather than use the weapons
Verse 16b comes back to the connecof the oppressor against him, but we can do this because we
tion between what a Christian says and
have hope, because we know that God will bring life out of
such defeat and failure as he brought life out of the tomb of
does, the all-too-problematic link that
Jesus.
is the undoing of so many of us. Be
Herbert McCabe, God, Christ and Us (London: Continuum, 2003) 15.
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ready to give your answer, not only with meekness and fear, but
also having a good conscience, so that whenever they slander you,
those who revile your good manner of life in Christ may be
ashamed. Elliott paraphrases good conscience as a sound mindfulness of Gods will,39 which is apt, since a Christian conscience
is good to the extent that the Christian is conscious of Gods
direction. As at 2:15, 1 Peter seems to hope that the good deeds
and exemplary behavior of Christians will shame
Slanders
their slanderers. The record on that seems to
Our mothers brought us all up to be nice
have been mixed. Tertullians Apology, written
people . . . . So its unfortunate that nice
people are so sensitive about vicious slander.
around the turn of the third century, complains
When your Aunt Hazel, the Mother Theresa of
bitterly that the same old canards, such as
Bonhomme, Iowa, hears via the Methodist
Christians eating infants in the Eucharist, get
grapevine that a neighbor named Mildred has told
repeated but never investigated (Apol. 4).
numerous Bonhommeans that she, Hazel, isnt as
nice as everyone thinks, but is selfish and has a
[Slanders] On the other hand, Eusebius repeats a
glorified opinion of herself, it knocks your poor
story about the grandchildren of Jude, the
aunt flat on her back. Stunned, she leaves the
brother of Jesus, who were denounced to
community outreach luncheon in tears, drives
Domitian as being descendants of David and
straight home, and spends the afternoon lying
weeping on the couch, bewildered by hostility
followers of Jesus. But when the emperor found
from a woman she has gone out of her way to be
out they were working-class people with calnice to.
loused hands and that they believed Jesus was
Garrison Keillor, A Liberal Reaches for Her Whip, in We Are Still
someday to return to set up a spiritual kingdom,
Married (New York: Penguin, 1990) 45.
he dismissed them (Eusebius, Hist. eccl. 3.20).
If those who slander the believers are not shamed into silence
now, they will be come Judgment Day (4:5).40 Although 1 Peter
does not dwell on this as some other early Christian texts do, the
author shares the common expectation that the wicked will have to
give an account to God for their misdeeds. The Apocalypse of Peter,
an early second-century text, depicts at least some of the righteous
being able to observe the sufferings of their tormentors: victims of
murder watch their killers being tortured by venomous beasts (or
evil, creeping things, depending on which recension of Apocalypse
of Peter you prefer); parents who exposed or aborted infants
trapped in a deep pit of excrement while the infants watch from
Paradise, lightning flashing from their eyes; etc. First Peter, so
reserved by contrast, says only to his readers that it is far better to
suffer (now) for doing right than to suffer (then) for doing evil.41
Possibly the author means simply that suffering for the sake of
righteousness is preferable to suffering because one has done something wrong.42 But while the author does address the topic of
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169
deserved sufferingtaking a punishment because of ones sins or

misdeeds (2:14, 20; 4:15)his point in those passages is that one
should not sin. It would make no sense, then, to commend suffering for the sake of righteousness as better than suffering
because of ones own crimes, since the second sort of suffering is
not supposed to be a live alternative for 1 Peters
Minucius Felix on Suffering Now, Suffering
Then
readers. First Peters point in 3:17 is more likely
M. Felix, a Christian, wrote Octavius, an
meant to be similar to his argument in 4:12-17,
imaginary conversation between a
that Gods people are getting their suffering over
Christian and his non-Christian friend. In these
with now, following in the footsteps of Jesus. If
sections, the unbeliever is characterizing
Christians as he understands them.
things are this bad for the believers, who would
want to be in the shoes of the wicked when the
They do not care about present tortures, but
real judgment begins? [Minucius Felix on Suffering Now,
dread those of an uncertain future; while they fear
Suffering Then]
death after death, they are not afraid of death

here on earth. Thus, deceptive hope soothes their
fear with the comforting idea of a future life.
(Octavius 8.3)
Better to suffer for doing good, writes

1 Peter, who then adds another if : literally, if
the will of God might wish [for that to be so].
Not even from your present life do you learn by
Wish is another verb in the optative mood,
experience how fallacious the promises and vain
the desires are which deceive you. You wretched
indicating that 1 Peter is, wisely, unwilling to
fools, judge from your present life what awaits
state definitively what Gods will is for the
you after death. Look here. A part of you, and that
readers experiences of pain. Once again, we
the greater part, and even in your opinion the
better part, is in want, endures cold, and suffers
recall what we know about the situation of
toil and hungerand your God allows it and acts
Christians in the late first and early second cenas if He does not see it. Either He is unwilling to
turies. We know that some were put to death
help His own, or else He cannot. He is, then,
either weak or wicked. You yourself dream about
because of their faithbecause they would not
a never-ending life after death. When you are
deny Christ, or because their understanding of
shaken by a serious illness and are burning with
their call from God led them to do and say
fever and wracked with pain, do you not even
then realize how matters stand with you?
things that the authorities could not tolerate. It
(Octavius, 12.1-3)
seems, however, that many Christians in the
same period were able to be identified publicly as Christians
without dangerfor instance, the church representatives who met
with Ignatius at various times as he was being transported to his
execution. First Peter, disinclined to say that chance determines
whether one person dies and another lives, attributes it to Gods
choice.43
It is an old conundrum: does God want us to suffer? Clearly God
wants us to live righteous lives, claiming Christ as Lord and
explaining our choice to anyone who asks. If the consequences for
choosing Christ are suffering, then 1 Peter would say yes, God
wants you to suffer for righteousness. But his answer is qualified in
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several ways. First Peter does not

urge Christian wives to preach
to non-Christian husbands, but
to let their godly character be
their testimony; surely this was
at least partly for the protection
of the women. First Peter tells
slaves that if they suffer simply
because their master is cruel,
they are following in Christs
footsteps; the author never suggests that the slave bears any
responsibility to try to convert
the master, even by example,
and is happy to include all
undeserved suffering as Christlike. In other words, it does not
seem to matter to 1 Peter what
the immediate cause of the
whipping might be; a whipping
that comes because the master
El Greco (Domenikos Theotokopulos). The Tears of Saint Peter. Canvas, Hospital de
thinks slaves must be whipped
Tavera, Toledo, Spain. (Credit: Erich Lessing/Art Resource, NY)
regularly to keep them in line
The artist captures Peter at the moment when he wept bitterly
counts the same as a whipping
(Matt 26:75).
as punishment for attending
Christian services. All undeserved suffering is in imitation of Christ, and so it is grace; if it is
grace, then it also must be in keeping with Gods will.
One may connect these dots differently, however. Not the slaves
suffering, but his or her patient suffering is grace with God
(2:20). God does not will suffering, but doing good; the suffering is
the result of choices by the wicked, for which they will give account
on Judgment Day.44 All that being true, by urging us into righteous behavior, God is simultaneously urging us to risk suffering.
[Suffering for the Cross] Jobes puts it succinctly: The idea that God
would never will anyone to suffer for doing right and that all suffering must be contrary to Gods will is an idea that must be
discarded if Peters message is to be taken seriously.45
These are deep waters indeed, but vv. 13-17 are actually the
shallow end of this passage. In what follows, 1 Peter will attempt, as
The Tears of St. Peter
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he has all along, to ground undeserved suffering in the experience of Jesus. But since he
has already done a section on Christs experience on the cross (2:21-25), he moves now to
Christs resurrection and ascension, and how
that can bolster the faith of his readers.
171
Suffering for the Cross

Julian said: Then we have to change the
moral will. We have to change people.
Theo laughed. Oh, thats the kind of rebellion you
have in mind? Not the system but human hearts and
minds. Youre the most dangerous revolutionaries of
all, or would be if you had the slightest idea how to
being, the slightest chance of succeeding.
Julian asked, as if seriously interested in his
answer: How would you begin?
I wouldnt. History tells me what happens to
people who do. You have one reminder on that chain
round your neck.
She put up her . . . left hand and briefly touched
the cross . . . it seemed a very small and fragile talisman.
Christ Suffered and Was Raised, 3:18-22

Because Christ also suffered46 once for sins,
the Righteous [One] for the unrighteous, so
that he might lead you to God, having been
put to death in the flesh [or by fleshby
humanity] but made alive in the Spirit [or by
the Spirit]; at which time, having made the P. D. James, The Children of Men (New York: Warner, 1994) 94.
journey, he also preached to those spirits in
prison, because [they were] disobedient when
the patience of God waited in the days of Noah, during the arks
preparation, when a few, that is eight souls, were saved through
water; which also now saves you as baptism, its antitype, not by
putting off filth from flesh, but as a request to God from a good
conscience, through the resurrection of Jesus Christ, who is at the
right [hand] of God, having gone into heaven, with angels and
Authorities and Powers being subject to him.
Before we plunge into the thickets, we need a map. First, note
that the passage begins and ends with Christs resurrection. If you
read v. 18 and skip to v. 22, you get the familiar sequence: Christ
suffered, died, was raised, and ascended to sit at the right hand of
God. Sounds remarkably like a creed, eh? And 1 Peter wants to use
this sequence to argue that his readers should be done with sin
ready at all times to testify and suffer, if need be, for the sake of
righteousness, but no longer really tempted to do the sorts of
things for which a person might justly suffer (4:1-6). So that is
where the argument is headed: Christ suffered for sin, but now that
is over and done, and that should be the readers experience as well.
In between, it appears to me that the progression of ideas goes
this way:
Christ suffered for sins, and
was put to death, and
was made alive
at which pointnamely, the resurrectionhe preached to
imprisoned spirits
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1 Peter 3
who were imprisoned because they had not obeyed

during Noahs time
when only eight people survived the water
which reminds one of baptism
which saves because of the power of Christs resurrection
when he also ascended into heaven to sit at Gods right hand.
We will take the first three and last two bullets together because
they describe or interpret the work of Christ and are all fairly
uncontroversial, and then we will discuss the middle five.
Christ also suffered once for sins, the Righteous [One] for the
unrighteous, so that he might lead us to God. The preposition
for in the first line is peri, meaning concerning or with regard
to; his suffering was related to sin, in other words. Not his sins,
1 Peter quickly adds, since he was righteous, or maybe the
Righteous One; 1 Peter strongly believes, as the Gospels say, that
Christ was not executed for anything he did wrong, but because of
others sinsthe combination of wicked motives that led the disciples, the temple authorities, the crowds, and the Roman procurator
to collude in putting him to death. The second for, in the
Righteous One for the unrighteous, is the preposition hyper,
meaning on behalf of. His suffering was vicarious, intended to
lead you47 to God. How? First Peter has already suggested that
the manner of Christs death was meant to be exemplary, in that he
died (a) unjustly, (b) without lashing out verbally against his persecutors, and (c) with full faith in Gods ability to save him
(2:21-23). By leaving us an example to follow,
Christs Exemplary Death
God does not demand or require blood to
Christs suffering and death leads us to God.
redeem us. God neither inflicts violence
nor desires suffering in order to set the divinehuman relation right. In spite of its pervasiveness
in Christian imagery, the cost of communion, of
reconciliation and redemption, is not blood and
suffering. (22)
Christ is our substitute not in the sense that he
takes our place in the execution chamber and
suffers our punishment for us, but in the sense
that he offers God the fidelity, devotion and obedience that we should have but did not, and
subsequently could not. (26)
Daniel M. Bell, Jr., God Does Not Demand Blood, ChrCent
126/3 (10 February 2009): 2226.
[Christs Exemplary Death]
But there is more. Christ bore our sins in his

body on the tree, so that by dying to sins we
might live to righteousness (2:24). The death of
the Righteous One on behalf of the unrighteous
ones enables them, too, to die to sin and live to
righteousness. As already discussed in the comments on 2:18-25, 1 Peter, like many early
Christians, understood Jesus as the Servant
described in Isaiah 53. The Spirit of God
revealed to Isaiah and other prophets that such
sufferings were necessary for the Messiah
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(although Isa 53 does not call the Servant Messiah, 1 Peter read it
that way)see 1:10-12and so when Jesus went to the cross, he
bore the sins of others, healing them with his wounds. Neither
Isaiah 53 nor 1 Peter use the language of sacrifice to explain how
this works, and as suggested in the discussion of 2:18-25, another
explanation may have been unnecessary for 1 Peter. Gods plan was
laid out in Isaiah; Jesus did what the plan said; therefore the results
follow, just as God said.
Christ suffered for sins once: the force of that word does not
become apparent until 4:1-3, when 1 Peter argues that the time is
long past for Gentile shenanigans. He is not making a supersessionist point; in other words, the idea is not he died once, so
animal sacrifice is no longer necessary, as Hebrews argues. It is not
even he died once, so that you never have to diethe Johannine
move. First Peters point is that Jesus dealt with sin, and then
started a new chapter; in the same way, you readers should be finished with sin and not still fooling around with it. After suffering
and dying, Jesus was raised and then ascended, and at present all
angels and Authorities and Powers are subjected to him.
Subjected is the same verb (different form, same root) as in the
advice to slaves (2:18), to wives (3:1), and to everyone (2:13). We
know what he means by angels. Authorities and Powers probably
means other heavenly beings, including those who do not necessarily carry out Gods purposes, as at 1 Corinthians 15:24.48 For
1 Peter, Christ is the prototype, the One in whose footsteps we
follow. His readers are supposed to imagine Jesus
Angels and Powers
enthroned, commanding obedience and
In the Martyrdom of Polycarp, as the
bishop is about to be burned, he prays:
receiving respect even from wicked divine
Lord God Almighty, Father of your beloved and
beings, and picture themselves moving in that
blessed child Jesus Christ, through whom we
direction. [Angels and Powers] Be done with sin; be
have received knowledge of you, the God of
done with the temptations your neighbors
angels and powers and all creation . . . .
Mart. Pol. 14.1.
dangle in front of you; that time is pastturn
the page.
It is the turn the page emphasis that perhaps leads 1 Peter to
move into the preaching-to-the-spirits section. I must confess that
in my twenty-five-plus years of teaching Intro to the New
Testament, I have often characterized this part as rabbit-chasing,
where the author lost the main trail of his argument for a few
verses. That may be correct, but for the sake of this section of the
discussion, I want to presume that 1 Peter thought the audiences
consideration of the spirits in prison was going to help them
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understand his argumentthat vv. 19-21 are the main path, not a
diversion. [On Digressing]
Verse 18 starts with Christs suffering, saying that the purpose of
the Passion was to lead you to God. After the word God, he then
has a nice balanced pair of participles, each connected to a noun.
The tricky part is how to understand the case of the nouns: Put to
death by the flesh or in the flesh? Made alive by the Spirit or in the
Spirit or in the spirit? The parallelism makes us
On Digressing
Reader, I think proper, before we proceed
want to make the same choice for botheither
any farther together, to acquaint thee,
both in or both by.49 Here are the options:
that I intend to digress, through the whole history,
as often as I see occasion: of which I am myself a
better judge than any pitiful critic whatever. And
here I must desire all those critics to mind their
own business, and not to intermeddle with affairs,
or works, which no ways concern them: for, till
they produce the authority by which they are constituted judges, I shall plead to their jurisdiction.
In the flesh/in the spirit, meaning as a

human/as a spiritual being. Pneuma, spirit,
can mean ghost (Luke 24:36-39), and in 3:4
spirit refers to the (womans) inner self, so it is
possible to translate this in the spirit (so the
NRSV) and understand it to mean as a spiritual
Henry Fielding, Tom Jones (ed. R. P. C. Mutter; 1749; repr., New
York: Penguin, 1966) 5455.
being. But 4:6 poses the same balanced contrast of by/in flesh with by/in spirit, and there it is much clearer
that spirit has to mean Gods Spiriteither in the realm of the
Spirit or by the action of the Spirit. (See the later discussion.)
In the flesh/in the Spirit, meaning in the human realm/in the
realm of the Spirit. This makes sense in contextJesus was put to
death in the human realm, to which you should also be dying, and
made alive in Gods realm, which is where you should be focused.
If this is what 1 Peter intended, it also provides a nice segue to a
consideration of other beings living in the realm of the Spirit.
By the flesh/by the Spirit, meaning that Jesus was killed by
humans but raised by Gods power. This reading also fits the
context, especially given the Righteous One for the unrighteous.
It also would give a clear entrance into the next part, where the
question of agency comes uphow does baptism save?
Both the second and third options work, and ones choice between
them does not change the sense of the argument. But ones choice
does color the translation and understanding of the beginning of
v. 19.
The verse begins in/by which, with the antecedent of which
being spirit. Several options are possible for this phrase also: in
which [realm], namely the Spirits realm, he preached . . .; by
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whichnamely the Spiritsenabling, he preached; or even in

which [event]namely, when the Spirit raised himhe preached.
All of these make sense in the passage, but I opt for the third
because the phrase en h is so often an idiom for when in the
Greek New Testament.50
By spirits in prison who were disobedient at the time of the
flood, 1 Peter most probably means the sons of God from
Genesis 6:1-4, the angels who were attracted to the beauty of
human women. One can be fairly confident of thisfirst, because
spirits normally refers to supernatural beings, not to dead persons
(the terms for that in the New Testament are normally nekroi, dead
ones, or psychoi, souls); and second, because imprisoned divine
beings matches up with the fate of the fallen angels from Genesis
6, according to Jewish interpretive traditions found most fully in
1 Enoch 1-36, usually dated in the third to second century BC; and
third, because this background explains the otherwise puzzling
move to the flood narrative. First Enoch recounts the Genesis 6
story of the angels taking women as wives and begetting a race of
giants. But 1 Enoch continues: the giants oppress the people of the
earth, teaching them all sorts of wicked things, and themselves give
rise to the demons who infest the earth (1 En. 15:8-9). At one
point in the story God commissions Enoch to deliver this message
to the Watchers, the fallen angels:
For what reason have you abandoned the high, holy, and eternal
heaven and slept with women and defiled yourselves with the daughters of the people, taking wives, acting like the children of the earth,
and begetting giant sons? . . . you used to be holy, spiritual, the living
ones, possessing eternal life; but now you have defiled yourselves with
women, and with the blood of the flesh begotten children, you have
lusted with the blood of the people, like them producing blood and
flesh, which die and perish. . . . formerly you were spiritual, having
eternal life, and immortal in all the generations of the world. That is
why formerly I did not make wives for you, for the dwelling of the
spiritual beings of heaven is heaven. (1 En. 15:3-7)
Most commentators now agree that this is the most likely background for 1 Peters remarks.51 We know from Jude 14-15 that
1 Enoch was quoted and valued by at least some first-century
Christians; Jude 6 also names these fallen angels as currently
imprisoned by God, awaiting judgment. Second Peter 2:4 cannot
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be counted as separate evidence, since it quotes Jude, but it shows

how the tradition of the fallen angels continued to be relevant in
early Christianity. The whole episode laid out in 1 Enoch is also referenced in other pre-Christian Jewish texts such as the Testament of
Reuben (5:6) and Jubilees (5:2-11; 10:1-14); in other words, 1 Peter
and his readers could have known these interpretive traditions
without having read 1 Enoch.
The fallen angels, according to 1 Enoch 18, were imprisoned in a
pit inside one of the mountains at the edge of the earth; Jubilees
5:6, Jude 6, and 2 Peter 2:4 put the prison in the depths of the
earth. First Peter just has the participle poreutheis, meaning having
gone, which could mean up, down, or sideways, and could
describe a journey by Christ to either location. But the main consideration here is not so much Christs compass bearing as his
departure time: the having gone, which comes ahead of he
preached, follows or coincides with made alive in/by the Spirit.
In other words, this is not about what happened between sundown
on Good Friday and Easter, but about what happened when Christ
was raised.
Verse 19, then, does not appear to be about Christs descensus ad
inferos, his descent into the realm of the dead. Although early
Christians widely agreed that Christ preached to the dead, and
although 1 Peter was widely accepted and quoted by AD 150, no
one earlier than Clement of Alexandria cited this verse in support
of that belief.52
Christ preached to these angelsabout what? The verb is
kryss, which means to announce or proclaim something without
specifying the nature of the message. First Peter thus deliberately
chose an ambiguous term in 3:19not rule over (1 Pet 5:3) or
judge/condemn (1 Pet 4:6), but also not proclaim the gospel
(1 Pet 4:6). He or his readers could have meant that like Enoch in
1 Enoch, Christ went to tell the imprisoned angels of their judgment by God. The implication for the readers would be that the
judgment of the wicked, including powerful wicked spirits, is
certain, so they should be comforted.53 As noted earlier, 1 Peter
ends this paragraph with the image of Jesus sitting at Gods right
hand, with angels, Authorities, and Powerseven evil ones
subject to him, in the same way that some of Jesus followers are
even now subject to persons who may do them harmcivic
authorities, harsh slave owners, unbelieving husbands. But readers
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177
current peril resulted from subjecting themselves to the One to

whom every power will be subject on Judgment Dayso do not
give in; take heart! [I Am Getting Along]
Must that eventual subjection be coerced and hostile to Christ?
Would 1 Peter consider it possible that some of the imprisoned
angels could repent upon the preaching of Christ and
I Am Getting Along
I am a frayed and nibbled surbe forgiven? In 1 Enoch, the sinful Watchers beg for
vivor in a fallen world, and I am
Enochs intercession, but God declares that there will be
getting along.
no peace for them (13-14); Jude 6 and 2 Peter 2:4 also
Annie Dillard, Pilgrim at Tinker Creek (New York:
sound like a final condemnation. But Joel Green notes
Harper & Row, 1974) 242.
that any proclamation by the Risen Christ must perforce be a word of hope along with judgmentboth of Gods
comprehensive judgment and impartiality . . . and of the comprehensive work of Christ in redeeming all who will respond to the
word proclaimed.54 The ambiguous proclaim allows one to
believe, or to hope, for the potential conversion even of the evil
powers.
Verse 20 locates the disobedient spirits at the time of the flood,
when the patience of God waited in the days of Noah, during the
arks preparation, when a few, that is eight souls, were saved
through water. The phrase the patience of God waited is
unusual. The verb normally means to wait eagerly, expecting something; to take this in a straightforward way would mean that Gods
Patience, in a sort of personification, was expectantly waiting for
the opportunity to be demonstrated by saving a few people. Most
commentators, however, take the phrase to be a compelling way to
say that giving Noah the chance to build the ark was an expression
of Gods patienceGod, waiting patiently while Noah and his
sons finish their construction project.55 The number eight comes
from LXX Genesis 7:7, Noah and his sons and his wife and the
wives of his sons with him entered into the ark on account of (dia)
the water of the flood.
The same passage may have also given 1 Peter his textual link to
baptism: if you change the grammatical case of water in LXX
Genesis 7:7 from accusative to genitive, then the preposition dia
means throughthey entered the ark and were saved through
the water. Normally one would think that Noah and his family
were saved from the water by the ark, but 1 Peter wants the connection to baptism, and so saved through water is the necessary sense.
Baptism, he says in v. 21, is an antitype of the floodwaters. As
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1 Peter uses the term, an antitype is a copy or representation of the

type, the thing that prefigures it.56 In the flood, Noah and his
family had to be saved through the waters: the waters effected
Noahs deliverance from his evil world as baptism effected the
deliverance of the Christians from their evil, contemporary
world.57 The watera demonstrably deadly forcesaves you as it
saved Noah, all because of the grace of God.
Having been baptized themselves, none of 1 Peters readers would
have confused baptism with a mere bath for the sake of removing
dirt, and since 1 Peter does not make the expected movenot as a
removal of dirt, but as a cleansing from sinwe have to press a
little harder for why filth comes into play at all. Some commentators suggest that it is related to the distinction made in 3:3-4
between physical beauty and inner characterbaptism is not about
an external change, but an internal change.58 That may be correct,
but it seems to me more likely that the contrast is between baptism
and the purification rites most ancient people practiced before
entering a gods presence.59 In 1 Peters understanding, one is
sanctifiedmade holyby the Spirit (1:2), both by Gods decree
Noah and the Ark
Noahs Ark, from the Nuremberg Bible (Gen 6:11-24). Colored woodcut. (Credit: The Stapleton Collection/Art Resource, NY)
In this 15th-century colored woodcut done as an illustration for the Nuremberg Bible, the artist shows Noah being saved
not only from the water but from the dangerous charms of the mermaids.
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and call (1:13-16) and by obedience to Gods message revealed by

Christ (1:22). Baptism does not remove filthrhypos is an
earthier word than dirtthat has to be done day by day through
disciplined focus on Christ. Baptism, instead, is either a request
or a pledge (epertma can mean either60) made to God, either
for or from a good conscience. Only the last phrase, good
conscience, shows up elsewhere in 1 Peter:
2:19: For this is grace, if someone, through consciousness [lit.,
conscience] of God, bears pain because of suffering unjustly;
3:16: [be ready to give an account] but with meekness and reverence, having a good conscience.
In both earlier cases, conscience probably means ones awareness
of God; a good conscience is good because it is fixed on God.
Thus, the alternatives for the verse are: Baptism saves you, not by
putting off filth from flesh, but
as a request to God from a consciousness fixed on God;61
as a request to God for a consciousness fixed on God;62
as a pledge to God from (or of ) a consciousness fixed on
God;63
as a pledge to God for [i.e., to maintain] a consciousness fixed on
God.64
One could (and commentators do) argue for each of the four
alternatives. If baptism is a request for or from ones awareness of
God, then it does not strip filth, but asks God to do so. Such an
emphasis on holiness as Gods deed is certainly consonant with the
rest of 1 Peter. However, the strongest contrast is offered by not by
putting off filth, but as a pledge; in other words, baptism is not a
purification rite at all, but is an act of commitment, like Noahs
building the ark. This reading also fits well with the overall
context, which is to urge the readers to know that suffering for
righteousness sake is much to be preferred than suffering Gods
judgment for sin. Look at all those poor souls who perished in the
flood! Just as Noah escaped the ancient judgment through the
waters, so 1 Peters readers can hope to escapebut not just
because they have passed through the water. Baptism was only the
beginningthe sign of their commitment, either the commitment
of their conscience to God or a commitment to God from a conscience already fixed on God.65
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CONNECTIONS
What must we do, as preachers and teachers of the Bible, with texts
like 1 Peter 3:1-7? To begin with what one hopes is obvious, what
the ancients believed about the makeup of human bodies and the
innate weakness of females is simply wrong. Female bodies are not
inferior or defective copies of male bodies, as some thought;
women are not more easily tempted to sexual sins than men; there
is no natural reason why men should be given authority over
women. In the words of Miss Honeychurch, I wont be protected.
I will choose for myself what is ladylike and right. To shield me is
an insult. Cant I be trusted to face the truth but I must get it
second-hand through you? A womans place!66
In my opinion, there is also no theological reason to agree with
1 Peter that wives should be submissive to their husbands. Just as
we now reject slavery, even though the New Testament condones it,
so we may now consider wifely submission to be a cultural construct that no longer adequately conveys Gods good news. No wife
should fear her husband (or vice-versa); no interpreter of this text
should suggest that a wife who speaks her mind deserves to be
abused or that it is her Christian duty to submit to her husbands
whims. To be fair, 1 Peter does not say that wives should suffer in
silence and does not speak of their having to endure harsh treatment patiently; perhaps he implies mistreatment in v. 6, but his
statements are more oblique. All the same, the texts have been
usedmisusedto condone abuse, and Christian interpreters
should, whenever 1 Peter 3:1-7 comes up, offer a clear condemnation of violence done to women, especially when it is done by their
husbands.
One interpretive strategy is to consider texts such as these as
warningslook how patriarchy, when unchallenged, puts women
in a precarious position. The Christian wife of an unbeliever must
be advised to keep her faith mostly to herself in order to avoid
marital conflict, and the Christian man of the house must be urged
to live considerately, not only with his wife, but also with all the
other women under his authority as paterfamilias. These texts,
indeed, should warn us about how easy it is to put a Christian
veneer over the attitudes of the dominant culture without
addressing the underlying inequities in the system. However, notice
that 1 Peter is asking the believing husbandthe only heads of
household over whom he might have influenceto change.
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Accustomed to great authority over a wife and the entire household, [the Christian paterfamilias] now had to reinterpret all his
relationships, and he had to do so without a model or precedent or
even encouragement in society. No doubt he had support within
the church, but even there he lacked the guidance of prior generations of Christian men.67 It was not an easy thing 1 Peter was
asking from his readers.
Another strategy is to treat the advice as reversible, or at least to
ask whether it could be. If gold and fine clothing are unimportant
for women, are not they also immaterial for men? Shouldnt men
also be more concerned with developing a gentle, quiet spirit than
with impressing people through their appearance? And, since
1 Peter 2:13 urges all Christians to be properly submissive to every
human, couldnt one argue for mutual submission in marriage
the idea that each spouse must learn when and how to give way to
the other? First Peters use of Sarah and Abraham may even give the
interpreter license to go that way, since God tells Abraham to obey
Sarah (Gen 21:12) and since Abraham, who twice put Sarahs
virtue in danger in order to protect himself, at times seemed the
weaker vessel.
Things still need to change. Women still make less than men for
comparable work; domestic violence still claims the health or lives
of too many women (some of them in our congregations); single
women and their children are disproportionately poorer than men.
In churches, where women from the beginning of Christianity have
been the majority of the members, there are still far fewer women
in senior leadership roles. Consider using 1 Peter 3:1-7, then, as the
springboard for discussing where change should and can occur in
your community, and how your congregation might lead in that
change.
The injunctions in 3:8-12 and in 3:13-17 invite us to consider,
once again, our responses to mistreatment. First Peters principles
are simple, but hard to live out:
If, or when, you suffer at the hands of someone else, do not retaliate, but bless.
Do not be afraid of your adversaries, but be ready to explain your
behavior to anyone willing to listen.
Keep your conscience clear, so that any accusations of misconduct
will be lies, and so that you may, by good conduct, shame your
opponents.
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G. W. Offley, born a slave in Maryland around 1808, and later a

Methodist minister, wrote about these things in his memoirs:
Perhaps some person will ask why did I teach the art of wrestling,
boxing and fighting, when desirous to learn to read the Bible? I
answer because no one is so contemptible as a coward. With us a
coward is looked upon as the most degraded wretch on earth, and is
only worthy to be a slave. My brothers master, Governor R. Right, of
Maryland, taught his children never to take an insult from one of
their equalsthat is, from the rich and educated. Their domestic
slaves were taught not to take an insult from another rich mans
domestic slave under any consideration. By this, you perceive, I was
trying to be respectable by doing like the rich. Those who read the
lives of our great statesmen, know they were duelists. Then I thought
he who could control his antagonist by the art of his physical power
was a great man. But I thank the Lord, since the 21st of Feb., 1836,
I have been enabled to see things in a different light, and believe the
man is greater who can overcome his foes by his Christlike
example.68
Offley gives the remarkable example of a slave named Praying

Jacob who always prayed at three set times of day. His master
forbade the practice and threatened to shoot him for disobeying
him; Praying Jacob would finish his prayer and then tell his master
to shoot him and welcomeyour loss will be my gain.69 Offley
then says that no unjust treatment, even if it be lawful, has the
power to degrade someone in the sight of God. Therefore we may
be oppressed by man, but never morally degraded, only as we are
made willing subjects to do sinful acts against what we know or
have the power to know is wrong in the sight of God and man.70
Ancient believers differed over the meaning of Christs preaching
to the spirits, and modern believers likewise. If it is correct to see
1 Peter 3:19-22 as Christs announcement of his resurrection and
ascension to the disobedient angels (see comments above), then
1 Peter must have intended this as encouragement for his readers.
Life is hard sometimes, and you may have to suffer, just as Jesus
did. But God raised him from the dead, so take heart. All this
makes sense, except when you stop to wonder what the proclamation to the angels adds to the value of the resurrection. That is,
Christs resurrection, all by itself, is the promise to believers that if
you hold firm during hard times, your reward will follow. Does
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Christ announcing victory to the imprisoned angels make that

message more comforting? If, however, we may think of Christ
preaching to these imprisoned evil powers with the chance that
they might be converted, then the hope 1 Peter is offering has a
broader scope. Not only does Christs experience give you hope for
your own salvation, but also for the eventual salvation of the
cosmos. All powers are subject to Christ, even if it does not appear
to be the case now.
Notes
1. George Eliot, Middlemarch (1872; repr., New York: Barnes & Noble, 2003) 2.
2. Plutarch, Conj. praec. 19.
3. Josephus, Ant. 18.6680.
Grand Rapids MI: Baker Academic, 2005) 204, thinks that the advice implies that some
of the audience did have enough wealth to make this instruction meaningful; so also
Paul J. Achtemeier, 1 Peter (Hermeneia; Minneapolis: Fortress, 1996) 212; others, like
Leonhard Goppelt, A Commentary on 1 Peter (ed. Ferdinand Hahn; trans. John E. Alsup;
Grand Rapids MI: Eerdmans, 1993) 221, think it to be traditional advice that had no necessary connection to the lives of the recipients.
5. Naphtali Lewis and Meyer Reinhold, Roman Civilization (New York: Harper &
Row, 1966) 2:243, citing a passage from Tacitus, Ann. 3.52.154.5.
6. Jobes, 1 Peter, 205206; Achtemeier, 1 Peter, 215; Reinhard Feldmeier, The
First Letter of Peter (trans. Peter H. Davids; Waco TX: Baylor University Press, 2008)
182. For example, And Sarah said with tears, My lord Abraham, what are you crying
about? Tell me, my lord (T. Ab. 5:12).
7. M. Eugene Boring, 1 Peter (ANTC; Nashville: Abingdon, 1999) 126.
8. Jobes, 1 Peter, 206; so also the NRSV (as long as you do what is good) and
the NEB (if you do good).
9. John H. Elliott, 1 Peter (AB; New York: Doubleday, 2000) 573; Goppelt,
Commentary, 22425.
10. Achtemeier, 1 Peter, 216, suggests this as one possibility; David Horrell, The
Epistles of Peter and Jude (Peterborough UK: Epworth, 1998) 59, interprets the verse
this way.
11. Achtemeier, 1 Peter, 216, prefers this; so Joel B. Green, 1 Peter (Two Horizons
Commentary; Grand Rapids MI: Eerdmans, 2007) 90.
12. Elliott, 1 Peter, 574; Goppelt, Commentary, 225.
13. Goppelt, Commentary, 225; Boring, 1 Peter, 126; Jobes, 1 Peter, 206.
14. Achtemeier, 1 Peter, 217, and Jobes, 1 Peter, 207, connect it to the imperatives respect in 2:17. Most others treat it as an imperatival participle.
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15. So Elliott, 1 Peter, 575; Boring, 1 Peter, 12627; Goppelt, Commentary,
22628.
16. So Jobes, 1 Peter, 207; Achtemeier, 1 Peter, 217; Green, 1 Peter, 99100.
18. Jobes, 1 Peter, 208, notes that one may translate the phrase as even a
coheir instead of as also a coheir.
19. Aristotle, Politics 1254b.
20. Galen, On the Usefulness of the Parts of the Body 14.6-7.
21. Xenophon, Economicus 7.17-24.
22. V. S. Naipaul, A Way in the World (New York: Knopf, 1994) 21.
25. Inherit means God will grant the blessing in the future, at the Judgment. So
Elliott, 1 Peter, 610; Achtemeier, 1 Peter, 22425.
26. Celsus, On the True Doctrine 4; trans. R Joseph Hoffmann (New York: Oxford
University Press, 1987).
27. So Achtemeier, 1 Peter, 226; Jobes, 1 Peter, 22324.
29. Goppelt, Commentary, 24041.
30. Achtemeier, 1 Peter, 230; Elliott, 1 Peter, 620; Green, 1 Peter, 11114.
31. Jobes, 1 Peter, 227.
32. Achtemeier, 1 Peter, 230; Elliott, 1 Peter, 62122; H. W. Smyth, Greek
Grammar (Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press, 1984) 52627.
33. Jobes, 1 Peter, 22728.
34. Achtemeier, 1 Peter, 23031; Elliott, 1 Peter, 622; Boring, 1 Peter, 131.
35. Literally, Do not be terrified by the fear of it [namely, this people]. In Greek,
this is a cognate accusative, where the same root is used in the noun and its object, for
the sake of intensity (Jobes, 1 Peter, 229).
36. Green, 1 Peter, 11516.
37. Achtemeier, 1 Peter, 233, explains it this way, although he does not think that
1 Peter primarily has in mind Christians having to defend themselves in court; so also
BAGD, 117, and Goppelt, Commentary, 24344.
40. Elliott, 1 Peter, 632, argues that the shaming in 3:16 is divine shaming and
thus is primarily about Judgment Day events.
42. So Elliott, 1 Peter, 63435; Achtemeier, 1 Peter, 23738.
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1 Peter 3
46. While some early manuscripts of this verse read peri hamartin epathen, he
suffered for sins, there are several other variations: some substituting hyper (on
behalf of) for peri (for in the sense of concerning); others adding your or our
after sins; others substituting died for suffered; and others that combine one or
more of those elements. I agree with the editors of the NRSV, the editors of the NestleAland text, and most commentators that suffered concerning sin is the reading that
best explains the others. One can more easily imagine scribes changing suffered to
died, adding our or your, and even changing the preposition under the influence of
early creeds and other New Testament texts.
47. The majority and oldest reading is you, but some manuscripts have us.
You fits the context better, and us was probably either an accidental change or one
influenced by the creeds.
48. Elliott, 1 Peter, 686; Green, 1 Peter, 133.
49. Green, 1 Peter, 118, 13536, argues for in the flesh (as a human) and by the
Spirit.
51. Achtemeier, 1 Peter, 25556; Elliott, 1 Peter, 64751; Jobes, 1 Peter, 24245.
Goppelt, Commentary, 25860, argues for the spirits in prison being the souls of those
who perished in the flood; so also Feldmeier, First Letter, 202205. This is an attractive
option, going back to Clement of Alexandria and Origen, but (a) there are no ancient
texts supporting the idea that those who died in the flood were kept in a special place
in Hades, and (b) one would expect the word for these dead to have been souls
(psychoi) rather than spirits (pneumatoi).
52. William Joseph Dalton, Christs Proclamation to the Spirits (Rome: Pontifical
Biblical Institute, 1965) 16; Bo Reicke, The Disobedient Spirits and Christian Baptism:
A Study of 1 Pet. 3:19 and Its Context (Kobenhaven: E. Munksgaard, 1946) 14.
53. Dalton, Christs Proclamation, 200; Achtemeier, 1 Peter, 16061; Boring,
1 Peter, 139.
54. Green, 1 Peter, 133. So also Ernest Best, 1 Peter (Grand Rapids MI: Eerdmans,
1971) 14445.
55. Elliott, 1 Peter, 66364; Achtemeier, 1 Peter, 263.
56. Goppelt, Commentary, 266; Achtemeier, 1 Peter, 267. Other ancient writers
use type/antitype in other wayse.g., where the antitype is a somewhat distorted
copy of the original type.
58. Elliott, 1 Peter, 67779; Goppelt, Commentary, 268.
59. Jobes, 1 Peter, 254; Goppelt, Commentary, 268, also suggests this.
60. This is disputed by Achtemeier, 1 Peter, 272, but most agree that it can mean
response or request.
61. This is how 2 Clem. 16:4 appears to understand the verse: Prayer is better
than fasting, but almsgiving is better than both. Love covers a multitude of sins [1 Pet
4:8], but a prayer [proseuch] from a good conscience saves from death.
62. NRSV; Goppelt, Commentary, 247, 26970.
63. Jobes, 1 Peter, 25156; Achtemeier, 1 Peter, 26972; Elliott, 1 Peter, 67782;
Horrell, Epistles, 73.
185
186
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1 Peter 3
64. Best, 1 Peter, 148.
66. E. M. Forster, A Room with a View (New York: Penguin, 1978) 191.
67. Fred B. Craddock, First and Second Peter and Jude (Louisville KY:
Westminster/John Knox, 1995) 5354.
68. G. W. Offley, from his A Narrative of the Life and Labors of the Rev. G. W.
Offley, in Roger Lundin and Mark A. Noll, eds., Voices from the Heart (Grand Rapids MI:
Eerdmans, 1987) 167.
69. Ibid., 166.
70. Ibid., 167.
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The End of Suffering

1 Peter 4
COMMENTARY
What the Neighbors Think, 4:1-11
The cult of Christ is a secret society whose members huddle together in

corners for fear of being brought to trial and punishment. Their persistence is the persistence of a group threatened by common danger,
and danger is a more powerful incentive to fraternal feeling than is any
oath. As to their doctrine, it was originally barbarian . . . . They also
practice their rites in secret in order to avoid the sentence of death that
hangs over them. There is nothing new or impressive about their ethical
teaching; indeed, when one compares it to other philosophies, their
simplemindedness becomes apparent.1
Celsus was a philosopher writing against the Christians sometime

around 185. His book only survives in quotations in a work, Contra
Celsum, written by his opponent Origen. Celsus thought Christianity
repugnant, a religion of women, slaves, beggars, and children. He
also considered Christians dangerous: If they persist in refusing to
worship the various gods who preside over the day-to-day activities of
life, then they should not be permitted to live until marriageable age;
they should not be permitted to marry, to have children, nor to do
anything over which a god presides.2 In the opinion of many
ancients, Christian abstinence from ceremonies honoring the gods or
the ancestors put their cities at risk of divine displeasure.
First Peter, writing about a hundred years earlier, asks Christians to
be prepared to face the disapproval of their neighbors, who are surprised when Jesus followers will not participate in normal civic
activities. In 4:1-6, he describes an ideal Christian response to nonChristian hostility; then in 4:7-11, he focuses on how Christians
might be mutually supportive.
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1 Peter 4
Structure
The lectionary reading for Holy Saturday is 4:1-8, but 4:9-11
surely belong together with 4:7-8. In my understanding, the doxology in 4:11 ends a large unit that began at 2:11 with beloved,
and a new unit, also introduced by beloved, begins in 4:12.3
Admittedly, the divisions are not neat and precise. The end of all
things has drawn near (4:7) is on topic with Beloved, dont be
surprised at the conflagration happening among you for your
testing (4:12), and the themes of undeserved suffering and sharing
in Christs experiences come up again. But as long as we consider
these divisions to be mostly for our convenience, and not necessarily markers of how the author of the letter planned its
construction, we will be fine.
Comments on 4:1-11 will be subdivided into two parts, again for
our convenience. Verses 1-6 finish the consideration begun in 3:18
of how Christs resurrection and ascension provide a model for the
readers of how to face suffering. Verses 7-11 then return to the
pattern found in 3:8-9 of giving advice and exhortation supported
by short motive or result clauses rather than by an extended consideration of the person and work of Jesus.
Suffering as a Cure for Sin, 4:1-6
Therefore since Christ suffered in the flesh, you also arm yourself
with the same way of thinking, that the one suffering in the flesh
has ceased from sin, so that [you] live in the flesh for the remaining
time not by human desires but by the will of God. For the past
time is sufficient for doing the will of the Gentiles, who have
walked in self-abandonment, desires, drunkenness, festivals,
drinking parties and unseemly idolatries; they are surprised whenever you dont accompany them into the flood of dissipation; since
they blaspheme, they will render an account to the one prepared to
judge living and dead. Because for this reason the good news was
preached also to the dead, so that although they were judged
according to human standards in the flesh, they may live according
to Gods standards by the Spirit.
In vv. 1-2, the conclusion is relatively clear: the readers are to live
the rest of their lives by Gods will, not by human desires. The
earlier part is not as clear, but knowing where we are headed will
help in its interpretation. Christ suffered in the flesh is another of
1 Peters formulations for the Passion: Christ suffered for you
(2:21), Christ suffered once for sin (3:18), and you share in the
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189
Suffering to Prevent Sin

sufferings of Christ (4:13) are other examples.
The Acts of Peter is usually dated to the
Christ went through what many of you readers
second half of the second century. It
are going through now; since that is so, you
includes a bizarre story about Peters daughter,
ought to keep this attitude firmly in mind.
who lay paralyzed. Peter explained to a questioner
that when his daughter was born, God told him
What attitude is that? The one suffering in
this daughter will harm many souls, if her body
the flesh has ceased from sin. It sounds almost
remains well. When she was ten, she was
proverbial, like an apple a day keeps the doctor
already so beautiful that a man, smitten with her,
awaymaybe lashings lessen lust? Some, in
tried to carry her away; God then paralyzed her so
that her virtue would be protected, and the
fact, have suggested that the point is that sufabductor brought her back to Peter. We carried
fering purifies one of the desire for sin; a
her away, praising the Lord that he had kept his
toothache or a flogging really will take your
servant from defilement and violation.
mind off adultery.4 [Suffering to Prevent Sin] Some
Acts Pet., in J. K. Elliott, The Apocryphal New Testament (Oxford:
Clarendon, 1993) 397.
suggest further that this is close to Pauls dying
with Christ image, of having been delivered
from Sin, the cosmic force entrapping the world.5 The first option,
however, does not account for because Christ suffered; 1 Peter
understood Jesus to have suffered despite having no sin (2:22), so
his mindset going up to Calvary would not have been at least it
will keep my mind off gluttony. The second option, while possible
given 2:24 (having died to sins we may live to righteousness), also
does not account for Christ suffered rather than Christ died.
Neither option quite fits the overall context, where Christ suffered
for sins (3:18) was not about suffering for his own sins, but for
others. A third option, then, is to understand it to mean that suffering for the sake of righteousness is the consequence of ones
decision to follow Jesus: the world behind me, the cross before
me. The readers are about to be exhorted to continue to stay clear
of the excesses of unbelievers (4:3-4); 4:1, then, means that just as
Christ, following Gods will, suffered unjustly but was then exalted
(3:18-22), so the readers should make up their minds to abandon
their former ways of life, suffering whatever consequences come
from that decision, and look forward to their ultimate salvation.6
In a nutshell, if you suffer because of the wickedness of others,
you are following in Christs steps, and you are demonstrating that
you are done with sin, or at least the kind of sin that characterizes
the lives of unbelievers. The result of that resolution is stated in
v. 2: so that [you] live in the flesh for the remaining time not by
human desires but by the will of God. [Enduring Pain]
Youve been in there long enough! yells the parent to the
teenager holed up in the bathroom. Verse 3 is close to that, but
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1 Peter 4
acknowledges that the readers have

already stepped away from their past
life: For the past time is sufficient for
doing the will of the Gentiles. The
time you spent living like that is
enoughmore than enough, even.7
Time now for moving on to other
things. But before moving along,
1 Peter spends a couple of verses
describing and criticizing Gentile
life. The vice list in 4:3 is short, especially compared to others in the New
Testament and early Christian literature, and appears to be focused on
sins or temptations associated with
parties, festivals, and other celebratory moments. [A Selection of Early
Christian Vice Lists] By Gentile, 1 Peter
means non-Christian (and probably
non-Jewish as well, although that is
more debatable). All these same vices
were condemned by Greek and
Gil Adamson, The Outlander (New York: HarperCollins, 2008) 22223.
Roman ethical writers, so perhaps the
author would concede that not every
Gentile thought these sorts of things acceptable;8 yet they are
common Jewish characterizations of non-Jewish behavior, so
perhaps 1 Peter does mean that these are broadly descriptive of life
in the empire in his day.9
Enduring Pain
I shall show you the work of a man . . . he unbuttoned
his shirt, and to her dismay, removed it, who called
himself a teacher. A teacher to me and other boys. At this, he
unbuttoned his long johns and stood naked to the waist. The
widow wanted to avert her gaze from the sight of a man half
naked in church, but what she saw stunned her. He was a
normal man, normally built, with strong arms and torso. But
across his chest were many diagonal marks, raised white scars,
and across his shoulders lay dozens moredeep, indelible signs
of some weapon, a whip or a cane. He turned to display his
back. More marks, intersecting and parallel, one over another,
some deep, some light, like the surface of a butchers chopping
block . . . . The widow had a vision of a boy not even trying to
evade the bite of the whip, and refusing to flinch.
We resolve to endure the burdens of the world, the
Reverend said into the silence. What more can we do? We
cannot know from which hand will come comfort, from which
hand punishment. How much in your life has been a surprise to
you? And you? We cannot save ourselves from injury, because it
will surely come. Life itself is injury, the way bread is made of
flour. We can only strive, with a merry heart, to do the right
thing. Effort is your salvation. Of course, there is no effort
without error and shortcoming. But give yourself over to resolve.
To courage! Be a man! Which of you wishes to be among those
timid and cold souls who have known neither victory nor
defeat?
Self-abandonment (aselgeia) translates a word that means

conduct that violates all bounds of what is socially acceptable.10
In Romans 13:13 and in 2 Corinthians 12:21 it appears to mean
sexual excess, and coming before epithymia here, it could mean
the same.11
Desires (epithymia), a word that 1 Peter has used before, must
in this context mean evil desires or lusts or something of the
sort.12 [Stoic Advice on the Desires]
Drunkenness (oinophlygia) is condemned by everyone,
including Stoics (much undiluted wine is an enemy of properly
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A Selection of Early Christian Vice Lists
Romans 1:28-31: And since they did not see fit
to acknowledge God, God gave them up to a
debased mind and to things that should not be done.
They were filled with every kind of wickedness, evil, covetousness, malice. Full of envy, murder, strife, deceit,
craftiness, they are gossips, slanderers, God-haters,
insolent, haughty, boastful, inventors of evil, rebellious
toward parents, foolish, faithless, heartless, ruthless.
Mark 7:20-23: And he said, It is what comes out of a
person that defiles. For it is from within, from the human
heart, that evil intentions come: fornication, theft,
murder, adultery, avarice, wickedness, deceit, licentiousness, envy, slander, pride, folly. All these evil things
come from within, and they defile a person.
1 Corinthians 5:11: But now I am writing to you not to
associate with anyone who bears the name of brother or
sister who is sexually immoral or greedy, or is an idolater, reviler, drunkard, or robber. Do not even eat with
such a one.
1 Corinthians 6:9-10: Do you not know that wrongdoers
will not inherit the kingdom of God? Do not be deceived!
Fornicators, idolaters, adulterers, male prostitutes,
sodomites, thieves, the greedy, drunkards, revilers,
robbersnone of these will inherit the kingdom of God.
191
1 Timothy 6:3-5: Whoever teaches otherwise and does

not agree with the sound words of our Lord Jesus Christ
and the teaching that is in accordance with godliness, is
conceited, understanding nothing, and has a morbid
craving for controversy and for disputes about words.
From these come envy, dissension, slander, base suspicions, and wrangling among those who are depraved in
mind and bereft of the truth, imagining that godliness is
a means of gain.
Didache 5:1-2: And the way of death is this: First of
all it is evil and full of curse: murders, adulteries, lusts,
fornications, thefts, idolatries, magic arts, witchcrafts,
rapines, false witnessings, hypocrisies, doubleheartedness, deceit, haughtiness, depravity, self-will,
greediness, filthy talking, jealousy, over-confidence,
loftiness, boastfulness . . . .
Barnabas 20:1: But the way of darkness is crooked, and
full of cursing; for it is the way of eternal death with punishment, in which way are the things that destroy the
soul, viz., idolatry, over-confidence, the arrogance of
power, hypocrisy, double-heartedness, adultery, murder,
rapine, haughtiness, transgression, deceit, malice, selfsufficiency, poisoning, magic, avarice, want of the fear
of God.
performing ones duties)13 and Jews (Do not be drunk with wine,
because wine perverts the mind from the truth, T. Jud. 14).
Festivals (kmos) translates a word that can mean a party or
celebration or festival; in the New Testament, it seems always to
mean something negative. Festivals in antiquity would have
honored some aspect of the divine, which would
have offended the Jewish and Christian devotion Stoic Advice on the Desires
Do not flee from what is necessary.
to God alone, in addition to whatever sorts of
For the one who flees from what is
carousing went on. First Peter may have meant inevitable must be unhappy, and the one who
these public events but might also have meant desires what is impossible must fail to obtain it
private parties, also likely to include behavior of . . . . If, therefore, a wise man lives by these
principles, he is free from pain and confusion, a
which the writer would not have approved.
happy man. But if he is ignorant of these princi Drinking parties (potos): while wine (mixed ples, he will never cease from being dependent
with water) would have been served at nearly on vain hopes and from being constrained by
every meal in antiquity, there were partiesso we desires.
Letter 35, To Aper, in Abraham J.
are toldwhere getting drunk seemed to be the (Pseudo-)Crates,
Malherbe, The Cynic Epistles (SBL Sources for Biblical Study
object. There was even an ancient version of beer 12; Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1977) 89.
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1 Peter 4
Guests at a Wine Party
(Credit: Barclay Burns)
pong, where guests on dining couches along the walls slung the last
couple of drops of wine, including any dregs, at a wide-mouthed
cup standing in the middle of the room.
Unseemly idolatries (athemitos eidlolatria): the first word
means forbidden or disgusting,14 while the second means the
service or worship of idols. This, of course, appears frequently in
Jewish criticisms of Greek and Roman practice, but Romans and
Greeks thought of the images of their gods in quite a different way.
We should also be reminded that paying honor to the gods went
along with festivals at which one might overindulge in drinking,
so that these might all be linked behaviors in the mind of 1 Peter.15
If self-abandonment and desires are both mostly about sexual
misconduct, and drunkenness, festivals, and drinking parties
about overdrinking, then 1 Peter is focused in his criticisms of
Gentile society. It is important to understand that what the
author may be objecting to was probably seen by the wider society
as normal behaviorperhaps a little oafish, but nothing completely out of bounds. Festivals, after all, included ancient events
to honor ones ancestors, the gods who protected ones city, and the
anniversary of the emperors accession. Drinking parties might be
held from time to time by the trade guild or burial society to which
one belonged. Christians like 1 Peter thought that sex with slaves
and prostitutes was immoral; most Greeks and Romans considered
slaves and prostitutes as living property and thought that sex with
them carried no moral baggage. We get the impression from
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193
Temptations of a Banquet
Banqueting scene with devils. 13001320. One of a set illustrating the temptations, from poems by Matfre Ermengau. British Library, London, Great Britain.
(Credit: British Library/HIP/Art Resource, NY)
In this painting, the banqueters are being enticed into sin by demons; 1 Peter would probably agree with the idea that
banquets were dangerous situations for believers.
ancient literature that guests at some dinner parties could sample

the slaves and entertainers as they would the food and drink served.
And of course, everywhere one went, at every formal occasion and
at many informal meals, there would be libations for the gods.
Some invitations to parties were issued in the
You Wont Accompany Them
name of gods; others were held in the banquet
Minucius Felixs non-Christian dialogue
rooms of temples, with busts or statues of the
partner mocks Christians for choosing an
uncertain reward after death over participation in
patron deity prominently displayed.
proper pleasures now:
In other words, 1 Peter may be describing
what most Greek and Roman readers were
In the meantime, troubled and worried, you refrain
accustomed to do regularlynot just the
from proper pleasures: you do not frequent the
theatres; you do not take part in the processions;
Animal House types, but normal everyday citithe public banquets are held without you; you
zens. Youve been there, done that, says 1 Peter,
shun the sacred games, the viands set apart for
the altars and the drinks poured in libation upon
and there is no need to go back to what you
them. Thus, you are afraid of the very gods you
used to do. But your family and neighbors are
deny. You do not crown your heads with flowers
surprised whenever you dont accompany them
and you begrudge your bodies perfume; you keep
the ointments for the corpses and you even hold
into the flood of dissipation. [You Wont Accompany
back the garlands from the tombsyou quaking
Them] The flood of dissipation is a colorful
palefaces, deserving pity . . . . Thus, in your
summary of all the earlier objections.
wretched folly, you will neither rise for another life
nor live in this one.
Dissipation literally means non-saving
stuff things that do not do anybody any
Minucius Felix, Octavius 12.4-6.
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1 Peter 4
They Are Surprised

The verb can be translated they think it
strange or they are perplexed. The
conduct of Christians causes the nonbelievers to
wonder at the change in their lives. Tertullian
speaks of this:
good,16 and flood is probably meant to

remind the readers of the deluge just discussed
at the end of chapter 3. Baptism, the floods
antitype, saves (3:21), but this flood destroys,
setting people up for Judgment Day.17
The final word in v. 4 is a participle,
Others censure those whom they knew in the
past, before they acquired this name, as vagrant,
blasphmountes. It is adverbial, either modifying
good-for-nothing scoundrels, and they censure
they are surprised at the beginning of v. 4 or
them in the very act of praising them. In the blindthey will render at the beginning of v. 5. [They
ness of their hatred they stumble into favorable
criticism. That woman! How dissolute and frivoAre Surprised] If 1 Peter meant the former, then it
lous she was! And that young man, how much
could be translated as a sort of interjection:
more prodigal and debauched he used to be! They
they are surprised whenever you dont accomhave become Christians. Thus, the name which
was responsible for their reformation is set down
pany them into the flood of dissipation, the
as a charge against them.
blasphemers! Or it could come earlier in the
Some, even, at the expense of their own
sentence, with less punch, but with the same
advantage, bargain with their hatred, satisfied to
suffer a personal loss, provided that their home be
grammatical function: they are surprised, blasfreed.
phemers as they are, whenever you dont
accompany them into the flood of dissipaTertullian, Apol. 3.3-4.
tion.18 If 1 Peter meant it to go with v. 5, it is
probably causal: since they blaspheme, they will render an account
. . . .19 I am guessing it goes with v. 5, and also guessing that it
should be translated blaspheme, as an offense against God, rather
than slander, as an offense against the readers. The word can have
either sense, but if it is correct to take it as the reason for their condemnation on Judgment Day, blasphemy seems more appropriate.
Again, what 1 Peter labels blasphemy would probably have
seemed completely innocuous to most of his readers. Everyone
handled coins with the emperors picture on them, with inscriptions denoting him as divine and/or son of the divine X. These
inscriptions were ubiquitous: on statues, on public monuments,
even on mileposts on the highways: Tiberius Caesar Augustus, son
of the deified Augustus, grandson of the deified Julius, pontifex
maximus, consul five times . . . 64 [miles].20 Poets sometimes flattered the reigning emperor by speaking of him as the physical
presence of God on earth and the savior of the worlds peoples. In
Domitians time (8196), Statius called him proximus ille deus, or
the God here present,21 and hope of mankind,22 and Martial23
called him savior. Everyone had likely heard the emperor praised
in these terms on public occasions honoring him, for many cities of
Asia Minor made a holiday of the date of the emperors accession.
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1 Peter 4
On this day, according to Tacitus and

Pliny, oaths of loyalty to the emperor
were dutifully and publicly administered by the empires local
representatives to the entire population. First Peters readers, even if they
never personally swore to be loyal to
Caesar until death, would nevertheless have heard others make these
sorts of pledges:
I solemnly swear that I will be an
enemy to those who I learn are
enemies to Gaius Caesar Germanicus
. . . . I will hold neither myself nor my
children dearer than his welfare . . . . If
I knowingly swear or shall swear falsely,
then may Jupiter Best and Greatest and
the deified Augustus and all the other
immortal gods cause me and my children to be deprived of fatherland,
safety, and all good fortune.24
195
Silver Denarius
Octavian (Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus, later Emperor Augustus, 63 BCAD 14) in
armor. Reverse of a silver denarius. 3229 BC. Muenzkabinett, Staatliche Museen,
Berlin, Germany. (Credit: Bildarchiv Preussischer Kulturbesitz/Art Resource, NY)
This denarius had Augustuss face on the front. The rear is pictured, showing the emperor as a military conqueror, with the
inscription Divine Caesar.
For 1 Peter, this is all blasphemy, and

those who do these sorts of things will have to account for their
behavior.
So far, so good. Christ suffered for righteousness sake, and then
was raised to glory. Wouldnt you prefer that arrangement than the
oppositeto join in with the Gentiles now, perhaps sparing yourselves any immediate consequence, but ensuring for yourselves an
unpleasant experience on Judgment Day? Better to suffer [now]
for doing goodif God should wish it sothan to suffer [then]
for doing evil (3:17).
But then 1 Peter turns once again to Christsat least, I think it
is Christspreaching after his death: Because for this reason the
good news was preached also to the dead, so that although they
were judged according to human standards in the flesh, they may
live by Gods standards in the spirit. There are so many problematic issues in this verse that one scarcely knows where to start.
Almost every word is debated, so we might as well begin at for this
reason. That eis touto on the front of the verse means for this
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reason is not under question

(1 Peter has the same construction at 2:21), but what is the
antecedent for this? The last
phrase of v. 5 speaks of God
(or Christ1 Peter does not
specify25) acting as judge of
those who put pressure on the
letter recipients to join them in
their Gentile lifestyle. The
connection seems to be that
God, who is prepared to judge
the living and the dead at the
Great Assize, gave the dead
whoever they turn out to
Cristoforo De Predis (14401486). Christ Liberating Adam and Eve and All of the
bean opportunity to hear and
Righteous from Limbo. Biblioteca Reale, Turin, Italy. (Credit: Alinari/Art Resource, NY)
to respond to the gospel. If this
is correct, for this reason
In this rendering from the 15th century, Christ leads Adam and Eve,
Abel, kings David and Solomon, John the Baptist, and others to
means because God will judge
Paradise.
the living and the dead.
Also to the dead could be
translated even to the dead, if we conclude that the author is
trying to stress the far reach of Gods powers of judgment and salvation. The verb euangelisth is passivethe good news/gospel was
proclaimedand normally one would suspect a divine passive,
especially since God seems to be involved in the previous verse. But
euangeliz, preach the gospel/good news, does not normally have
God as subject; instead, Jesus or an angel or one of Jesus followers
tells the good news about Gods kingdom. If the gospel was proclaimed does not likely mean God proclaimed the good news,
then the passive was probably used because the subject was general
rather than specific. The passive voice does not exclude Christ
preaching the gospel to the dead, but the passive probably means
that if Christ did it, he was not the only one; otherwise, one would
expect an active verb with Christ as the specified subject.
The big point of debate, of course, is the identification of the
dead. Although some have argued that dead means spiritually
dead26the gospel was preached to those Gentiles up in 4:3-5
who are so soused that they will not repentthat would involve a
rather sudden change of meaning from really dead in 4:5 to
Christ Liberating Saints from Hell
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1 Peter 4
metaphorically dead in 4:6.27 If the dead means people who

have died, then 1 Peter might mean one of the following:
Recently dead believerssome commentators suggest that
1 Peters point is similar to the one Paul makes in 1 Thessalonians
4:13-18. First Peters readers knew Christians who now have died;
the gospel was given to them so that they would have the chance to
live in the realm of the Spirit by Gods standards (or by Gods grace
or by Gods decree).28 Perhaps unbelievers have been ridiculing the
Christian hope as part of their call for believers to join them in the
kinds of activities noted in 4:2-4. On this reading, 4:6 is meant to
comfort the readers.
Recently dead unbelieverssome commentators also imagine
that 4:6 offered comfort, but for a different reason. Those who
press you to join them in profligate behavior will have to give an
accounteven those who are dead now. After all, they had a
chance to respond to the gospel but chose not to do so.29 There is
no reason why this option could not be combined with the one
above1 Peter could have meant dead to signify recently dead,
and could have included unbelievers, who will give an account, and
believers, who will live in the spirit.
All the deadwhen 1 Peter writes that God (or Christ) will
judge the living and the dead, he means all the dead. That, then, is
the most natural reading of to the dead in v. 6. But the earliest
evidence that any early Christian took it that way is in Clement of
Alexandrias Stromata. He argues that justice demands that in order
for the wicked to be condemned for failing to respond to the
gospel, they must hear it first, and so argues that Christ and the
apostles preached to all those who had died before the birth of
Christ. [Clement of Alexandria on Preaching to the Dead]
The righteous deadthis ancient interpretation asserts that Jesus
preached to those who had long been dead but who had served the
true God: Adam, Noah, and other Old Testament saints. St.
Augustine in his Letter to Evodius notes that this is the opinion
of all the orthodox, so he guesses he will believe it also, although he
has trouble knowing what to do with Abrahams bosomif
Abraham is in Gods presence, why are the other prophets and
patriarchs still in Hades? [Augustine on Preaching to the Dead] For
Tertullian, this was not a problem: Abraham was in Hades,
awaiting the resurrection, and Christ preached to him and the
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Clement of Alexandria on Preaching to the Dead

Wherefore the Lord preached the Gospel to those in Hades.
Accordingly the Scripture says, Hades says to Destruction,
We have not seen his form, but we have heard his voice.[Job
28:22?] It is not plainly the place, which, the words above say,
heard the voice, but those who have been put in Hades, and have
abandoned themselves to destruction, as persons who have thrown
themselves voluntarily from a ship into the sea. They, then, are
those that hear the divine power and voice. For who in his senses
can suppose the souls of the righteous and those of sinners in the
same condemnation, charging Providence with injustice?
But how? Do not [the Scriptures] show that the Lord preached
the Gospel to those that perished in the flood, or rather that had
been chained, and to those kept in ward and guard? And it has
been shown also, in the second book of the Stromata, that the
apostles, following the Lord, preached the gospel in Hades.
[Clement then discusses whether Christ preached both to Jews
and Gentiles in Hades or to Jews only, leaving the Gentiles to the
apostles. He then argues that this preaching was necessary for the
judgment to be just.]
Did not the same dispensation obtain in Hades, so that even
there, all the souls, on hearing the proclamation, might either exhibit
repentance, or confess that their punishment was just, because
they believed not? And it were the exercise of no ordinary arbitrariness, for those who had departed before the advent of the Lord (not
having the Gospel preached to them, and having afforded no ground
from themselves in consequence of believing or not) to obtain either
salvation or punishment. . . . If, then, he preached the gospel to
those in the flesh that they might not be condemned unjustly, how
is it conceivable that he did not for the same cause preach the
gospel to those who had departed this life before his advent?
Clement of Alexandria, Strom. 6.6.
other patriarchs and prophets

not to convert them, but to inform
them about his successful mission
(On the Soul, 55).
The problem with the first,

second, and fourth options is
exegetical: dead in 4:5 seems to
mean all the deadthe living and
the dead are meant to be mutually exclusive subsets of the
universal set of all personsand so
the reader has no preparation for
dead in 4:6 meaning something
else. The problems with option 3
are theological: Why should the
dead get another opportunity to
respond to the gospel? And how
would that encourage the readers
of 1 Peter to stand firm in the face
of suffering? Augustine laid out the
objections: If the second chance
existed once, why then and not
always? And if it always has
existed, then why worry about
evangelism so much?
As Augustine said, the belief that
Christ descended into the realm of the dead between Good Friday
and Easter is very old, and based on Acts 2:31, Forseeing this,
David spoke of Christs resurrection, He was not abandoned into
Hades nor did his flesh know corruption. Five witnesses from
early to mid-second centuryIgnatius, the Odes of Solomon, The
Shepherd of Hermas, the Gospel of Peter, and Justin Martyrtestify
either to the belief that Christ preached to the dead or that Christ
and others preached to the dead.30 [Christs Descent into Hades among Early
Believers] It is not clear, however, that all these texts understand the
descent in the same way. Ignatius appears to think of it as the time
when the prophets and patriarchs were raised to be with Christ in
Gods presencean opinion that Tertullian disputes on the
grounds that if real death and a stay in Hades was good enough for
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Augustine on Preaching to the Dead
It is clearly shown that the Lord died in the flesh
and descended into hell, for it is not possible to
controvert the prophecy which says, Because thou wilt
not leave my soul in hell, and which Peter quotes in the
Acts of the Apostles, so that no one may dare to give it
another meaning . . . . Who then but an unbeliever will
deny that Christ was in hell?
Almost the whole Church agrees that in the case of
the first man, the father of the human race, the Lord did
free him from there, and wherever this tradition came
from, we have to believe that the Church has grounds
for accepting it, even though no express authority of the
canonical Scriptures is quoted for it. . . . Some authorities add that this boon was granted to the saints of old:
Abel, Seth, Noah and his household, Abraham, Isaac,
199
Jacob, and other patriarchs and prophets, that when the

Lord descended into hell they were freed from those
sorrows.
I do not see any way of explaining how Abraham, into
whose bosom the poor and godly Lazarus was carried,
was in those sorrows. . . . Moreover, if there were no
more than two there [in a place of peace, not in hell],
who would venture to say that the patriarchs and
prophets were not there, men to whose goodness and
devotion the Scripture of God bears such resounding
witness?
From St. Augustine, Letter 164 (To Evodius); Letters 131164 (trans.
Sr. Wilfrid Parsons; New York: Fathers of the Church, 1953) 383,
38586.
Jesus, it should be good enough for anybody else. Hermas thinks of

a bigger-scale preaching to the dead, involving apostles and
teachers who not only preached but baptized. Some (like Ignatius)
appear to restrict the message to pre-Christian saints; some (like
Hermas) might make such a restriction, but might mean that any
dead person who heard and repented could be savedthe position
Clement of Alexandria argues. [No Depth to which He Will Not Sink]
Let us then admit that a Christian author writing in the late first
century could have meant any of the four options under discussion,
and that his audience, being unable to ask him follow-up questions, could have understood him to mean any of the four.
The last part of the sentence sets up a contrast between parallel
events: krithsi, judged, corresponds to zsi, live; sarki, in the
flesh, corresponds to pneumati, in the spirit; and kata
anthrpous, according to human standards, corresponds to kata
theon, according to God. This should remind readers of the same
kind of contrast in 3:18: Christ was put to death in/by the flesh,
but made alive in/by the Spirit, where the flesh part has to do
with his crucifixion and the Spirit part with his resurrection by
the Spirit or in the realm of the Spirit. But although live according
to God by the Spirit makes sense as a reference to the evangelized
dead living, by the Spirits activity, in the resurrection, judged
according to human standards is not likely to refer to their death.
In the first place judged is an odd word to use if 1 Peter means
died, and died . . . in the flesh is redundant. So judged must
have its normal sense: the dead had been evaluated according to
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1 Peter 4
human standards while they were alive, but now are being given
the chance to live by the Spirit according to Gods standards. This
contrast works best with the recently dead believers option
abovealthough they were slandered while they were alive, God
Christs Descent into Hades among Early Believers
Ignatius (writing c. 110117), in his letter To the
Magnesians, urges readers not to practice a
Torah-observant form of Christianity; those who do so,
he says, have not truly received grace (Ign. Magn. 8:1).
For the most divine prophets lived according to Jesus
Christ. For this reason they were persecuted . . . . And so
those who lived according to the old ways came to a
new hope, no longer keeping the Sabbath but living
according to the Lords day, on which also our life arose
through him and his death . . . . Through this mystery we
came to believe, and for this reason we endure, that we
may be found disciples of Jesus Christ, our only teacher.
How then are we able to live apart from him? Even the
prophets who were his disciples in the spirit awaited him
as their teacher. And for this reason, the one they righteously expected raised them from the dead when he
arrived. (Ign. Magn. 8:19:2)
Note that 1 Peter also connects Christ to the

prophets through the Spirit (1:10-11); note also that
Ignatius isnt arguing that these dead who heard Christ
were not repenting, but being rewarded for their faith
with resurrection. But, believing that Christ is the door
through which Abraham and Isaac and Jacob and the
prophets and the apostles and the church enter (Ign.
Phil. 9:1), and that Acts 2:31 meant that Jesus went to
the realm of the dead, Ignatius presumed that Christs
mission was to raise these righteous dead to life.
The Shepherd of Hermas (100150) includes a brief
reference to how
apostles and teachers who preached the name of the son
of God, when they had fallen asleep in the power and
faith of the son of God, preached also to those who had
already fallen asleep [that is, the dead apostles and
teachers preached to those who preceded them in
death], and they [the apostles and teachers] gave them
the seal of the preaching [Hermas probably means
baptism]. . . . through these people, then, they [the previously-dead] were made alive and learned the name of the
son of God. (Herm. Sim. 93 [9.16]. 5-7)
The Odes of Solomon (late first to early second

century AD) speak often and figuratively about the
descent of Christ to free those imprisoned: I shattered
the bars of iron . . . and nothing appeared closed to me,
because I was the opening of everything. And I went
toward all my bondsmen in order to loose them (Odes
Sol. 17.10-12). Ode 42 appears to reflect on Christs
descent to Hades:
Sheol saw me and was shattered, and Death ejected me
and many with me. . . . and I made a congregation of
living among his dead, and I spoke with them by living
lips; in order that my word may not fail. And those who
had died ran toward me; and they cried out and said,
Son of God, have pity on us. And deal with us according
to your kindness, and bring us out from the chains of
darkness. And open for us the door by which we may go
forth to you, for we perceive that our death does not
approach you. (Odes Sol. 42:11-17)
The Gospel of Peter (100150), in the dramatic scene

where the risen Jesus is brought out of the tomb with
the cross following him, includes a voice from heaven
asking, Have you preached to those who sleep? And
from the cross there was heard the answer, Yes (Gos.
Pet. 3842).
Justin, in his Dialogue with Trypho, complains that
Jews have removed some passages from the
Septuagint because they predict Jesus. Trypho asks him
to give some examples. Justin cites a verse from
Jeremiah that he claims to be a prediction of Jesus, and
then says, Similarly have they removed the following
words from the writings of the same Jeremias: The
Lord God, the Holy One of Israel, remembered his dead
that slept in their graves, and he descended to preach to
them his salvation (Justin, Dial. 72). Irenaeus cites the
same otherwise unknown text (Adv. Haer. 3.20),
attributing it to Isaiah (Reicke, 1617).
Bo Reicke, The Disobedient Spirits and Christian Baptism: A Study of
1 Pet. 3:19 and its Context (Kobenhaven: E. Munksgaard, 1946).
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201
now provides them with the promise of life in the No Depth to which He Will Not Sink
He descended into Hell, the Creed
resurrectionand with the righteous dead
says, and If I make my bed in Sheol,
option, where those like the prophets, who also
thou art there, the Psalmist (139:8). It seems
suffered while alive, are given the chance to experi- there is no depth to which he will not sink.
ence the good news after their deaths.
Maybe not even Old Scratch will be able to
Either option fits the context, and both can be hold out against him forever.
located in early Christianitythe recently dead Frederick Buechner, Wishful Thinking: A Theological ABC
(New York: Harper & Row, 1973) 38.
believers in 1 Thessalonians and the righteous
dead in the texts noted in [Christs Descent into Hades
among Early Believers]. Because there is no other mention anywhere in
1 Peter about the letter recipients worries over loved ones who had
departed, and since 1 Peter does in 1:10-11 connect the prophets
to the Spirit of Christ, I lean toward the righteous dead as the
most likely guess for what 1 Peter meant. But to repeat myself, it
seems likely that his readers could have understood him to mean
any of the four options noted above. [The Descent into Hell Elaborated]
How to Behave in the Time Remaining, 4:7-11
The end of all things has drawn near; be self-controlled and sober
for prayers, above all things having strenuous love for each other,
because love hides a multitude of sins, [being] hospitable towards
each other without grumbling, each one just as he received a gift,
ministering to each other as good stewards of the manifold gift of
God. If someone speaks, as the words of God. If someone ministers, as from the strength which God provides, so that in all things
The Descent into Hell Elaborated
Justin Martyr, who lived in Rome around 150,
speaks of a document called the Acts of Pilate
(Justin, 1 Apol. 1.35, 1.48). The text Justin speaks of was
probably expanded and elaborated into the 5th6thcentury version that exists now. It includes an account of
Christs descent into hell, which many think was originally
a separate story, and may go back to the late second or
early third century.
The account is supposedly given by three men whom
Jesus raised during his descent. We were in Hades with
all who have died since the beginning of the world, they
begin. And at the hour of midnight there rose upon the
darkness there something like the light of the sun, and it
shone and lit us all, and we saw one another. And immediately our father Abraham, together with the patriarchs
and the prophets, was filled with joy, and they said to one
another, This light comes from a great illumination.
John the Baptist then comes to announce Jesus

arrival in Hades, and says to the dead, Therefore I say to
you all that when you see him, all of you worship him. For
now only have you opportunity for repentance because
you worshipped idols in the vain world above and sinned.
At any other time this is impossible.
There is then a worried conversation between Satan
and the personified Hades. When Jesus arrives, the
gates of brass were broken in pieces and the bars of iron
were crushed and all the dead who were bound were
loosed from their chains, and we with them. And the King
of Glory entered as a man, and all the dark places of
Hades were illuminated. Jesus binds Hades and Satan,
and then raises Adam, the patriarchs and the prophets
and martyrs and forefathers, and he took them and sprang
up out of Hades.
Christs Descent into Hell, from Acts of Pilate, in J. K. Elliott, The
Apocryphal New Testament (Oxford: Clarendon, 1993) 18590.
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God may be glorified through Jesus Christ, to whom be glory and

power unto the ages of ages, Amen.
Verse 7 restates Jesus message according to Mark 1:15: The
time has been fulfilled and the kingdom of God has drawn near;
has drawn near is the same word in both verses. Many parts of
the New Testament indicate a belief that has drawn near meant
that the end, the kingdom, would arrive soon:
Mark 13:30: Truly I say to you that this generation will certainly not pass away until all these things come to pass.
John 21:23: So the saying spread among the brethren that [the
Beloved Disciple] would not die [until Jesus returned].
1 Thess 4:15: For this I tell you by the word of the Lord, that
we who are alive, the ones who are left until the Lords return, shall
not precede those who have fallen asleep.
Marks Gospel tries hard to contain the expectation of Jesus near
return without squashing it: the end is not yet; this is only the
beginning; only the one who endures to the end will be saved.
Matthew and Luke, writing fifteen to thirty years after Mark, try to
make even plainer that the end might not be next Tuesday:
Matthew 24:14: This gospel of the kingdom must be preached
in the whole inhabited world as a witness to all nations, and then
the end will come.
Luke 21:24: Jerusalem will be trampled by the Gentiles, until
the times of the Gentiles are fulfilled.
Second Peter urges his readers to interpret Gods delay in sending
Jesus as patience, and reminds them that with the Lord, a day is
like a thousand years (2 Pet 3:8-9). But 1 Peter has none of these
worries. Like John the Revelator, who also wrote near the end of
the first century, 1 Peter anticipates the end coming soon, and
believes it has come near. Unlike the Revelator, 1 Peter has no
interest in apocalyptic narrative or in revealing how Satans power
underlies Romes government. Instead, 1 Peter wants to focus on
what Christians should be up to as the end gets closer. [The End Is
Near]
First: Pray! That should come as no surprise. What might be

slightly unexpected, however, is that 1 Peters imperative is not
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pray! but Be self-controlled and stay sober! The End Is Near

These are the end times. And so we
Having criticized the Gentiles for drinking too
should feel shame and stand in fear of
much just a few verses before (4:3), he may
Gods patience, that it not turn into our judgment.
mean sober literally, or he may mean it more For we should either fear the wrath that is
metaphorically, stay focused, as a parallel to coming or love the gracious gift that is already
be self-controlled. For your prayers reminds hereone or the other, so long as we acquire
us that 1 Peters objection to the drinking and true life by being found in Christ Jesus.
partying was linked to how those celebrations Ign. Eph. 11:1.
honored other gods in unseemly idolatries. In
order to pray whole-heartedly to God, one must approach God
with an undivided heart, an uncompromised loyalty. [Praying to God
with an Undivided Heart]
Praying to God with an Undivided Heart
Second: Love! Back in 2:22, 1 Peter comThe beneficent Father, compassionate in

manded his readers love one another
every way, has pity on those who stand
in
awe
of
him; gently and kindly does he bestow
strenuously; having strenuous love for each
his gracious gifts on those who approach him
other restates the imperative as a further qualiwith a pure resolve. And so, we should not be of
fication of what it means to be self-controlled
two minds . . . . May this Scripture be far
and sober. The author wants the Asian believers
removed from us that says: How miserable are
those who are of two minds, who doubt in their
to absent themselves from much of the ordinary
soul . . . .
religious practices of their former livesthe fes1 Clem. 23:1-3.
tivals, the parties, the celebrations honoring
other gods; that is be self-controlled and sober for your prayers,
since Christianity demands complete commitment to the one true
God. Disconnecting from the religious practices that suffused their
society would leave the readers lonelyunless they simultaneously
strengthened their attachments to other
Love Is the End
Christians. As at 2:22, this love is strenuous
None of these things escapes your notice
because it requires effort. [Love Is the End] To live
if you completely adhere to the faith and
like a resident alien in their own cities and villove that are in Jesus Christ. This is the beginning
lages takes a lot of courage and emotional
and end of life: faith is the beginning, love is the
end. And the two together in unity are God; all
energy. The readers will need to act in ways that
other things that lead to nobility of character
their blood relatives and networks of friends
follow.
interpret as hatred of humanity, and will
Ign., Eph. 14:1.
instead need to act like family toward people
with whom they otherwise might not even associate. [No Logic to Love]
The author offers a reason for practicing this sort of tough love:
agap kalyptei plthos hamartin, love hides a multitude of sins.
First Peter is apparently quoting Proverbs 10:12, but his wording is
not close to the Septuagint: Hate increases (lit., raises) strife, but
love (philia) hides (kalyptei) all who are not quarrelsome (LXX
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Prov 10:12). James 5:20 also has he will hide

(kalypsei) a multitude of sins, and 1 Clement
49:5 has the phrase exactly as 1 Peter has it, so
perhaps (a) one or more is repeating an early
Christian (or Jewish) interpretation or restatement of Proverbs 10:12 that was popular in the
early Christian community;31 and/or (b) one or
more is drawing that form of the proverb from
one of the othersfor instance, maybe
1 Clement drew on 1 Peter.32 As James uses it,
Anne Enright, The Gathering (New York: Black Cat, 2007) 28.
the proverb commends those who work hard to
return backsliders to the straight and narrow; if
you do and are successful, you have saved [your brothers] soul
from death and hidden a multitude of sins. First Clement, writing
to the Corinthian church, is trying to get them to admit that they
sinned by deposing their church leaders. He brings up love both to
say that Gods love for us is so magnificent that we should do
everything required of usincluding repenting of ousting the
eldersand to point out that love between
1 Clements Use of Love Hides a
Christians includes no factions or schisms. [1 Clements
No Logic to Love
And what amazes me as I hit the
motorway is not the fact that everyone
loses someone, but that everyone loves
someone. It seems like such a massive waste of
energyand we all do it, all the people beetling
along between the white lines, merging, converging, overtaking. We each love someone, even
though they will die. And we keep loving them,
even when they are not there to love any more.
And there is no logic or use to any of this, that I
can see.
Multitude of Sins
The one who experiences love in
Christ should do what Christ commanded. Who can explain the bond of Gods
love? . . . Love binds us to God; love hides a
multitude of sins; love bears all things and
endures all things. There is nothing vulgar in
love, nothing haughty. Love has no schism,
love creates no faction, love does all things
in harmony. Everyone chosen by God has
been perfected in love; apart from love
nothing is pleasing to God.
1 Clem. 49:1-5.
Use of Love Hides a Multitude of Sins]
Since he has just written of one Christians love for

another, by love hides it seems unlikely that 1 Peter
would mean that Gods love or Christs love covers
our sinspossible, but less plausible, since the
change in reference would happen without any
preparation. By hide, the author might mean
forgive or suppress or bothstrenuous love
between fellow believers will not only forgive mistakes but will also prevent things like deceit,
hypocrisy, envy, and slander from taking root
between believers. [2 Clements Use of Love Hides a Multitude of Sins]33
Verse 9 begins with a plural adjective, hospitable ones, the
subject of a verb that the reader is to supply. One could supply an
imperativebe hospitableor a participlebeing hospitablewithout changing the intended meaning.34 Like the
strenuous love 1 Peter commends, early Christian hospitality meant
a serious commitment to care for one another. There were traveling
teachers, missionaries, and prophets to host; there were ordinary
believers who may have moved because of persecution or because it
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was simply easier to start over in a new 2 Clements Use of Love Hides a Multitude of Sins
So then, brothers, since we have received no trivial
place after giving up ones ancestral
opportunity to repent, we should turn back to the
faith. For poor believers, and especially
God who called us, while there is still time . . . . But you
for Christian slaves, providing this sort know that the day of judgment is already coming like a
of hospitality would not have been blazing furnace . . . and then the hidden and secret works
effortless, and yet the author wants that people have done will be made visible. Giving to charity,
them to do it without complaint. Jobes therefore, is good as a repentance from sin. Fasting is better
than prayer, but giving to charity is better than both. Love
points out that being hospitable prob- covers a multitude of sins, and a prayer from a good conably also includes providing space for science will rescue a person from death.
worship services, food for the common 2 Clem. 16:1-4.
meal, and wine and bread for the
Eucharist. Again, for the poor who struggled to feed themselves, or
for slaves or for wives of nonbelievers, this may have been hard.
And for any of the original recipients, becoming a host for a housechurch probably marked one as a Christian more decisively than
simply attending services in someone elses home.35 [The Rule of St.
Benedict on Hospitality]
The call for hospitality occurs in many places in the New

Testament: Romans 12:13, Share in the needs of the saints, pursue
hospitality; Hebrews 31:2, Do not neglect hospitality;
Panel from Third-century Christian Sarcophagus
Christian funeral banquet. Relief from an early Christian sarcophagus with strigils and inscription: FOR BAEBIA HERMOPHILE- from Via Tiburtina, Rome. AD
3d C. Museo Nazionale Romano (Palazzo Massimo alle Terme), Rome, Italy. (Credit: Scala/Art Resource, NY)
Early Christians often shared wine and bread, as in this depiction of Christians banqueting together in honor of one of
their members who has died.
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1 Timothy 3:2, A bishop must be . . . hospitable

(so also Titus 1:8). First Clement praises the
Corinthians, For who has ever visited you . . . and
not proclaimed the magnificent character of your
hospitality? (1 Clem. 1:2; he also praises Abraham,
All guests are to be received as Christ
Lot, and Rahab for theirs). Most famously, the
himself; for he himself said, I was a
Didache (written in the late first or early second
stranger and ye took me in. And to all,
century) tried to address abuses of hospitality while
fitting honor shall be shown; but, most of
all, to servants of the faith and to pilgrims
still upholding the idea that any follower of Jesus
. . . . Chiefly in the reception of the poor
should be able to find food and shelter with any other
and of pilgrims shall care be most anxbeliever. [Didache and Limits on Hospitality] While limits like
iously shown: for in them Christ is
received the more.
no more than three nights may seem picky or arbitrary, consider how the same rules obligate small
From section 53, in Henry Bettenson, ed., Documents
of the Christian Church (London: Oxford University
Christian house-churches to figure out how to house
Press, 1977) 12425.
and feed drop-in guests for a night or two without
dissent. That is impressive.
Verses 10-11, picking up on the idea of hospitality, address the
readers as good stewards, the employees or slaves who managed
households for the wealthy. Each believer has been entrusted with
gifts (charismata), which are manifold; 1 Peter, like Paul, believes
that the gifts are of different sorts, although they all come from
God. Each believer is then to use these gifts in ministry to other
believers. The image of steward suggests that each believer is to
The Rule of St. Benedict on

Hospitality
The Rule, dating from the 6th
century AD, became the basis of
conduct in all monastic orders.
Didache and Limits on Hospitality

The first quote below gives rules for hospitality
for those who claim the Spirits authority for
what they preach and teach. The community must be
careful not to offend the Spirit, but there are limits on
what a prophet might claim in the name of the Spirit. The
second paragraph gives rules for hospitality for ordinary
Christian travelers or immigrants. Notice that any
Christian gets food and shelter, but nobody gets money,
and nobody gets unlimited support unless they will work.
Concerning apostles and prophets: Act according to the
gospels decree. Let every apostle and prophet who comes
to you be welcomed as the Lord, but he should not stay
longer than a day, or if he has a need, another day. If he
stays three, he is a false prophet. And when an apostle
leaves, let him take nothing except bread enough to get
him to the next place to lodge him; if he asks for money, he
is a false prophet. You may not test a prophet who is
speaking in the Spirit, for every sin will be forgiven, but this
sin will not be forgiven. But not everybody who speaks in
the Spirit is a prophet, but only if he has the marks of the

Lord . . . . Every prophet who orders a meal in the Spirit
should not eat of it; if he does, hes a false prophet. Every
prophet who teaches the truth but does not do what he
teaches, is a false prophet . . . . Do not listen to anyone
who says, in the Spirit, Give me money (or something
else); but if he says to give it to someone in need, let no
one judge him. (Did. 11:3-12)
Let everyone who comes in the name of the Lord be welcomed. Then once you have tested him, you will know him,
because you have the understanding of right and wrong. If
a transient comes, help him as much as you are able, but
he should not stay more than two or three days, if he has
need. If he wants to stay permanently, and he is a skilled
worker, then let him work and let him eat. If he has no
trade, decide according to your understanding how he can
live with you as a Christian without being idle; if he doesnt
want to do this, he is a Christ-peddler. Stay away from that
sort. (Did. 12:1-5)
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think of himself or herself as using his or her gifts to manage Gods

household, or to provide different aspects of that management.
First Peter mentions only two, speaking (lalein) and ministering
(diakonein), leaving us to guess whether he thinks of these as two
examples of specific gifts or as categories within which other gifts
could be named.36 Speaking could include preaching, teaching,
encouragingall the sorts of verbal communication that happen
between believers. Whoever does thisand almost every believer
doesshould think of his or her words as the logia theou, the very
words of God. Ministering, meaning to act as a servant, would
include providing hospitality as well as activities common among
early Christians that 1 Peter probably presumes but never names:
giving to the poor, caring for the sick, comforting the bereaved, visiting the imprisoned. Whoever does these thingsand almost
every believer doesshould do so from the strength which God
provides.37 This is another acknowledgment by 1 Peter that ministry of this sort is not always a piece of cake, and that it will take
Gods strength to carry out. [Leave Me Alone!]
The passage ends with a lovely benediction. As the end
approaches, believers should stay self-controlled and sober for their
prayers, should love one another strenuously,
Leave Me Alone!
A story about hospitality that I treasure comes
should practice ungrudging hospitality, and
from a writing workshop that I used to teach
should use all the gifts God provided in
every summer at a monastery. . . . One year on the
ministry to each other. All this is to be done,
second day of class a shy, soft-spoken student told the
says the author, so that glorypraise, fame,
group that she had gone to the abbey visitor center to
ask some more questions [about monastic life]. But
reputation, statuswill accrue not to the
the monk had been short with her, saying, finally, I
believers who practice these disciplines, but
dont have time for this; were trying to run a
to God through Christ. Anyone in their
monastery here! . . . the monk, a man recently protime, Christian, Jewish, or pagan, would
fessed, soon tracked her down and apologized
profusely. All in all, it was a useful exchange. The guest
have understood that ultimately praise and
discovered that monks are human; and the monk came
honor belong to God or the gods, and that
to his senses regarding Benedicts Rule on the recephumans must be careful to show due respect.
tion of guests. . . . Benedict knew that hospitality
But this is a letter to Christians, members of
would be life-saving for both monk and guest. I believe
that he wanted Benedictine men and women to be so
a tiny religious minority within the broad
deeply grounded in hospitality that it would color
religious landscape of the empire.
everything they do and say.
Everywhere they went there were things said,
Kathleen Norris, Amazing Grace (New York: Riverhead, 1998) 26667.
carved, and minted to give honor to the
gods. Their lives and efforts must make clear that honor goes to
God through Christ, to whom all honor and power belongs, age
upon age. What an ambitious hope for these people!
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Unperplexed by Fire, 4:12-19
Structure
Beloved begins a new section, as it does at 2:11, and it extends
through the amen in 5:11. Within the larger unit of 4:125:11,
there are three smaller sections.
4:12-19 offers another approach to the issue of undeserved
suffering. The author has already connected suffering to Christs
passion (2:18-25) and to Christs resurrection and ascension
(3:18-22); now he will connect suffering to the nearness of the end,
which he stated in 4:7.
5:1-5 is a section on church leadership, addressed to elders and
youths, raising the question (addressed in the comments on that
section) about the identity of the latter group.
5:6-11 are a collection of exhortations similar to the ones that
sometimes appear at the ends of Pauls letters.
Fire Is for TestingRejoice Now and Later! 4:12-13
Beloved, dont be surprised by the burning going on among you
for your testing, as if something strange were happening to you,
but rejoice to the degree that you are sharing in the sufferings of
Christ, so that you may also rejoice when you celebrate in the revelation of his glory.
The verb for surprised (xeniz) also appears in 4:4, where
1 Peter notes that the readers neighbors may be surprised when the
readers no longer attend festivals and parties. Something strange
(xenou) comes from the same root, and using the two together is a
way to emphasize that for Christians, suffering is not odd; hard
times should not surprise Christians or create any perplexity.38
Burning is a literal translation of pyrsis. It is used to describe
Babylons burning (Rev 18:9, 18) and the fire that purifies silver
and gold (LXX Prov 27:21), and so can signify a punishment or a
cleansing. Likewise, the word translated testing (peirasmos) can
also mean a temptation to evil or Gods testing, meant to
strengthen faith. Putting both togetherthe burning going on
among you for your testingis an elegant way to show how confusing undeserved or unexplained suffering can be. Think of Job,
harassed by those who tell him he must have done something
wrong, suggesting and then demanding that God appear and
explain why his world has collapsed. First Peters construction in
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Dont Be Surprised by Testing

this first verse, then, manages both to convey
The trials and temptations which come to
why suffering is confusingbecause it can be
Christians are nothing new. The prophets
interpreted either as Gods testing or as Gods
of the Old Testament suffered exactly the same
punishmentand to exhort his readers not to
things. All such trials find their meaning and culmination in the cross of Christ. The servant is not
be confused. [Dont Be Surprised by Testing]
greater than his master. If Christ suffered, how
Anyone in 1 Peters audience who had read the
can we expect to get off any more lightly?
Old Testament would not be perplexed by the
Hilary of Arles, Introductory Commentary on 1 Peter, cited in
Gerald Bray, ed., James (ACCS 11; Downers Grove IL:
idea that Gods people might suffer. Besides Job,
InterVarsity, 2000) 118.
there were Daniel and his friends, harassed and
persecuted for their faith, tossed into a burning furnace and a den
of lions. There were the Israelites in Egypt, forced to make bricks
without straw, and even after their deliverance, compelled to
struggle through the desert before they could make it to the promised land. Elijah, a man who could pray the fire down and the dead
up, was still compelled to hide in a cave and eat bread and water.
God promises to stand with everyone who signs on, but one good
look at the heroes and heroines of the Bible would convince you
that suffering was often a part of the employment package.
F. W. Beare suggested that the word burning was used in order
to connect what these readers were going through with what the
Roman Christians went through under Nero:39
But all the endeavors of men, all the emperors largesse and the propitiations of the gods, did not suffice to allay the scandal or banish
the belief that the fire had been ordered. And so, to get rid of this
rumor, Nero set up as the culprits and punished with the utmost
refinement of cruelty a class hated for their abominations, who are
commonly called Christians . . . . Accordingly, arrest was first made
of those who confessed; and then on their evidence, an immense
multitude was convicted, not so much on the charge of arson as
because of hatred of the human race. Besides being put to death they
were made to serve as objects of amusement; they were clad in the
hides of beasts and torn to death by dogs; others were crucified,
others set on fire to serve to illuminate the night when daylight had
failed. (Tacitus, Ann. 15.44)
Others doubt this, arguing that since 1 Peter never speaks specifically of any kind of persecution worse than slander, the author is
unlikely to have the martyrdoms under Nero in mind.40 But I
believe that the allusion may have been intended, and even if it was
not, 1 Peters readers, who accepted the letter as truly from the mar-
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1 Peter 4
Where Are You Going?

One of the famous legends found in the Acts of
Peter (second half of the second century) is the
Quo Vadis (Where are you going?) story. In it, Peter,
preaching in Rome in the days of Nero, is about to be
arrested, and some of his supporters hear of it and urge
him to leave.
But Peter said to them, Shall we act like deserters,
brethren? And they said, No, but by going you can still
serve the Lord. He obeyed the brethren, and went away
alone, saying, Let none of you go with me, I will go alone
in disguise. When he went out of the gate he saw the

Lord come into Rome. And when he saw him he said,
Lord, where are you going? And the Lord said to him, I
go to Rome to be crucified. And Peter said to him, Lord,
are you being crucified again? And he said, Yes, Peter,
again I shall be crucified. And Peter came to himself; and
he saw the Lord ascending to heaven. Then he returned to
Rome, rejoicing and praising the Lord because he had said,
I am being crucified. This was to happen to Peter.
Acts Pet. 35; in J. K. Elliott, The Apocryphal New Testament (Oxford:
tyred apostle, would almost certainly have thought of the persecution Peter had witnessed and then endured.41 Such an allusion,
intentional or not, would have enhanced the authority of the letter,
with readers thinking, when Peter uses the word burning, he
knows whereof he speaks. [Where Are You Going?]
Do not be surprised, be happy? The imperative rejoice in v. 13
recalls the authors statements that the readers are rejoicing (1:6)
despite having to suffer briefly. There it was clearer that the readers
rejoiced not because they had to suffer but
Christ Appearing to Saint Peter on the
because they knew they had an inheritance
Appian Way
kept by God, ready to be revealed in the last
time (1:5). Here the author comes closer to
asking them to rejoice because they suffer,
but he still does not quite say that; they are to
rejoice to the degree that (katho) they are
sharing in Christs sufferings. [Donne on Affliction]
The sufferings of Christ could mean the
sufferings of the Messiah, or what New
Testament scholars often call the Messianic
woes.42 A large collection of texts, both
Christian and Jewish, speak of a time just
before the end, when things get worse than
they ever have been before. For instance,
Annibale Carracci (15601609). Christ Appearing to Saint Peter

on the Appian Way. 16011602. Oil on wood, National Gallery,
London, Great Britain. (Credit: National Gallery, London/Art
Resource, NY)
LXX Daniel 12:1: And at that time,

Michael the great angel, who takes his stand
for the sons of your people, will come; that
time will be a day of tribulation such as has
never happened until that day
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2 Thessalonians 2:3-10: That day will

not come unless the rebellion comes first
and the lawless one is revealed . . . the
coming of the lawless one is apparent in
the working of Satan, who uses all power,
signs, lying wonders, and every kind of
wicked deception for those who are perishing . . . .
Mark 13:7-8: Whenever you hear of
wars and rumors of wars, do not be
alarmed; these must happen, but the end
is not yet. For nation will rise against
nation and empire against empire; there
will be earthquakes in various spots, there
will be famines; these are the beginning of
woes.
2 Esdras 13:29-31: The days are
coming when the Most High will deliver
those who are on the earth. And bewilderment of mind shall come over those who
inhabit the earth. They shall plan to make
war against one another, city against city,
place against place, people against people,
and kingdom against kingdom.
211
Donne on Affliction
. . . affliction is a treasure, and scarce any man
hath enough of it. No man hath affliction enough
that is not matured and ripened by it, and made fit for God
by that affliction. If a man carry treasure in bullion, or in a
wedge of gold, and have none coined into current money,
his treasure will not defray him as he travels. Tribulation is
treasure in the nature of it, but it is not current money in
the use of it, except we get nearer and nearer our home,
heaven, by it. Another man may be sick too, and this
affliction may lie in his bowels, as gold in a mine, and be
of no use to him; but this bell, that tells me of his affliction, digs out and applies that gold to me: if by this
consideration of anothers danger I take mine own into
contemplation, and so secure myself, by making my
recourse to my God, who is our only security. (Meditation
XVII, 109)
[God] had kindled some sparks of this faith in thee, before
thou askedst that new heart; else the prayer had not been
of faith; but now finding thee obsequious to his beginnings, he fuels this fire, and purifies thee, as Gold and
Silver, in all his furnaces; through Believing and Doing, and
suffering, through faith, and works, and tribulation, we
come to this pureness of heart. And truly, he that lacks
but the last, but Tribulation (as fain as we would be
without it) lacks one concoction, one refining of this heart.
John Donne, Meditation XVII, in Devotions Upon Emergent Occasions
(Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1959) 109.
Donne, A Sermon Preached at Pauls Cross to the Lords of the Council,
www.lib.byu.edu/dlib/donee
First Peter shares the primitive Christian

expectation that the end had drawn near
(4:7), and so probably also expects to be entering a tribulation
periodanother reason why suffering should not be unexpected.
But sharing in the sufferings of Christ, given all that 1 Peter had
already said about imitating Christs Passion, probably got the
readers thinking about Jesus on the cross more than about the
wars and rumors of wars period.
Rejoice . . . so that you may rejoice probably does not mean
that being happy in suffering is required to be able to join in the
celebration when the roll is called up yonder. What is required is
that the readers not give up their faith as a result of suffering, so
that they may rejoice in the revelation of their salvation.43
Rejoice is offered as a strategy for thinking about suffering and
making sense of it. Since suffering means that you are sharing in
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1 Peter 4
Rejoicing in Suffering
I bless you for making me worthy of this
day and hour, that I may receive a share
among the number of the martyrs in the cup of
your Christ, unto the resurrection of eternal life in
both soul and body in the immortality of the Spirit.
Mart. Pol. 14.2.
Christs experience, it also means that you are

staying close to Christ and will be rewarded in
the future. [Rejoicing in Suffering]
Chances were that 1 Peters readers had heard
this sort of thing before. In the introduction I
argued that late first-/early second-century
Christians in Asia Minor likely had heard one or more Gospels and
Pauls letters read aloud.
Matthew 5:11-12: Blessed are you whenever they insult you
and persecute you and say all sorts of evil things against you on my
account; rejoice and celebrate [same two verbs as 1 Peter], because
your word is great in the heavens. (par. Luke 6:22-23)
John 16:20: Truly truly I say to you that you will weep and
mourn, but the world will rejoice; you will be grieved, but your
grief will become joy.
Romans 12:12: Rejoice in hope, be patient in tribulation.
Philippians 1:17-18: . . . supposing to increase the tribulation
in my imprisonment. So what? Just that in every place, whether for
false or true motives, Christ is being proclaimed, and in that I
rejoice.
By taking the same line as Paul and the Gospels, the writer of
1 Peter places himself firmly in the mainstream of early Christian
opinion about how to deal with suffering.
Suffering as a Christian, 4:14-16
If you are insulted in the name of Christ, you are blessed, because
the spirit of glory and of God rests upon you. For let none of you
suffer as a murderer or thief or evil-doer or as an embezzler[?]; but
if [one of you suffers] as a Christian, dont be shamed by it, but
glorify God in this name.
Verse 14 is the second beatitude in 1 Peter; the first, at 3:14,
shares with this one the if form:
3:14: but if you might also suffer for the sake of righteousness,
blessed!
4:14: if you are insulted in the name of Christ, blessed [you are]
....
In 3:14, suffer is in the optative mood, making it something that
might or might not happen; in this sort of conditional sentence,
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213
one would normally expect the second half, the then clause, also
to be hypotheticalif you happen to suffer, then you would be
blessed. But since there is no verb in the second part, you can
understand it to be a wish (may you be blessed!) or a factual
statement (you are blessed) or a more hypothetical statement
(under those conditions, you would be blessed). The sentence in
4:14 is a bit more straightforward. Insulted is in the indicative
mood, and in this letter, with so many references to insults and
slander, it is clear (as most commentators point out) that the if
essentially means when or since.44 Blessed is then not likely
to have been a wish, but a statement, especially since it is followed
by a clause giving the reason for saying that the readers are blessed.
The verb for insult is the same used in the beatitude in Matthew
5:11-12, quoted earliernot enough contact to think that 1 Peter
is copying from Matthew, but enough to suspect that the author,
and perhaps the audience, knows that form of the Jesus saying.45
In the name of Christ means the same thing as as a Christian
in v. 16the letters recipients, 1 Peter knows, have certainly been
slandered and almost certainly vilified simply for being Christians.
[Hatred of the Name of Christian] What I mean is this: all Christians
everywhere would have shared in the shame attached to the kinds
of things many non-Christians were saying about Christians at the
end of the first century: a class hated for their abominations, a
most pernicious superstition, a depraved and
Hatred of the Name of Christian
extravagant superstition, etc. What 1 Peter
This, then, is the first grievance we lodge
cannot knowand what accounts for his conagainst you, the injustice of the hatred
tinual use of if statements about sufferingis
you have for the name of Christian. (Tertullian,
Apol. 1.4)
whether any specific reader of his letter has suffered personally for his or her faith. Refer back
One thing only is what they wait for: the confesto the section Evidence for Persecution of
sion of the name of Christian, not an investigation
Christians at the End of the First Century in
of the charge. (Tertullian, Apol. 2.3)
the introductionsome Christians in the late
Finally, why do you read from your indictment that
first/early second century were killed for their
so-and-so is a Christian? Why not also that he is a
faith, while others were allowed to practice
murderer, if the Christian is a murderer? Why not
theirs, seemingly with little interference. Some
adulterer also, or whatever else you believe us to
be? In our regard alone is it a cause of shame and
of the readers may have had their neighbors or
annoyance to report us with the specification of
former business associates or even family
our crimes? If the term Christian involves in
members call them names, especially if the
itself no element of guilt, it is extremely ridiculous
readers have been obvious about not particithat the charge is of one name only. (Tertullian,
Apol. 2.20)
pating in the commonly expected religious rites
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of their city. Pliny described those who refused to sacrifice to the

image of Trajan as guilty of pertinacity and inflexible obstinacy,
and executed them; one can imagine a father screaming worse than
that at a son or daughter who refused to honor
Abused for Being Christian
the ancestral gods and justified their behavior by
In the mid-second-century text The
appealing to a crucified Jew. [Abused for Being
Martyrdom of Polycarp, the elderly bishop
refuses to save his life by cursing Christ or by
swearing by Caesars fortune. He finally tells the
proconsul that he will never give in, and invites
the proconsul to do what he will.
Christian]
If this sort of thing happens to themor

since this sort of thing has happened and is
likely to continue to happenyou are
The proconsul was amazed and sent his herald
blessed. Not happy or fortunate, but
into the center of the stadium to proclaim three
blessed, meaning God has blessed you.
times, Polycarp has confessed himself to be a
Perhaps in some cases it is appropriate to transChristian. When the herald said this, the entire
multitude . . . cried out with an uncontrollable
late makarios as happy or fortunate, but not
rage and a great voice, This is the teacher of
here, because the point is not that suffering is
godlessness, the father of the Christians, the
destroyer of our gods, the one teaching many
good luck, but that it is a sign of Gods favor,
neither to sacrifice nor to worship the gods.
proof that the spirit of glory and of God rests
upon you. [Blessings and Suffering] Here 1 Peter is
Mart. Pol. 12:1-2.
quoting again, this time from LXX Isaiah 11:23. Speaking of the messianic shoot that will arise from the root
of Jesse, Isaiah writes, The Spirit of God will rest upon him, the
spirit of wisdom and understanding, the spirit of counsel and
power, the spirit of knowledge and piety. The spirit of the fear of
God will fill him. He will not judge by glory (or, for glory) . . . .46
Because of all the work done in this letter connecting Christs sufferings to the sufferings of the readers, 1 Peter can take a text that
The Denial of Saint Peter
Not only does the author of
1 Peter gain standing with the
audience because of Peters
martyrdom, but also because of
Peters famous apostasy
when he denied knowing Christ.
Readers could imagine Peter
knowing both what its like to
fail and what it takes to endure.
Caravaggio (Michelangelo Merisi da)
(15731610). The Denial of Saint Peter.
Oil on canvas, The Metropolitan Museum
of Art, New York, NY. (Credit: The
Metropolitan Museum of Art/
Art Resource, NY)
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Blessings and Suffering

speaks of the Spirit resting on the Messiah and
And so we should practice righteoustransfer it to those who bear the Messiahs name.
ness, that we might be saved in the end.
It was also part of Jesus teachings that his folBlessed are those who obey these commandlowers should not worry about what to say when
ments! Even if they suffer evil for a brief time in
this world, they will reap the imperishable fruit of
their time came to face the persecutors because
the resurrection. And so the one who is pious
the Spirit would be with them and teach them
should not grieve if he should suffer for the
(Matt 10:19-20; Luke 12:11-13; 21:12-15).
present; a blessed time awaits him.
Verse 15 returns to the idea stated earlier
2 Clem. 19:3-4.
(2:14, 20) that those who do wrong and suffer
for it have no credit with God and none but themselves to blame
for their misfortunes. If the author had written, Let none of you
suffer for doing wrong, there would need be no further discussion.
But since 1 Peter listed specific crimes, one wonders why he picked
these particular things to highlight. Murderer and thief are
ordinary words and are sometimes included in New Testament vice
lists. Paul puts thieves in the list of people who will not be
included in the kingdom of God, and says and some of you were
these things (1 Cor 6:9-11). Revelation 21:8 and 22:15 include
murderers as those excluded from the New Jerusalem. Maybe,
then, these two are random examples of sins and crimes to be
avoided, and 1 Peter has no impression that his
Celsus on Christians
Celsus wrote around 185, roughly a
readers need particular caution against them.
hundred years after 1 Peter, so we
Since, however, these were the sorts of slanders
cannot take his On the True Doctrine as proof of
given out against Christians, 1 Peter wants to
what was being said in the late first century. But
make sure that these are never accurate descripone passage provides an interesting parallel to
1 Peter 4:15:
tions of Christians. [Celsus on Christians]
The next two words appear only in 1 Peter,
The call to membership in the cult of Christ is this:
and translators are not certain how to treat
Whoever is a sinner, whoever is unwise, whoever
is childishyea, whoever is a wretchhis is the
them. Evil-doer is a literal translation of
kingdom of God. And so they invite into memberkakopoios, and if it were the last word in the
ship those who by their own account are sinners:
sequence, you might expect a general, allthe dishonest, thieves, burglars, poisoners, blasphemers of all descriptions, grave robbers.
inclusive term to round things off. But it is
followed by allotriepiskopos, which only appears
Celsus, On the True Doctrine 74.
in 1 Peter. It literally means one who oversees
another, and so one guess is that it means busybody.47 If by
another the author means other peoples money, then embezzler or defrauder might be the intended sense.48 Whatever it
means, the recipients should not do it.
There is an ellipsis in v. 16some words left out that must be
supplied by the reader. The text has but if as a Christian, let him
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not be ashamed . . . to which the reader must supply ei tis hymn,

if someone of you [pl.], and then either the verb suffers or is
insulted, depending on whether you pick up the verb from v. 14
or v. 16. If you suffer for no legitimate reasonmurder, theft,
etc.but only for your faith and for your identification with the
name of Christ, then be not shamed. Do not let them make you
feel shame because of it. This is not easy to pull off, is it? In
Anthony Trollopes novel The Warden, the Reverend Harding feels
compelled to resign after being unfairly and falsely accused of
avarice and dereliction of duty; even when the man who started the
campaign against him apologizes, his public defamation is too
much to bear, and he resigns. [The Warden]
First Peters advice let it not shame
The Warden
you amounts to giving up the sense of
At this point in the novel, a crusading newspaper,
The Jupiter, has published an article arguing that
honor that mattered so much in GrecoMr. Hardin, Warden of Hirams Hospital, is grossly overpaid
Roman society. Honor, in 1 Peters
for his work, and that the income from the trust that supworld, depended on never accepting
ports him should be going to help the poor rather than keep
insults unanswered; only slaves and other
him in luxury.
creatures incapable of honor did that.
The warden continued his walk; the hard and stinging words
But for Christians, your Lord died the
of that newspaper article, each one of which had thrust a
servile death, and you are called to be his
thorn as it were into his inmost soul, were fresh in his
memory; he had read it more than once, word by word, and
slave. Your values are not your worlds
what was worse, he fancied it was as well known to every
values, so do not let the slanders shame
one as to himself. Was he to be looked on as the unjust
griping priest he had been there described, was he to be
you. Instead, in this name or by this
pointed at as the consumer of the bread of the poor, and to
namethe name of Christglorify
be allowed no means of refuting such charges, of clearing
God.49 This is the mountain girl, dressed
his begrimed name, of standing innocent in the world, as
hitherto he had stood? Was he to bear all this, to receive as
in a homemade coat sewn together from
usual his now hated income, and be known as one of those
rags, telling her classmates that she is
greedy priests who by their rapacity have brought disgrace
proud of her coat of many colors. This
on their church? And why? Why should he bear all this?
(107)
is the Mexican immigrant who paints the
brick pillars on either side of his sidewalk
As Eleanor [the wardens daughter] read the article, her
green, white, and redyes, that is exactly
face flushed with indignation, and when she had finished it,
she almost feared to look up at her father.
who I am and I do not intend to hide it.
Well, my dear, said he; what do you think of that? Is it
Christians must not back down from
worth while to be a warden at that price?
Oh papa;dear papa!
their identification with Christ and with
Mr. Bold cant unwrite that, my dear. Mr. Bold cant say
other Christians, but give God praise as
that that shant be read by every clergyman at Oxford; nay,
Christians: Thus it is fitting not only to
by every gentleman in the land. (155)
be called Christians, but truly to be
Anthony Trollope, The Warden (New York: Dodd, Mead, and Co., 1906).
Christians (Ign. Magn. 4:1).
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1 Peter 4
Suffering as a Sign of the End, 4:17-19

Because it is time for the judgment to begin from the house of
God. But if first [it begins] from us, what [is] the end/conclusion
of the ones disobeying the gospel of God? And if the righteous one
is scarcely saved, where will the wicked and sinful one appear? As a
result, those who suffer according to Gods will should entrust their
souls to a faithful Creator by good deeds.
First Peters audience would not have been surprised to hear that
the judgment was near; if they believed the End of all things has
drawn near (4:7), they would also believe that Judgment Day was
close (cf. Jas 5:7-9: Be patient, brothers, until the coming of the
Lord . . . behold, the Judge is standing before the door). They
might not have been surprised to learn that the judgment would
include them as well as unbelievers. Some parts of the New
Testament (e.g., John 5:24) argue that Christians bypass the judgment because of their faith in Christ, but others picture Christians
undergoing Gods scrutiny on that day:
1 Corinthians 3:10-15: According to the grace of God given
me, Ias a wise master-craftsmanlaid a foundation, and others
have built, but let everyone be careful how he builds . . . because
the work of each will be made plain, because the Day will make it
known; because it will be uncovered by fire, and the fire will
demonstrate what sort of work each has done.
Romans 14:10-12: We will all stand at Gods judgment seat . . .
then each of us will give an account for himself [to God] . . . .
Revelation 20:11-15: And I saw a great white throne and the
one seated upon it, from whom earth and heaven fled . . . . And I
saw the dead, great and small, standing before the throne, and
books were opened; and another book was opened, the book of
life; and the dead were judged according to their works which were
written in the books . . . and whoever was not found written in the
book of life was thrown into the lake of fire.
If, as we suspect, 1 Peters readers have heard Pauls letters read
aloud, they may remember this theme; Asian believers may also
have heard Revelation. The unusual emphasis in 1 Peter is that the
judgment begins first with Gods people, rather than happening to
everyone at once.50 This idea may ultimately derive from earlier
Jewish martyr accounts. In 2 Maccabees 6:12-17, the narrator
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addresses the audience directly in an aside. Just before narrating the

gripping martyr stories of Eleazar the priest, the nameless mother,
and her seven sons, the narrator writes,
Now I urge those who read this book not to be depressed by such
calamities, but to recognize that these punishments were designed
not to destroy but to discipline our people. In fact, it is a sign of great
kindness not to let the impious alone for long, but to punish them
immediately. For in the case of the other nations the Lord waits
patiently to punish them until they have reached the full measure of
their sins; but he does not deal in this way with us, in order that he
may not take vengeance on us afterward when our sins have reached
their height. Therefore he never withdraws his mercy from us.
Although he disciplines us with calamities, he does not forsake his
own people.
God does not delay in punishing Gods own people, in other

words. But even this is not exactly the same, since the author of
2 Maccabees means Gods judgments within history, mostly God
turning Gods people over to oppressors. First Peter means the final
judgment has already begun, and God has chosen to discipline the
good guys first.
The judgment is beginning from the house of God . . . from
us. Most take the from to be the equivalent of with,51 and
insofar as this interpretation marks believers as the starting point
for judgment, it is correct. But 1 Peter may mean from more literally. Some Old Testament texts predict that the first stage in the
final judgment is Gods arrival at the temple, where its leaders are
the first to be chastised and/or purified; after that, God judges the
nations. Notice especially the connections with Ezekiel 9:5-6:
LXX Jeremiah 32:29-30: Because in the city where my name is
named, I am beginning to do harm upon it . . . and you shall
prophesy upon them these words and say, The Lord is warning
from on high; from his holy place he will give his voice.
LXX Zechariah 13:7: Let the sword be raised against my shepherds and against the men of my city, says the Lord Almighty.
Strike the shepherds and scatter the flocks and I will bring my hand
upon the shepherds
LXX Ezekiel 9:5-6: Go after him into the city and cut down
and do not let your eyes spare and have no mercy; kill elder and
youth and virgin and infants and women . . . begin from my holy
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219
ones [or my holy places, my sanctuaries]. And they began from the
elders of the men who were inside in the house.
The readers, whom the author called a spiritual house (or
household) in 2:5, make up the house or household with
whom God is beginning the judgment. And if this is how it is with
us, how awful will it be for those who disobey the gospel of
God?52
The connection with these prophetic texts would explain from
the house of God in v. 17 and might even explain why the topic
of elders and shepherds comes up next. One logical problem
remains, however; the prophetic texts, as well as 2 Maccabees
6:12-17, presumes that the people of God are suffering deservedly
for sins, whereas 1 Peter is only considering undeserved suffering. If
the readers are to think of what they are going through as Gods
judgment, does that not undercut the ways the author wants them
to think of their sufferings as sharing in Christs experience?
Two possibilities present themselves. First, perhaps the authors
use of judgment imagery for suffering is a reminder that nobody
but Jesus is completely innocent, and that all the rest of us surely
have some dross, some impurities in the gold of our faith, which
God could rightly burn away in the fires of testing. Second,
perhaps 1 Peter by time for the judgment to begin means the
beginning stages of the end, as outlined in early Christian apocalyptic texts, which typically includes the expectation of betrayals,
imprisonments, family disputes, and the experience of being universally hated (Mark 13:9-13). Time for judgment to begin could
then include all sorts of suffering as signs of the
If Its this Hard for the Righteous
impending end that were not Gods disciplinary
The greater Gods saints are, the more
actions against sin.53
terribly He lets them be knocked about
The author quotes LXX Proverbs 11:31 to
and perish. What, then, will happen to the others?
. . . When the Gospel is preached, God begins to
reinforce the idea that if things are this hard on
punish sin, in order that He may kill and make
the righteous, the wicked have no chance. [If Its
alive. He whips the pious with a foxtail, which is
this Hard for the Righteous] The section concludes
primarily a mothers rod. But what will happen to
with an exhortation that those who suffer
those who do not believe? It is as if he were
saying: If God deals so seriously with His dear
according to the will of God will continue to
children, you can figure out what kind of punishtrust in God. Here again is the troublesome
ment will be inflicted on those who do not
issue of whether God wills suffering itself or
believe.
wills the life of obedience that, in 1 Peters
Martin Luther, Sermons on the First Epistle of St. Peter; Luthers
Works, vol. 50 (trans. Martin H. Bertram; St. Louis MO:
world, will bring suffering. For the authors
Concordia, 1967) 130.
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1 Peter 4
readers, the distinction was moot; living in a way that gives glory to
God in Christs name will almost certainly have had unpleasant
consequences. Do not give up doing good, he says. For some of his
readers, this may have meant continuing to do charitable activitiesvisiting the sick and prisoners, e.g.that publicly identified
the do-gooder as a Christian. For others, like the slaves and the
wives of unbelievers, doing good may have had a smaller scope.
For slaves, doing good meant suffering patiently without sinning,
as Jesus did; for wives, it meant (in 1 Peters terms) quietly subjecting themselves to their husbands and letting their Christian
virtues speak for themselves.
CONNECTIONS
Preachers or Bible teachers taking up 4:1-6 may feel led to preach
against sins of excess: the time is past for revels and wild parties,
and you should start thinking about how you will account for your
licentious behavior when you stand before God on Judgment Day.
If that is your leaning, you will get no complaints from meeven
church people need a good dose of brimstone from time to time,
and each generation at some point decides that standards have
slipped, the young folks are running amok, and that we need to get
serious about our faith again:
That God hath a controversy with his New-England people is undeniable, the Lord having writ his displeasure in dismal Characters
against us . . . . There is great and visible Decay of the power of
Godliness amongst many Professors [not college Professors, but those
who have publicly identified themselves as Elect Christians] in these
Churches. It may be feared that there is in too many spiritual and
heart Apostasy from God . . . . There is much Intemperance. That
heathenish and idolatrous Practice of Health-drinking is too infrequent . . . . And there are other heinous breaches of the seventh
Commandment. Temptations thereto are become too common, viz.
such as immodest Apparel, Laying out of Hair, Borders, naked Necks
and Arms, or which is more abominable, naked Breasts, and mixed
Dancings, light Behavior and Expressions, sinful Company keeping
with light and vain Persons . . . .54
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1 Peter 4
While one could make these kinds of interpretive moves from

1 Peter 4:1-6, I have argued in the commentary that 1 Peters point
is slightly different. The short vice list in v. 3 perhaps has its focus
on actions the audience may have considered normal, even civicminded, behavior: annual festivals to honor the ancestors,
celebrations of the emperors accession, annual guild and club banquets, etc., all involved libations, prayers, and/or sacrifices to the
gods. To get at what 1 Peter is proscribing, we should think about
what activities or commitments are promoted by our society as
normal, traditional, even patriotic, and then ask ourselves whether
these have the effect of dividing our loyalty to God.
Ancient believers like Augustine, who strongly objected to the
idea that Christ would offer the gospel to the dead, tended to interpret even to the dead in v. 6 as the spiritually deadthose who in
4:3 are characterized by licentiousness, drunkenness, etc. If that is
the correct reading (which I personally doubt), then 4:1-6 should
certainly urge the church not to turn its back on the Gentiles, but
to follow their Lords example in giving them an opportunity to
hear the word:
God has such great concern, such great love, such great desire that we
be put to death in the body but quickened in the spirit, that he has
commanded us to preach the Gospel, the word of faith, to those who
are implicated in greater crimes and justifiably must be accounted
among the dead.55
Those who understand even to the dead to mean that Christ

preached to the actual dead in Hades take it to be a measure of
Gods grace. Clement of Alexandria, noting that all Christians
believe God sent Christ to deliver the gospel to the world so that
they might not be condemned unjustly, reasons, how is it then
conceivable that [Christ] did not for the same reason preach the
Gospel to those who had died before his advent? . . . we must
believe that Gods will, being disciplinary and beneficent, saves
those who turn to him.56
Those in the first camp often object to the second interpretation
because it seems to undercut the seriousness of gospel preaching. If
salvation is offered after death to those who have never heard, said
Augustine, shouldnt we stop evangelizing, since the post-mortem
preaching is bound to be so much more effective? Of course,
1 Peter does not comment on how many of the dead responded in
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faith to what they heard; 4:6 only reports on the preaching, not the
results. But even supposing large numbers of the departed converted, how does that harm me? We have turned to Christ not only
for the promise of heaven, but so that we may spend the remainder
of our lives in fellowship with him and the rest of his followers. We
preach Christ because Christ has transformed our lives, and we
would hope the same for others. If God wants to offer that chance
to the dead, then that is Gods grace and Gods prerogative.
In 4:7-11, 1 Peter exhorts the readers to take their commitments
to each other seriously: their responsibility to pray, not only for
themselves but for the community and the world; their responsibility to love and to provide hospitality; their responsibility to use
the gifts God has given them for others good. These are not new
ideas to us; we know we should do these things, but the pressures
of time and our fears of how others might react inhibit us.
Hospitality is made up of hard work undertaken under risky conditions, and without structures and commitments for welcoming
strangers, fear crowds out what needs to be done. Hospitable places
where guests can disclose the gifts they bear come into being only
when people take up this practice and become wise, by experience, in
doing it well.57
Hospitality to each othercare groups, friendship circles, childcare

co-ops, etc.gives us the chance to practice loving each other and
developing our gifts. Hospitality provided to strangersa Sunday
school classs commitment to volunteer at a homeless shelter, or a
churchs provision of food and sheltergives the additional benefit
of opening us up to the strangers gifts: Work for the homeless . . .
frequently begins with the thought that a privileged person can
help someone in need. Often, however, the ostensible hosts discover that they have received from the homeless at least as much as
they have given.58
The final section of this chapter suggests that we can look at our
suffering as partnership with Christ in suffering and as the beginning of Gods judgment on the world. The two emphases pull in
opposite directions. If we suffer as Christ did, then it is for doing
good: reviled for the name of Christ, for doing nothing more
blameworthy than obeying Gods Son. Yet if our suffering is the
initial segment of Judgment Day, then is God punishing us in
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advance, as it were, to purify us? How can suffering be both undeserved and disciplinary?
As noted in the commentary, the answer may be that none of us
is as blame-free as we would like to be or as we imagine ourselves to
be. We may not be drunkards or adulterers or thieves, but it would
be hard to grow up in our culture and be free from the grip of
materialism, greed, gluttony, and the other besetting sins of the
wealthy. We may not have directly oppressed others, but we may
well have held back from ministry to those who really could have
used our help. If judgment began with us, would that really be
unjust?
Another possibility is that the time for judgment to begin
(4:17) refers to the period of persecution predicted in texts
such as Mark 13:9-13, Matthew 24:9-14, Luke 21:12-19, and
1 Thessalonians 3:1-5. Those who bear Christs name will suffer
innocently and as one moment in the great drama of Gods judgment enacted on the world. If this happens, says 1 Peter, rejoice,
since you have the chance to imitate Christ. Luther put it this way:
Christs cross does not save me. To be sure, I must believe in his cross,
but I must bear my own cross. I must put his suffering into my heart.
Then I have the true treasure. St. Peters bones are sacred. But what
does that help you? You and your own bones must become sacred.
And this happens when you suffer for Christs sake.59
Notes
1. Celsus, On the True Doctrine (trans. R. Joseph Hoffmann; New York: Oxford,
1987) 53. Hoffmanns book is a helpful but necessarily speculative reconstruction of
Celsuss work, which only survives in Origens quotations.
2. Celsus, On the True Doctrine 122.
3. Paul J. Achtemeier, 1 Peter (Hermeneia; Minneapolis: Fortress, 1996) 301,
takes the next unit to be 4:125:11, as do Joel B. Green, 1 Peter (Two Horizons
Commentary; Grand Rapids MI: Eerdmans, 2007) 147; Leonhard Goppelt,
A Commentary on 1 Peter (ed. Ferdinand Hahn; trans. John E. Alsup; Grand Rapids MI:
Eerdmans, 1993) 30913; Karen Jobes, 1 Peter (Baker Exegetical Commentary on the
New Testament; Grand Rapids MI: Baker Academic, 2005) 284; and John H. Elliott,
1 Peter (AB; New York: Doubleday, 2000) 76770.
4. Ernest Best, 1 Peter (Grand Rapids MI: Eerdmans, 1971) 15152; Edward
Gordon Selwyn, The First Epistle of St. Peter (London: MacMillan, 1952) 208.
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5. Reinhard Feldmeier, The First Letter of Peter (trans. Peter H. Davids; Waco TX:
Baylor University Press, 2008) 21213; William Joseph Dalton, Christs Proclamation to
the Spirits (Rome: Pontifical Biblical Institute, 1965) 24448.
6. Jobes, 1 Peter, 26465; Achtemeier, 1 Peter, 27980; Elliott, 1 Peter, 717.
9. T. Jud. 23:1-2 associates aselgeia with revolting gentile affairs.
10. BAGD, 141.
11. Achtemeier, 1 Peter, 28283; Goppelt, Commentary, 285.
13. Anacharsis to the Tyrant Hipparchus, in Abraham J. Malherbe, The Cynic
Epistles (SBL Sources for Biblical Study 12; Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1977) 4041.
14. BAGD, 24.
17. Green, 1 Peter, 13738.
18. Green, 1 Peter, 119. Goppelt, Commentary, 276, 287, translates it as a separate clause: and they blaspheme. Jobes, 1 Peter, 261, does also, although she
understands it to mean slander rather than blasphemy.
19. Achtemeier, 1 Peter, 275, 284.
20. On a milestone near Cordoba, Spain, dated ad 35/36; cited in Naphtali Lewis
and Meyer Reinhold, Roman Civilization (New York: Harper & Row, 1966) 2.155.
21. Statius, Silvae 5.2.170: But who is this messenger from Trajan Albas lofty
hills, where close at hand our god here present looks out upon the walls of his Rome?
(Citations of Statius from the Loeb edition, trans. D. R. Shackleton Bailey [Cambridge
MA: Harvard University Press, 2003].)
22. Statius, Silvae 4.2.14. Statius is reflecting on the experience of dining with
Domitian: Do I behold you as I recline, sovereign of the lands (regnator terrarium), great
parent of a world subdued (orbisque subacti magne parens), you, hope of mankind
(spes hominum) . . . .
23. Martial, Ep. 2.91: Rerum certa salus, terrarum gloria, Caesar: Caesar, the
worlds sure salvation, glory of the earth; Ep. 8.66: Rerum prima salus et una Caesar:
Caesar, the worlds first and only salvation. (Citations of Martial from the Loeb edition,
trans. D. R. Shackleton Bailey [Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press, 1993].)
24. Tacitus, Ann. 1.7.3; Pliny, Ep. 10.51; the quote is from a papyrus fragment from
Egypt dated AD 37, cited in Naphtali Lewis and Meyer Reinhold, Roman Civilization
(New York: Harper & Row, 1966) 2.86.
25. Achtemeier, 1 Peter, 286. I agree with Jobes, 1 Peter, 270, that 1 Peter is
likely to have meant God, since Jesus in this passage is the model for believerssuffering now but entrusting himself to the righteous Judge who would make things right.
Dalton, Christs Proclamation, 266, argues for a baptismal background for the passage
that would make it more likely for Christ to be the judge.
26. So Augustine, Letter 164, To Evodius.
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27. Achtemeier, 1 Peter, 288; Elliott, 1 Peter, 733; Dalton, Christs Proclamation,
265.
28. Dalton, Christs Proclamation, 27071; Elliott, 1 Peter, 73334; Achtemeier,
1 Peter, 28891.
29. Jobes, 1 Peter, 27073.
30. Jaroslav Pelikan, The Emergence of the Catholic Tradition (100600), vol. 1 of
The Christian Tradition (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1971) 15051, 16465.
31. So Achtemeier, 1 Peter, 295; Goppelt, Commentary, 297.
32. So Jobes, 1 Peter, 27879.
33. Goppelt, Commentary, 29899; Jobes, 1 Peter, 27880.
34. Elliott, 1 Peter, 751, argues for the imperative; Achtemeier, 1 Peter, 296,
argues for a participle.
35. Jobes, 1 Peter, 28081.
36. Most prefer to think of these as two simple categories, speaking and doing:
Achtemeier, 1 Peter, 298; Best, 1 Peter, 160; Elliott, 1 Peter, 758; Goppelt, Commentary,
302.
37. Goppelt, Commentary, 304305.
38. Achtemeier, 1 Peter, 305, argues persuasively that the issue is not shock but
perplexity arising from an ongoing problem.
39. E.g., F. W. Beare, The First Epistle of Peter (Oxford: Blackwell, 1958) 190.
40. Achtemeier, 1 Peter, 305306; Elliott, 1 Peter, 772.
41. So also Boring, 1 Peter, 156.
42. Elliott, 1 Peter, 775; Green, 1 Peter, 154.
44. Achtemeier, 1 Peter, 307; Elliott, 1 Peter, 778.
45. Achtemeier, 1 Peter, 308; Green, 1 Peter, 15657; Goppelt, Commentary, 322,
thinks there is a clear link to Jesus beatitude, though not necessarily to Matthew.
46. Jobes, 1 Peter, 288; Achtemeier, 1 Peter, 308309; Boring, 1 Peter, 15758;
Green, 1 Peter, 15152.
47. So NRSV; Jobes, 1 Peter, 289; Elliott, 1 Peter, 78586.
48. So Achtemeier, 1 Peter, 31113; BAGD, 47, suggests a concealer of stolen
goods.
50. Achtemeier, 1 Peter, 315. Achtemeier suggests the parallel to 2 Macc 6:12-16.
51. So Elliott, 1 Peter, 798; Goppelt, Commentary, 329.
52. Achtemeier, 1 Peter, 31516; Elliott, 1 Peter, 798800, disagrees with
Achtemeier that Ezek 9 has any connection with 1 Pet 4:17, but agrees that this is
about the beginning of the judgment.
54. The Necessity of Reformation, with the Expedients Subservient Thereunto, in
H. Shelton Smith et al., eds., American Christianity (2 vols; New York: Scribners, 1960)
1.20516.
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55. Bede the Venerable, The Commentary on the Seven Catholic Epistles (trans.
David Hurst; Kalamazoo MI: Cistercian, 1985) 109.
56. Clement of Alexandria, Strom. 6.6.
57. Ana Maria Pineda, Hospitality, in Dorothy C. Bass, ed., Practicing Our Faith
(San Francisco: John Wiley & Sons, 1997) 35.
58. Ibid., 34.
59. Martin Luther, Sermons on the First Epistle of St. Peter, vol. 30 of Luthers
Works (trans. Martin H. Bertram; St. Louis MO: Concordia, 1967) 129.
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Closing Advice from

Peter the Elder
1 Peter 5
COMMENTARY
Tend My Sheep, 5:1-5
Structure
One could make a case for extending this section through v. 7, since
v. 6 begins humble yourself or be humbled, which extends the
advice given to the youths in v. 5. But just as 5:1 begins with a
therefore, so does 5:6; the division also separates the discussion
about and advice to church leadership from a section of short exhortations that appears to be directed to everyone. As always, so long as
we recognize that these kinds of divisions are artificial and keep
reminding ourselves of what came before and what comes after, they
are helpful for giving us manageable chunks of text to think about.
As One Elder to Others, 5:1-4
I, therefore, a fellow-elder and witness of Christs sufferings and a
sharer of the soon-to-be-revealed glory, urge the elders among you:
shepherd the flock of God among you, acting as overseer1 not by
compulsion but willingly, according to God; not greedily but freely;
not as those ruling over their portions, but as those who become
examples for the flock. And when the Chief Shepherd appears, you
will receive the unfading, glorious crown.
For the first time since 2:11, the author uses the first-person
parakal, which means the author is asking but with some force
behind the requestso beg or exhort or strongly encourage,
depending on our construction of the situation. You know what I
meanyou get a memo at work encouraging you to contribute to
the United Way, something you might have done anyway, but now
you wonder if you will be in trouble if you opt out. On the one
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hand, fellow-elder does not sound like 1 Peter is trying to pull

rank; he does not say chief-elder or even apostle; on the other,
I beg/exhort/strongly encourage is followed up not by an infinitive as at 2:11 (I beg you . . . to abstain) but by an imperative:
shepherd! (5:2). The additions of witness of Christs sufferings
and sharer of . . . glory also seem to be intended to add force to
the exhortation rather than to soften it. Thus urge or even
earnestly urge2 seems about right.
So why not apostle? Paul was not reticent about using that title
in his letters, although in situations where he was trying to repair or
strengthen friendships (e.g., 1 Thessalonians, Philippians), he
either omitted the title from the address or called himself slave.
First Peter included apostle in the opening (1:1), but at this point
avoids it, perhaps to imply that his authority for urging them about
pastoral duties stems from the experience he shares with his readers
rather than his unique position as apostle. To Philemon, Paul
writes, Therefore, although in Christ I have
The Shepherds Authority
boldness enough to command you to do what is
Often when the soul [of the pastor] is
necessary, I instead parakal you on account of
inflated because of the authority it holds
lovethis one, Old Man Paul, now also a prisover the laity, it becomes corrupted and moved to
pride by the allure of power. In truth, one controls
oner of Jesus ChristI parakal you . . . (Phlm
this power well if he knows how both to temper
8-10). First Peter is not being as obvious about
and to assert it. . . . But we will more fully underit, but the rhetorical stratagem is the same: do
stand this power of discernment if we study the
not quite exercise all the authority you have, but
example of the first shepherd. For Peter, who by
Gods authorization held the position of leadership
remind your readers that you could. So 1 Peter
in the holy Church, refused immoderate veneradoes not write apostle to make the exhortation
tion from Cornelius . . . but Peter recognized him
into an outright command, but does write
as an equal, saying: Arise, do not do this, for I am
martys, witness or martyr, making this more
also a man. But when he discovered the sin of
Ananias and Sapphira, he immediately showed
than just a request from one friend to another.
the extent of the power he had over others . . . .
He had a self-awareness that he was the head of
the Church in the battle against sin, but he did not
acknowledge this honor when he was in the presence of upright brethren.
[The Shepherds Authority]
Readers at the end of the first century and

beginning of the second would know the widely
held tradition that Peter died a martyrs death.
Gregory the Great, The Book of Pastoral Rule II.6 (trans. George
They also would have known, from having
E. Demacopoulos; Crestwood NY: St. Vladimirs Seminary Press,
heard one or more Gospels read in worship, the
2007) 6364.
traditions of Jesus death and Peters connection
to it. While 1 Corinthians 15:5 (He appeared to Cephas) and
Luke 24:34 (The Lord has truly been raised, and has appeared to
Simon) are a witness to the pride of place Peter had as a witness to
the resurrection, all four Gospel accounts record him denying that
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Celsus on the Failure of the Apostles

he knew Jesus, and Mark, Matthew, and John
Your case is made the harder because
are pretty clear that Peter was not around as
not even his disciples believed in him at
Jesus died. [Celsus on the Failure of the Apostles] Luke
the time of his humiliation: those who had heard
23:49, But all those who knew him were
him preach and were taught by him, when they
saw he was headlong for trouble, did not stick
standing far off . . . watching these things, may
with him. They were neither willing to die for his
be intended to make Peter and the rest of the
sake nor to become martyrs for his causethey
eleven actual witnesses to Jesus death. Either
even denied they had known him!
witness of the sufferings of Christ rests on
Celsus, On the True Doctrine 66.
something like Lukes version of the Passion
account; or witness means one who testifies instead of one
who watched;3 or (as I think most likely) the phrase reaches back
to 4:13, rejoice to the degree that you share (koinneite) in the sufferings of Christ.4 First Peter claims to be a martys of Christs
sufferings and a koinnos in Christs soon-to-be-revealed glory. By
the end of the first century, no Christian would have disputed that,
based on the belief that he had died for his Lord: Peter, who on
account of unjust jealousy not just once or twice but many times
bore up under hardships and thus having borne witness
[martyrsas] was taken to the well-deserved place of glory (1 Clem.
5:4).
Elders among you refers to leaders in the congregations the
author hopes to reach with his letter. Evidence from the New
Testament and from other late first-/early second-century texts
shows us that congregations used various names for their leaders
and assigned them varied sorts of responsibilities. A few examples
will show some of the diversity within early Christianity on this
topic:
Paul addressed Philippians to the saints in Christ Jesus who are

in Philippi with the bishops (episkopois) and deacons (diakonois).
The Didache, dating to the late first/early second century, speaks of
apostles and prophets who travel between congregations and of
prophets and teachers who stick with a single congregation. The
congregation owes the first group their respectful attention and a
couple, or at most three, nights lodging, but no money. The
second group should be supported, however. There are also
bishops and deacons who also conduct the ministry of prophets
and teachers among you (Did. 15:1, unless these are alternate
names for the same group). But 1 Timothy 3:1-7 addresses the
qualifications of the bishop, singular, and 3:8-13, the qualifications
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1 Peter 5
of deacons, plural. Ignatiuss letters, written around 115 or so, take

for granted that there is one bishop and multiple deacons in every
congregation, and argue for giving more authority to the bishop.
First Timothy 5:1, 17-22 gives directions about elders (presbyterois), implying that at least some of them teach and preach, that
they are supported by the congregation, and that they exercise
authority over the congregation. Titus 1:5-9 directs the recipient to
set up elders town by town, but then uses the term bishop
apparently to describe the same set of responsibilities. Since Titus
uses elder and bishop interchangeably, and since the set of qualifications for this elder/bishop office is mostly identical to what is
set out for the bishop in 1 Timothy 3, it is possible that the terms
are interchangeable in 1 Timothy also. This appears to be the case
with 1 Clement, written within a few years of 1 Peter. That author
considers that the apostles appointed bishops and deacons (43:4-5),
who have been succeeded in turn by others whom he calls bishop
(44:4) and elder (44:5; 57:1) without distinction.
Matthew 23:8-11 presents an argument for having no title
greater than deacon (diakonos, servant) and for rejecting any titles
like rabbi, father, or instructor. Luke-Acts, on the other hand,
presents a multi-layered set of leaders: the apostles, who must be
twelve, drawn from those who were with Jesus from the beginning;
the seven, chosen by the whole church, who are supposed to take
care of the distribution of food but who also act as church-starters;
prophets, male and female, who exist in various congregations;
teachers, who also seem to be local-church leaders; and elders, who
exist alongside apostles in the Jerusalem church (Acts 15:22) and
whom Paul and Barnabas appoint in every church (Acts 14:23).
Revelation was addressed to Christian congregations in seven
cities in Asia, and was likely written within a few years of 1 Peter. It
imagines twenty-four elders seated on thrones in heaven, probably representative of the whole people of God. Yet in the seven
letters of chapters 23, where the author addresses issues including
leadership problems, the author does not mention elders, but notes
that the Ephesian church had to deal with false apostles (2:2) while
the Thyatiran church has at least one female prophet within it
(2:20) who is far too liberal in her views for the Revelator.
The upshot of all this is that there was probably no uniform
pattern of church leadership when 1 Peter was written. So when
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231
the author addressed elders among you, we simply cannot know

if that means a council of leaders within each house-church or a
council made up of leaders from each house-church who have
some authority over the individual congregations. We cannot even
assume any sort of trans-congregational organization, so that
council may be too strong a word; perhaps the elders of congregations acted completely independently of each other. Likewise,
when 1 Peter urges the elders, Shepherd the flock of God among
you [pl.], he could have meant that each elder has a flock (see the
discussion below on portions) or that they are to exercise care and
authority collectively. Quite possibly 1 Peter was deliberately
choosing to make his instructions broadly applicable to any form
of leadership rather than arguing, as does Ignatius, for a particular
way of assigning authority.
Fellow-elder is not a title, but part of the authors argument
he, like they, has been called to care for Gods flock. Since
shepherd is used by several Old Testament
Shepherd Images among Philosophers
prophets to represent the leaders of Israel (LXX
Anacharsis to Tereus: No good ruler
Isa 63:11; Jer 2:8; Ezek 34:2-23; Zech 11:3-17),
ruins his subjects, nor does a good shepthe author could simply have been taking up
herd harm his sheep. (in Malherbe, 45)
this ancient image of leadership with all its rich
Diogenes to Metrocles: It is not only bread,
connotations: David the shepherd who became
water, a bed of straw, and a coarse cloak that
king; the Lord is my shepherd; Gods feeding
teach moderation and patience, but also, if one
the flock and gathering the lambs as an image
may speak in this way, the hand of the shepherd.
(in Malherbe, 175)
for the return from the exile (Isa 40:11); etc.
Shepherd was also a Greco-Roman image of
Abraham J. Malherbe, The Cynic Epistles (SBL Sources for
good leadership. [Shepherd Images among Philosophers]
Biblical Study 12; Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1977).
But if the author or any in the audience had ever
heard John 21 read aloud, or if they knew the traditions on which
John 21 was based, they could not have failed to make the connection: Jesus appointed Peter to tend the sheep, the Chief Shepherd
commissioning his reluctant witness, restoring him after his miserable failure, and implying that Peter would this time faithfully
render service until, no longer a youth, he would stretch out his
hands in death (John 21:18).
Here is how to shepherd Gods flock:
Acting as overseer not by compulsion but willingly, according to
GodThe elder must provide leadership in the form of oversight.
The verb episkope was used in ordinary Greek to mean supervise,
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1 Peter 5
Saint Peter Consecrating Saint Asprenus as First Bishop of Naples
Domenico Morelli (18161901). Saint Peter Consecrating Saint Asprenus as First Bishop of Naples. Pinacoteca, Vatican Museums, Vatican State. (Credit:
Scala/Art Resource, NY)
First Peter writes as one elder to other elders. In time, however, Peter was understood to be the first bishop of Rome,
whose consecration of other bishops was an important step in the development of the leadership of the church.
especially of a person who watches over something, like a shrine or

a certain set of civic or cultic responsibilities. Elders should administer as well as minister, in other words, willingly and not by
compulsion. That could mean 1 Peter does not think well of a congregation dragooning someone into the responsibility;5 after all, it
is a serious job, and in 1 Peters day, being an identifiable leader
probably increased the likelihood that one would suffer for faithful
service. But willingly, according to God might also mean that
1 Peter expects those who have been marked for leadership by God
should then respond willingly and not act like the call of God is a
huge burden.
Not greedily but freelyGreedily translates aischrokerds,
which makes an adverb out of shameful profit. Dont shepherd
the flock in a shameful-profit manner: we know what he means,
dont we? It was an ancient problem, the person who served congregations for the money. The adjectival form of this word is a
disqualifier for bishops in 1 Timothy 3:8 and for elders/bishops in
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Titus 1:7, and Didache, while advocating for generously providing

for ministers, nevertheless flatly says, Anyone who says in the
Spirit, Give me money (or something else)dont listen to him!
(Did. 11:12). So, you elders, dont be like that, but shepherd the
flock prothymos, willingly, eagerly, freely.6 The contrast does not
seem to mean gratisdo your work for nothingbut more the
motivation behind itdont do your work primarily for the
money. Polycarps letter to the Philadelphians references an elder
named Valens who apparently had been deposed over money
issues. Polycarp urges his readers to abstain from love of money
and to be pure and truthful (Pol. Phil. 11:1).7
Ruling
Not as those ruling over their portions, but as
The word translated ruling is
those who become examples for the flock
katakyrieuontes, from a verb that can
Portion (klros) means a share of something,
mean lording it over. Thats the word Jesus
like a part of an inheritance. It can also mean
chooses in Luke 22:25 to describe how the
worlds kings rule. The kings of the nations rule
the lotthe stick or pebble or whatever it was
them [or lord it over them] and those who exerthat, shaken out of a jar, indicated Gods choice
cise authority over them are called benefactors.
in a difficult decision. Possibly 1 Peter means
Not so for you: let the greatest among you be like
that each elder has a portion of the flock to
the youngest, and the leader like the servant [lit.,
the diakonos, the deacon] (Luke 22:25-26).
oversee, and over which they should not act like
7
a ruler. [Ruling] It is also possible that portions
is meant to be parallel to flock, and simply means that God has
assigned all the elders to care for the whole flock.9 Examples is
the word type, which means the pattern on which later examples
are fashioned (like the flood is the type for baptism, its antitype,
3:21). If Jesus is the Chief Shepherd, and the elders imitate him,
then they in turn set the pattern for the whole flock.
Sheep and Shepherds
In this arrangement, the sheep learn to be shepherds
Where the shepherd is, there you
should follow as sheep. (Ignatius,
by imitation. [Sheep and Shepherds]
Trallians 2:1)
The whole set of contrasts works against the typical

In the last few years shed come close to
values of 1 Peters day, as well as the values of our
defining all the nameless ambition that had
pushed her this far: to avoid the sheep life
own culture. In Greco-Roman culture, one might
at all costs. (Abraham Verghese, Cutting for
campaign hard for a position of great responsibility
Stone [New York: Knopf, 2009] 50)
that carried no salary or stipendfor instance, the
overseer of a temple or the person responsible for the public market
in a city. People did that with the expectation that they would
invest chunks of their own money into some large project
renovating and decorating the temple, repaving the marketplace,
or adding a new section of covered walkways. But there was
always something to get out of it: fame and reputation, favors
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1 Peter 5
done for favors owed, a

chance to rise on the
ladder of success.10 But
1 Peters ideal elder would
not want power for its
own sake or in order to
make money, and instead
would be a willing leader
who would lead by
example.
Verse 4 closes out the
advice to the elders with a
promise: do your job this
way, and when the Chief
The Good Shepherd (detail). AD 4th5th C. Early Christian mosaic. Basilica Patriarcale, Aquileia,
Shepherd appears, you will
Italy. (Credit: Scala/Art Resource, NY)
receive the unfading, glorious crown. Crowns were given to winners of athletic contests
and as military awards for extreme bravery, as we now give medals.
Unfading is amarantinon, amaranthine, so named because the
Greeks admired the long-lasting flowers of the amaranth.11 [Is Not
This the Land of Beulah?] Glorious is actually of
Is Not This the Land of Beulah?
glorythe phrase might be unfading crown of
I am dwelling on the mountain
glory, but either way it means a crown that symbolWhere the golden sunlight gleams
Oer a land whose wondrous beauty
izes the soon-to-be-revealed glory of the kingdom
Far exceeds my fondest dreams;
that Christ will fully inaugurate at his coming (5:1).
The Good Shepherd
Where the air is pure, ethereal,

Laden with the breath of flowrs,
They are blooming by the fountain,
Neath the amaranthine bowrs.
Is not this the land of Beulah?
Blessed, blessed land of light?
Where the flowers bloom forever,
And the sun is always bright.
I am drinking at the fountain,

Where I ever would abide;
For Ive tasted lifes pure river,
And my soul is satisfied.
Theres no thirsting for lifes pleasures,
Nor adorning, rich and gay,
For Ive found a richer treasure,
One that fadeth not away.
William Hunter, c. 1884.
[Early Christian Use of Crown Images]
As an Elder to the Young People, 5:5

Likewise, young folks, be subject to the elders.
Everybody clothe yourself with a humble frame of
mind towards each other, because God displaces the
proud but gives grace to the humble.
The list of qualities for the elders makes clear that
they exercise some kind of authority over the congregations. However, the neteroi, young ones, are
given advice that should apply to everyone: be
humble, subject yourselves to the elders. Thus while
this could be an unusual word for deacons or some
other form of leadership under the direction of the
elders, it seems more likely that 1 Peter means
young folks to include everyone who is not an
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1 Peter 5
Early Christian Use of Crown Images
Paul uses the phrase joy and crown twice
(Phil 4:1; 1 Thess 2:19) to describe a Christian
congregation as his reward for faithful service. He also
uses crown as a symbol for eternal life (2 Cor 9:25).
In 2 Tim 4:8, the crown of righteousness will be
awarded by Christ to Paul on Judgment Day. Here, of
righteousness probably means as a reward reserved
for the righteous; the reward itself, symbolized by the
crown, is probably intended to be eternal life in the presence of Christ. (Kelly, 20910)
Jas 1:12 promises the crown of life for those who
endure temptation/persecution; here, the crown probably is symbolic of eternal life.
Revelation uses crowns constantly: as a promised
reward of life for staying faithful until death (Rev 2:10,
crown of life; so 3:11); as a sign of authority and/or
235
eternal life for the righteous who are already in heaven

(4:4, 10; 12:1); as a sign of earthly authority granted by
God, even when used for destructive purposes (6:2; 9:7;
14:14); as a sign of evil authority originating from Satan
(12:3, using a different word for crown; 13:1).
2 Clem. 7:1-6 and 20:1-4, like James, use crown to
stand for eternal life, and urge the readers to keep competing, as in an athletic contest, so that they will win the
crown promised them at the end.
Ign. Magn. 13:1 compares the council of elders in the
church to a spiritual crown worthily woven.
Mart. Pol. 17:1, 19:2 use imperishable crown or
crown of immortality to mean the eternal life promised
to the noble martyr Polycarp.
J. N. D. Kelly, A Commentary on the Pastoral Epistles (Peabody MA:
Hendrickson, 1960).
elder.12 This might be a semiplayful moveif your leaders are

called elders, then everyone else is younguns, no matter what
their age. [Youths Need Humility] It might, on the other hand, indicate
that the author assumes that most of the older and more experienced members of the congregations to whom he is writing exercise
some authority; in small, house-based or
Youths Need Humility
apartment-based cell groups, the leadership
Certain old men said, If thou seest a young
man ascending by his own will up to heaven
circle that made decisions for the rest might
catch him by the foot and throw him down upon
include all or almost all the adults. [Youths]
earth, for it is not expedient for him. (The Sayings of
Note that elder and younger are mascuthe Fathers X.111, in Waddell, 107)
line terms, but especially if they are meant
Clearly I was a sign of how far the country had gone
between them to include all the members of
downhill: an eighteen-year-old kid with no future,
the congregations, they could be meant to be
sleeping in the basement with a dying dog. Bob left
gender-inclusive or could have been interAir Force brochures on the breakfast table, hoping Id
preted that way. To be plain, we have no way
read them and something would click. One August
morning, when a postcard arrived from the University
to tell whether 1 Peter thought that women
saying Id been accepted for fall quarter, he warned
served as elders in some of these congregame against certain people I would find there, atheists
tions, but the term would have included
and lefties and the sort of men who like to put their
women elders if there were any.
arms around young guys . . . . guys like you, who
think youre better than other people, have a lot of
Everyone gets an exhortation to be humbleweaknesses you dont find out about until its too
minded toward each other. Clothe
late. I just wish youd listen, thats all. But youre
yourselves derives from the name of an
going to have to find out the hard way, I guess.
apron or other garment that one ties on;
(Keillor, 18)
some classical Greek writers use it to mean
Helen Waddell, The Desert Fathers (Ann Arbor: The University of
what a slave wore when working.13 As proof
Michigan Press, 1957).
Garrison Keillor, Lake Wobegon Days (New York: Penguin, 1985).
that this is indeed Gods will, 1 Peter quotes
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Youths
1 Clement is a letter written from the church at
Rome to the church at Corinth, asking the
Corinthians to repent of their decision to depose their
church leaders. The author characterizes the motive for
the revolt as jealousy, and says that from this base
motive the dishonorable rose up against the honorable,
those with no reputation against those with reputation,
the senseless against the wise, the youths against the
elders (1 Clem. 3:3). Here elders is probably the
name of an office, but youths is probably a piece of
rhetoric, since it is likely that anyone with enough
authority to depose an elder would himself/herself be of
the age and status to be considered an elder. Later the
author writes, We should respect our leaders, honor
our elders, train our youths in the curriculum of the fear
of God . . . (21:6); in this passage, elder and youth
seem to be age divisions and not office titles.
Polycarp, writing to the Philippians, gives advice to

deacons about their conduct (5:2), and then writes,
Likewise the youths also should be blameless in everything, before everyone taking thought for purity, keeping
themselves in check from all evil . . . therefore it is necessary [for them] to abstain from all these things, being
subject to the elders and deacons as to God and to
Christ (5:3). Since Polycarp includes deacons in his list
of those to whom the youths should be subject, it is
easier to see that he means younger people generally.
1 John 2:12-14 addresses children, fathers, and
youths. There are plenty of opinions about this
passage. Children usually means the whole audience
in 1 John, but fathers and youths might divide the
group into old folks/young folks, or into long-time converts/recent converts; or they might be Johannine-speak
for leadership roles like elders and deacons.
LXX Proverbs 3:34, substituting God for the Lord. The same
form of the quote is found at James 4:6 and Ignatius, Ephesians 5:3,
once more raising the question of whether all three early Christians
were using the same variant translation of Proverbs, or whether one
or more of the authors was reading one or more of the others (see
the discussion at 4:8).
Dont Worry, Stay Awake, Fight the Lion (and Other Helpful
Advice), 5:6-11
Structure
The so in v. 6 (oun, therefore, so then) makes the command
humble yourselves depend on what was just said in v. 5 about
subjecting oneself to the elders, since God honors the humble but
resists the proud. This section, like the ends of several of Pauls
letters, piles up exhortations: be humble, stay awake, resist the
devil, and remember that your suffering has an end and that you
are not the only one going through tough times. The main body of
the letter concludes with a benediction (vv. 10-11) that is more an
assertion than a wish, ending with the same note of confidence in
the readers as at the letters beginning.
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The Advice, 5:6-11

So humble yourselves under Gods powerful hand, so that he may
raise you at the Time, casting all your worries upon him, because
he is concerned about you. Be serious, stay awake. Your adversary
the devil is walking around like a roaring lion, looking for
someone to gulp down; whom you should resist, steadfast in faith,
since you know that the same sufferings are being completed by
your brothers and sisters in the world. Now the God of all grace,
who called you into his eternal glory in Christ Jesus, once you have
suffered a little while will himself restore, support, strengthen,
[and] establish [you]. To him be power for ever, Amen.
The letter we call 1 Clement was sent from Rome to Corinth
close to the time 1 Peter was composed; some think 1 Clement used
1 Peter as a source, while others think the two were roughly contemporary and were probably both reading and hearing some of
the same material. The Corinthian church had deposed its elders,
and the author of 1 Clement thought it was a terrible thing, the
result of jealousy and factionalism. He writes to try to get the
church to repent and to restore their leaders, and so he talks a lot
about humble-mindedness, using the same word 1 Peter does
(tapeinophrosyn and the cognate verb):
And so we should be humble-minded, brothers, setting aside all
arrogance and conceit and foolishness and anger (13:1).
For Christ is of the humble-minded, not of those who lift
themselves up over his flock. Gods majestic scepter, the Lord Jesus
Christ, did not come with showy arrogance or haughtiness
although he could havebut with humble-mindedness (16:1-2).
Abraham . . . said, as he looked humble-mindedly upon Gods
glory, I am earth and ashes (17:2).
Let the humble-minded not testify for himself, but allow
another to testify for him; let the one who is pure in the flesh not
be arrogant, since he knows that Another has provided him with
self-control (38:2).
These examples probably give us a reasonable idea of what
1 Peter means by his focus on humility at the end of this letter. In
3:8 he urges everyone to be humble (in addition to other virtues),
which fits with the respect everyone emphasis of 2:113:7. In
5:5, tie on humble-mindedness so closely follows subject your-
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Humility
The world humiliation can be understood in many
different ways. It may be self-induced, as when
someone who is starting out on the way of virtue
humbles himself in repentance for the sins which he has
committed. It may be what one sees in those who are
closer to perfection when they voluntarily agree not to
pursue their rights but to live in peace with their neighbors. And of course, it may be what we see when a
person is caught up in the whirlwinds of persecution and
his spirit is unbowed thanks to the power of patience.
(The Venerable Bede, On 1 Peter; in Bray, 124)
Mr. Podsnap was well-to-do, and stood very high in Mr.
Podsnaps opinion. Beginning with a good inheritance,
he had married a good inheritance, and had thriven
exceedingly in the Marine Insurance way, and was
quite satisfied. He never could make out why everybody
was not quite satisfied, and he felt conscious that he set
a brilliant social example in being particularly well satis-
fied with most things, and above all other things, with
himself. . . .
And as so eminently respectable a man, Mr. Podsnap
was sensible of it being required of him to take
Providence under his protection. Consequently he always
knew exactly what Providence meant. Inferior and less
respectable men might fall short of that mark, but Mr.
Podsnap was always up to it. And it was very remarkable
(and must have been very comfortable) that what
Providence meant, was invariably what Mr. Podsnap
meant.
These may be said to have been the articles of a faith
and school which the present chapter takes the liberty of
calling, after its representative man, Podsnappery.
(Dickens, 13031)
Gerald Bray, ed., James (ACCS 11; Downers Grove IL: InterVarsity, 2000).
Charles Dickens, Our Mutual Friend (18641865; repr., New York: Dodd,
Mead, and Co., 1951).
selves to the elders that 1 Peter, like 1 Clement, may have proper
respect for church leaders as his main focus. Here, in 5:6, humility
is intended as a more general way of life, because what part of the
Christians life would not be under Gods powerful hand? The
contrast 1 Clement draws between humble-mindedness and
things like arrogance, conceit, anger, and haughtiness is helpful for
knowing how to be properly situated under Gods handand
hopeful of being lifted up in the Timeat the Last Day. [Humility]
James 4:6-10 makes many of the same points as this section of
1 Peter:
God resists the proud, but gives grace
to the humble
James 4:6
1 Peter 5:5
Subject yourselves therefore to God
James 4:7
1 Peter 5:6
Resist the devil
James 4:7
1 Peter 5:9
Humble yourselves before the Lord
James 4:10
1 Peter 5:6
And he will lift you up
James 4:10
1 Peter 5:6
The similarities show up the differences, however. First Peter has

none of Jamess wash your hands, sinners, and cleanse your hearts,
you double-minded! By contrast, 1 Peter, while exhorting the
readers to do certain things, does not suggest that they are failing to
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Cast All Your Cares on God

do them. And instead of commanding his
There is a sadness that is helpful and a
readers to mourn and weep, as James does, he
sadness that is destructive. It is a funcinstead tells them that they should humble
tion of the useful sorrow, then, to lament about
themselves while (or even by) casting all their
ones own sins as well as the ignorance of ones
neighbors, but also to avoid falling away from
cares on God. [Cast All Your Cares on God] Casting
ones purpose and to achieve the goal of goodis literally to throw upon, like a blanket over a
ness. These concerns, therefore, are the signs of
horse (Luke 19:35); the psalmist used it as a
a sorrow that is legitimate and good. There is also
vivid image of Gods care: Cast your worries
another kind of sorrow, prompted by the Enemy,
which knows how to merge with the first kind.
upon the Lord, and he will sustain you (LXX
For he himself imposes a sorrow, completely irraPs 54:23). Your worries are not the same as
tional, which by some has also been called
Gods concern. The first (merimnas) are more
akedia. This spirit, therefore, must be driven off
like anxieties, concern over things you cannot
especially by prayer and psalmody.
Life of Syncletica, cited in Hugh Feiss, Essential Monastic
change or control; these are what Jesus warned
Wisdom: Writings on the Contemplative Life (New York:
against in the lilies of the field section of the
HarperCollins, 1999) 13.
Sermon on the Mount (Matt 6:25-34). The
second (melei) describes taking an interest in something; God cares
for all of Gods creation, and so you can presume that God takes an
interest in you. [Hopkins on Patience]
Hopkins on Patience
Be serious, stay awake translates two verbs
Patience, hard thing! the hard thing but
that are almost always used in the New
to pray,
Testament about proper behavior in light of the
But bid for, Patience is! Patience who asks
Wants war, wants wounds; weary his times, his
end of all things.14 The first verb (npsate) is littasks;
erally be sober! or even sober up! Here, be
To do without, take tosses, and obey.
serious or stay focused is more the idea. First
Gerard Manley Hopkins, Poem #45, in Gerard Manley
Peter uses the verb for stay awake only here,
Hopkins: Poems and Prose (New York: Penguin,1953) 62.
but it appears in Matthew and Mark in the
Temple Sermon (Mark 13:34, 35, 37; Matt 24:42, 43; 25:13) and
then in the scene in Gethsemane when Jesus has to awaken Peter,
James, and John three times (Mark 14:34, 37, 38; Matt 26:38, 40,
41). Remind yourself of how it goes in Mark: Jesus takes the three
with him and tells them, stay here and stay awake [grgoreite]
(14:34). He goes off to pray, and he returns and finds them
sleeping and says to Peter, Simon, are you sleeping? Arent you
strong enough to stay awake [grgorsai] for one hour? Stay awake
[grgoreite] and pray, lest you come into temptation (14:37-38).
First Peters readers have heard these stories, or other versions of
them, read aloud in worship. They would know that Peter failed to
stay awake in the hour of temptation and would understand how
easily one can fall asleep.
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Resist Lions
They used to tell of John, who was disciple to the
abbot Paul, that he was of great obedience.
There was in a certain place a memorial monument, and
in it lived a most evil lioness. The old man, seeing her
dung about the place, said to John, Go and take away
that dung. And he said, But what shall I do, Father,
about the lioness? And the old man smiling, said to him,
If she comes out at thee, bind her and bring her here.
So the brother set out that evening, and behold the
lioness came out upon him; but he, obeying the old mans
word, made a rush at her, to take her. The lioness fled,
and he following after, saying, Wait, for my abbot told
me to bind thee! (The Saying of the Fathers, XIV.4; in
Waddell, 11415)
And Thecla, having been taken from the hands of
Tryphaena, was stripped and received a girdle and was
thrown into the arena. And lions and bears were let loose
on her. And a fierce lioness ran up and lay down at her
feet. And the multitude of women cried aloud. And a bear
ran upon her, but the lioness went to meet it and tore the
bear to pieces. And again a lion that had been trained to
fight against men . . . ran upon her. And the lioness,
encountering the lion, was killed along with it. (Acts of
Paul and Thecla 33; in Elliott, 370)
Jesus said: Blessed is the lion which the man eats and
the lion will become man; and cursed is the man whom
the lion eats and the lion will become man. (Gos. Thom.,
Logion 7)
Helen Waddell, The Desert Fathers (Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan
Press, 1957).
The believer must stay awake and alert, because there is a lion
out there, waiting to gulp you down. [Resist Lions] The verb katapin
can be used literally (the great fish did it to Jonah, according to
LXX Jonah 2:1), but it often means destroy or overwhelm.15
The devil does not want simply to tempt you to cheat on your
income tax, in other words, but to ruin you; you need to take this
seriously. The early church thought that some sins were dealbreakers with Godsins unto death, as 1 John 5:16-17 puts
itand Revelation, addressed to Christians in some of the same
areas covered by 1 Peter, counts idol-worship
Seeking Whom He May Devour
and emperor-worship as sins that will get your
This Phoenician ivory (9th8th C. BC) depicts a
name left out of the Lambs book of life.
lioness eating a man.
Hebrews 6:1-4 regards apostasy the same way:
if you ever fell away, you could not come back.
First Peter never really addresses this issue, but
since the presumptive author is the prime
example of someone who could deny Christ
and be forgiven for it, it is hard to imagine
what this author would count as an unpardonable sin. Nevertheless, temptation is real, the
devil is dangerous, and so Christians must be
ever alert.
The good news is that you can resist [him],
steadfast in faith. Christ already showed you
From the palace of Ashumasirpal II, Nimrud, northern Iraq.
how: as a roaring lion is a quotation from
British Museum, London. (Credit: R. Vinson)
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1 Peter 5
LXX Psalm 21:14, the psalm that

begins, My God, my God, pay
attention to me; why have you
abandoned me? Most early
Christians, having heard the
Passion stories read (especially
from Mark or Matthew), interpreted LXX Psalm 21 (in English
Bibles, Ps 22) as predictive of
Jesus. Thusas 1 Peter has been
arguing for the whole letter
Christs followers must imitate
him, resisting Satan not through
violence, but through steadfast,
loyal obedience to God, entrusting
themselves to the One who is able
to raise them from the dead. [Draw
241
Christ Militant
Near to God]
Sometimes when one suffers, it

Christ Militant wearing the uniform of a Roman Legionnaire, a snake and a lion
helps to know that others are
under his feet. Byzantine mosaic. 6th C. Museo Arcivescovile, Ravenna, Italy.
going through the same thing,
even if you cannot see them. That
In this mosaic, Christ is dressed as a soldier, demonstrating his
is the strategy behind the last part
power. His right foot on the lions head and his left on the head of
of v. 9, the only time in the letter
the snake combine two ancient Christian images for the devil. He
that 1 Peter has referred to a
holds the cross and a book reading I am the way, the truth, and
the life.
worldwide
community
of
16
believers.
Strictly speaking,
Christians at this time were not all going through the exact same
thing; in some places and at some times, the burdens of persecution were greater. But it was a safe bet to say that all suffer, that all
must resist Satans temptation, that each little
Draw Near to God
group will be better for having considered the
And now fear the Lord, my children, be
effect of their conduct on others. The author of
on guard against Satan and his spirits.
the mid-second-century Martyrdom of Polycarp
Draw near to God and to the angel who intercommends Polycarps example and suggests we
cedes for you, because he is the mediator
between God and men for the peace of Israel. He
might also become his imitators, considering
shall stand in opposition to the kingdom of the
not only ourselves, but our neighbors as well; for
enemy. Therefore the enemy is eager to trip up all
love true and confirmed wishes not only to save
who call on the Lord, because he knows that on
oneself but also all ones neighbors (Mart. Pol.
that day in which Israel trusts, the enemys
kingdom will be brought to an end.
1:2).
T. Dan 6:1-3 (2d century BC).
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This section closes with another benediction. The God of all

grace might be the all-gracious God or the God from whom all
gifts comeeither way, it is a good beginning for a benediction!
This God has set as your goal his eternal glory in Christ Jesus,
meaning participation in the blessings of the end. Once you have
suffered a little while is just two words in Greek: oligon, little,
and pathontas, having suffered. The little could modify the participle, meaning that you have suffered only a little bit, but most
think the author is making a contrast of the glorious future eternity
and the therefore relatively brief present time that includes suffering. The four verbs all describe what God will do to get the
readers from the present to the glorious future: God will
restore. Katartiz means to put something back in order, such
as torn fishing nets (Matt 4:21). First Peter suspects that many of
the readers need this after their lives and families have been torn by
their enemies.
support. Striz means to make something permanent, like the
heavens (1 Clem. 33:3, by his pre-eminent power he established
the heavens) or Sheol (Luke 16:26, a great chasm has been established between us and you). If God sets them on their foundation,
the readers will not be shaken by hard times.
strengthen. Stheno means to make strong.17 It is a rare verb;
the noun sthenos, strength, was common among classical Greek
writers such as Euripides and Aeschylus.18 The noun means
strength of all sorts, including moral authority, and so it was a good
all-purpose word for a benediction.
establish. Themelio means to lay the foundation of a house, or
to secure something by fixing it firmly in place.19
All four verbs fit well the situation of a community harassed by
outsiders and needing Gods care: put back to rights, settled back
onto its foundation, fixed permanently, and made stronger than
ever. All four verbs are in the future tense, making this benediction
less of a request than a promise; 1 Peter is not praying for this to
happen, but confirming that it will happen.
Conclusion, 5:12-14
I have briefly written this to you [and sent it] by Silvanus, whom I
reckon a faithful brother, urging and bearing witness that this is the
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true grace of God in which you must stand. Your chosen sister in
Babylon greets you, as does my son Mark. Greet one another with
the kiss of love. Peace to all of you in Christ.
Silvanus is a Greek form of the Hebrew name Silas. Paul
names him in 1 Thessalonians 1:1, 2 Thessalonians 1:1, and
2 Corinthians 1:19 using this same spelling. Acts 15:22, spelling
the name Silas, identifies him as a member of the original
Jerusalem church and a leader who was one of those appointed to
take the letter from the Apostolic Council to the Gentile churches.
After Paul and Barnabas separated, according to Acts, Silas became
Pauls steady partner in church planting. Thus anyone hearing
Pauls letters read aloud in church would know this name; anyone
knowing the stories of Acts would also conclude that Silas/Silvanus
knew Peter and Paul intimately. Contrast Romans 16:1-2 as an
introduction to Phoebe, that letters courier; Paul gives a much
fuller and more rousing testimony to her character and status. The
understated whom I reckon a faithful brother works simply
because the author can be certain that the readers have heard the
name before and know his reputation, but had never met him
personally.20
Older commentaries sometimes thought that by Silvanus
meant the author of 1 Peter had dictated it to Silas, who actually
composed the letter in Greek.21 More recent commentators agree
that by Silvanus designates the letters courier, not the letters
amanuensis.22 For reasons described in the introduction, I do not
think the Apostle Peter composed this letter, and so therefore think
it is unlikely that the Silas of Acts was its courier. Possibly the
courier was named Silvanus but was not the famous one;23
however, I think that if this letter was carried by an actual but relatively unknown Silas/Silvanus who represented himself as the close
friend and associate of Peter, he would need a stronger commendation than this one. Plus, my son Mark in v. 13 adds a character
who was considered to be Peters interpreter by some secondcentury Christians. It is more plausible to me that the author
expects the readers to hear Silvanus and think of the man who
traveled with Paul and to hear Mark and think of the man who
wrote what he could remember of Peters preaching. If Peter is a
pseudonym, then so, most likely, are Silvanus and Mark.
Then why put them in? If these two did not carry the letter, why
include them? For the same reason that the real author of the letter
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did not append his real

name, namely that he
calculated that Peter,
Silas, and Mark carried
far more weight in the
early church than his
own name. The Gospels
were anonymous at first,
but then they were
telling the stories and
repeating the words of
Jesusthe
narrators
The Apostles Peter and Paul. Sepulchre of the Child Asellus. Early Christian, after AD 313. Vatican
Museums, Vatican State. (Credit: Erich Lessing/Art Resource, NY)
identity did not matter
so much. In a letter,
In this early 4th-century sepulchre painting, Peter and Paul appear together,
however, the writers
as they often do in this period, signifying how the two early apostles were
considered equally foundational for the church.
persona matters tremendously. If you know the
letter writer to be a fool or a hypocrite, you pay it no attention; if
you do not know the writers name or reputation, you may still pay
it no attention because you wonder what makes him think he can
give you advice. Thus all but two of the New Testament letters are
from identified authors. Only Hebrews and 1 John are not, and
Hebrews was accepted very early because people believed Paul
wrote it24 and 1 John because it sounds so much like the Fourth
Gospel that people attributed it to the Beloved Disciple.25
Peter and Paul
[Pseudonymity]
Whoever wrote 5:12 did so urging and bearing witness that this
is the true grace of God in which you must stand. Urge is the
verb from 5:1, where Peter exhorts or strongly encourages the
elders to tend Gods flock; it is a word that can mean beg, but
was probably intended to carry more weight than a suggestion or
even a heartfelt request. Bear witness also reaches back to 5:1,
where 1 Peter self-identifies as a witness, a martys, of Christs sufferings. This verb (epimartyre) means to attest to somethingto
bear witness that it is true.26 This that 1 Peter has writtenan
exhortation to remain true to the faith, in the face of suffering,
because of the Christly character and godly purpose of that sufferingis the true grace. Is there a hint in the letters final
exhortation of competing messages that would not be the true
grace? If so, we can only speculate what they might be: perhaps
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245
Christian messages like Revelation that, no less than 1 Peter, asked

the readers to stand firm in their faith, but had none of 1 Peters
optimism that virtuous living by Christians might convert the
wicked. Or perhaps this closing exhortation is simply a reminder to
do what the letter urges; do not just read it and think about it, but
this is where you must take your stand.
Your chosen sister in Babylon greets you. Because Babylon
became the way early Christians referred to Rome, and because
ancient Christian tradition has it that Peter left Palestine for Rome,
most interpreters understand Babylon to mean Rome. In
Revelation, the name is derogatory, identifying the city and the
empire with the ancient enemy of Gods people. Perhaps 1 Peter
Pseudonymity
Ancient Jews and Christians wrote lots of
gospels, letters, acts, and apocalypses under
assumed names. Jewish pseudonymous writings that
predate Christians include 1 Enoch, the Treatise of Shem,
the Apocalypse of Zephaniah, and the Testaments of the
Twelve Patriarchs (twelve separate documents, each
purporting to be by one of the twelve sons of Jacob).
Christians wrote gospels of Peter, Mary, Philip,
Nicodemus, and Judas; acts of Peter, Paul (and Thecla),
Andrew, John, and Thomas; apocalypses of Peter, Paul,
and Thomas; and letters of Barnabas, Paul to the
Laodiceans, Paul to Seneca, and Abgar to Jesus. Clearly,
then, it was a reasonably common thing for people to do
if they wanted to borrow the authority of a famous
person or imaginatively construct what a saint might
have said to a later time.
1 Enoch, containing visions, parables, and predictions
supposedly experienced by the mysterious character
from Genesis 5:21-24 who walked with God and then
was no more, for God took him, was well regarded by
many Jews and Christians in antiquity. Multiple fragments of 1 Enoch were found among the Dead Sea
Scrolls, indicating that the community there owned at
least seven copies. No modern interpreter seriously
imagines that the Enoch spoken of in Genesis actually
wrote the book that bears his name, yet Jude 14-15
quotes 1 En. 1:9, citing it as an authoritative witness to
the second coming of Jesus. Somehow our understanding of biblical authority must be able to entertain
the possibility that a text could be both pseudonymous
and God-given.
Karen Jobes, who concludes that the apostle probably wrote 1 Peter, nevertheless says that authorship
and authority are separable issues: any legitimate literary form of the [authors] time must be allowed a
biblical author when so moved by the Holy Spirit to
adopt it (14). Whoever wrote this epistle was moved to
address the issue of suffering in so powerful and helpful
a fashion that the letter was quickly regarded as apostolic; in the end, that judgment by the church makes it
authoritative, not our decisions about its authorship.
Jobes argues that the examples of Laodiceans and 3
Corinthians show that once Christians discovered that a
work was pseudonymous, they rejected it (15). The Acts
of Paul (and Thecla) contains 3 Corinthians (which may
have circulated separately at some point). According to
Tertullian (writing around 200), the document was composed by a presybter in Asia Minor and was a support
for women being able to preach and teach. Tertullian
claims that the author was found out, and though he
professed he had done it for love of Paul, was deposed
from his position (Bapt. 17). Tertullian continues: How
could we believe that Paul should give a female power
to teach and to baptize, when he did not allow a woman
even to learn by her own right? Let them keep silence,
he says, and ask their husbands at home (Bapt. 17).
Tertullian considered the document inauthentic because
it was unorthodox on that point.
In Col 4:16 Paul refers to a letter he wrote to the
Laodiceans. There is such a letter, only twenty verses
long, that reads like a blend of Philippians, Galatians, and
Colossians. The Muratorian Canon (usually dated
between 150200) lists it as a forgery, but it appears in
some later Latin manuscripts of the Bible, including the
sixth-century Fuldensis and the ninth-century Cavensis
and Ardmachanus. Gregory the Great favored its canon-
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icity, stating that the Church had restricted the number

of Pauls letters to create the significant number of fourteen (Elliott, 544).
One more example involving Tertullian: He begins De
cultu feminarum (On the Apparel of Women) by arguing
that the female custom of wearing makeup and jewelry
began when the angels of Genesis 6 revealed these
secrets to the women with whom they consorted.
Have sinners ever been able to show and provide anything conducive to holiness, unlawful lovers anything
contributing to chastity, rebel angels anything promoting
the fear of God? If, indeed, we must call what they
passed on teachings, then evil teachers must of necessity have taught evil lessons (Cult. fem. 1.2.1). Its a
great rhetorical movea fruit of the poisoned tree
argument. Tertullians problem is that this story is found,
not in the Bible, but in 1 Enoch, and I am aware that the
Book of Enoch which assigns this role to the angels is
not accepted because it is not admitted into the Jewish
canon (Cult. fem. 1.3.1). But then Tertullian (who was a
lawyer, after all) argues that Enoch should count as
authoritative anyway: Since Enoch in this same book

tells us of our Lord, we must not reject anything at all
which really pertains to us. Do we not read that every
word of Scripture useful for edification is divinely
inspired? . . . To all that we may add the fact that we
have a testimony to Enoch in the Epistle of Jude the
Apostle (Cult. fem. 1.3.3).
We see then that even if one early believer judged a
work inauthentic, another might accept it, long after one
might have supposed that these issues were more or
less settled. Tertullians principle seems to have been
that if a work was orthodox and useful, it was fair game.
So had some early Christians suspected that 1 Peter
was not really by Peter the apostle, they might have
stopped using it, but others may have reasoned that it
was simply too useful for edification to be anything but
inspired.
Karen Jobes, 1 Peter (Baker Exegetical Commentary on the New
Testament; Grand Rapids MI: Baker Academic, 2005).
means it that way, too; recall the description of the ways of the
Gentiles in 4:3-5. But 1 Peter has none of the invective of
Revelation: e.g., Babylon the great, mother of whores and of
earths abominations (17:5). Perhaps the author
Babylon
used it as a symbol of his status as a displaced
Two societies are prominent in the bibperson writing to others like himself.27 In any
lical witness. There is Babylon, and there
event, Christians in other parts of the empire
is also Jerusalem.
Babylon is the city of death, Jerusalem is the
hearing this verse would likely have assumed it
city of salvation; Babylon, the dominion of alienmeant Rome, since that is where they underation, babel, slavery, war, Jerusalem, the
stood Peter to have gone, and especially if they
community of reconciliation, sanity, freedom,
had heard Revelation read aloud. [Babylon]
peace; Babylon, the harlot, Jerusalem, the bride
of God; Babylon, the realm of demons and foul
Your chosen sister is an attempt to translate
spirits, Jerusalem, the dwelling place in which all
syneklekt, a feminine noun meaning someone
creatures are fulfilled; Babylon, an abomination to
jointly chosen with the writer. First Peter probthe Lord, Jerusalem, the holy nation; Babylon,
ably means the Christian communitythe
doomed, Jerusalem, redeemed.
collection of house-churchesin Babylon, or
William Stringfellow, An Ethic for Christians and Other Aliens in a
Strange Land (Waco TX: Word, 1973) 34.
Rome. They send their greetings along with
Mark. The readers are then enjoined to greet one another with the
kiss of love, which, from all we can tell, early Christians were
inclined to do with each other anyway. To see why this mattered,
compare the way Paul closed 1 Thessalonians: Greet all the
brothers [and sisters] with a holy kiss. I command you in the Lord
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to have this letter read to all the brothers [and sisters] (1 Thess
5:26-27). The exhortation, then, is not just a give everybody a hug
from me, but a closing stress on unity across house-churches. The
small groups that met in homes and apartments were naturally very
close, but may have needed some reminders that Christian fellowship was bigger than that. The closing benedictionthe third in
this letterpeace to all of you in Christ works equally well as the
conclusion of the letter and as the content of what these believers
would say to each other along with the kiss of love.
CONNECTIONS
Robert K. Greenleaf, writing about the difference between those
who lead first and those who lead by service, says that the servantfirst leader strives to make sure that other peoples highest priority
needs are being served. That seems pretty obvious, until he
expands it a bit:
The best test, and difficult to administer, is: Do those served grow as
persons? Do they, while being served, become healthier, wiser, freer,
more autonomous, more likely themselves to become servants? And,
what is the effect on the least privileged in society; will they benefit,
or, at least, not be further deprived?28
Servant leadership runs the risks of enabling laziness or irresponsibility and of promoting dependency. Greenleaf s tests caution us
that serving a congregation is not the same as thinking or doing for
themthat leads to unpleasant results, including the burnout of
the servant leader. First Peters model of leadership is a shepherd
whose care, motivated by free submission to Gods call, becomes an
example to the flocka shepherd whose sheep learn to be shepherds.
For their part, the sheep, now addressed as youths, are to
subject themselves to their leaders. Church is a voluntary organization, after allleaders cannot lead if congregations are unwilling to
follow. But the scenario is saved from mere top-down patriarchy by
the exhortation that all, leaders included, are to dress themselves
with true humility. Ministers and Bible teachers will know how
hard this is in real life, but will also see it as an ideal worthy of our
best attempts.
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The final section of this letter calls us to be firm in our faith and
to resist the devil, whom 1 Peter depicts as a roaring lion.
Revelation, written close to 1 Peters composition, describes Satan
as a dragon whose evil suffuses the Roman Empire. His metaphor
for the Christian life is conquering, not through violent means, but
by refusing to participate in the empires rituals. First Peter is not
prepared to say that the evil lion speaks through the emperor in the
way that Revelation has the priests of the imperial cult speak with
the voice of the dragon (Rev 13:11); 1 Peters advice, remember, is
that Christians show proper respect to the emperor, but no more
than they show to anybody else. First Peters resist the devil does
not go so far as the Revelators conquer1 Peters image allows
for a longer struggle and calls for repeated acts of bravery, facing up
to evil in its many dimensions. What shape does the lion take in
your communityracism, unfair wages, inadequate housing?
What can you and your congregation do to resist?
Notes
1. The participle episkopountes is found neither in the original version of Codex
Sinaiticus nor in Codex Vaticanusthese are two very ancient and reliable manuscripts, so when they agree to omit something it gives one pause. The oldest papyrus
includes it, as do most manuscripts and most ancient versions. If the shorter text was
original, then the insertion must have happened early in the copying process, since the
longer text has both early and broad support. The shorter text has a more balanced parallelism, and may have arisen either from esthetic considerations or from the desire to
keep the offices of presbyter and bishop separate. I will treat the longer text as original.
Grand Rapids MI: Baker Academic, 2005) 299.
3. Paul J. Achtemeier, 1 Peter (Hermeneia; Minneapolis: Fortress, 1996) 32324;
Joel B. Green, 1 Peter (Two Horizons Commentary; Grand Rapids MI: Eerdmans, 2007)
165, and Jobes, 1 Peter, 301, tend to read witness and suffering broadly enough to
fit Simon Peters experience. He did see Jesus suffer in many different ways even if he
did not witness the Saviors death, and then he testified to it, as did the rest of the
apostles.
4. Achtemeier, 1 Peter, 32324; John H. Elliott, 1 Peter (AB; New York: Doubleday,
2000) 819; M. Eugene Boring, 1 Peter (ANTC; Nashville: Abingdon, 1999) 167.
6. BAGD, 870.
7. Because of this reference, Achtemeier, 1 Peter, 32627, makes the intriguing
suggestion that 1 Peter is warning the elders to be transparent in their money dealings.
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8. Boring, 1 Peter, 170; Leonhard Goppelt, A Commentary on 1 Peter (ed.
Ferdinand Hahn; trans. John E. Alsup; Grand Rapids MI: Eerdmans, 1993) 347; Green,
1 Peter, 168.
9. Elliott, 1 Peter, 831
10. Green, 1 Peter, 16667.
11. BAGD, 49; Achtemeier, 1 Peter, 330.
12. So Achtemeier, 1 Peter, 33132; Boring, 1 Peter, 172; Green, 1 Peter, 169;
Goppelt, Commentary, 35051. Elliott, 1 Peter, 83840, makes the plausible suggestion
that it means the recent converts, who need to pay especially close attention to the
elders.
17. BAGD, 922.
18. Henry George Liddell and Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon (Oxford:
19. BAGD, 449.
21. Edward Gordon Selwyn, The First Epistle of St. Peter (London: MacMillan,
1952) 1017, argues that Silvanus was not only the amanuensis for the letter but was
likely to have had some influence over the expressions used in the letter.
22. Jobes, 1 Peter, 32021, agrees with this statement, but then adds that while
by Silvanus does not mean that Silvanus acted as Peters secretary, it also does not
prove he didnt, and so the question of an amanuensis must be decided on other
grounds.
23. Achtemeier, 1 Peter, 350-51.
24. Harold W. Attridge, Hebrews (Philadelphia: Fortress, 1989) 13.
25. Raymond E. Brown, The Epistles of John (Garden City NY: Doubleday, 1982)
813.
26. BAGD, 375.
28. Robert K. Greenleaf, Servant Leadership (New York: Paulist, 1977) 1314.
249
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Bibliography
Achtemeier, Paul J. 1 Peter. Hermeneia. Minneapolis: Fortress, 1996.
Adamson, Gil. The Outlander. New York: HarperCollins, 2008.
Kempis, Thomas. The Imitation of Christ. Translated by Betty I. Knott. London:
Collins, 1963.
Apuleius. The Golden Ass. Translated by Robert Graves. New York: Farrar, Straus and
Giroux, 1951.
Attridge, Harold W. Hebrews. Hermeneia. Philadelphia: Fortress, 1989.
Balsdon, J. P. V. D. Romans and Aliens. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press,
1979.
Bass, Dorothy C., editor. Practicing Our Faith. San Francisco: John Wiley & Sons, 1997.
Beare, F. W. The First Epistle of Peter. Oxford: Blackwell, 1958.
Bede the Venerable. The Commentary on the Seven Catholic Epistles. Translated by David
Hurst. Kalamazoo MI: Cistercian, 1985.
Bell, Jr., Daniel M. God Does Not Demand Blood. The Christian Century 126/3 (10
February 2009): 2226.
Best, Ernest. 1 Peter. New Century Bible Commentary. Grand Rapids MI: Eerdmans,
1971.
Bettenson, Henry, editor. Documents of the Christian Church. London: Oxford University
Press, 1977.
Bigg, Charles. A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Epistles of St. Peter and St.
Jude. Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1901.
Boring, M. Eugene. 1 Peter. Abingdon New Testament Commentaries. Nashville:
Abingdon, 1999.
Bray, Gerald, editor. James, 1-2 Peter, 1-3 John, Jude. Ancient Christian Commentary on
Scripture 11. Downers Grove IL: InterVarsity, 2000.
Bridges, Linda McKinnish. 1 & 2 Thessalonians. Macon GA: Smyth & Helwys, 2008.
Brown, Michael Joseph. The Lords Prayer through North African Eyes: A Window into
Early Christianity. New York: T. & T. Clark, 2004.
Brown, Raymond E., and John P. Meier. Antioch and Rome: New Testament Cradles of
Catholic Christianity. New York: Paulist, 1983.
Brown, Raymond E. The Gospel According to John XIII-XXI. Garden City NY:
Doubleday, 1970.
. An Introduction to the New Testament. New York: Doubleday, 1997.
Brown, Raymond E., Karl P. Donfried, and John Reumann, editors. Peter in the New
Testament. Minneapolis: Augsburg, 1973.
Buechner, Frederick. Wishful Thinking: A Theological ABC. New York: Harper & Row,
1973.
Cao, Lan. Monkey Bridge. New York: Penguin, 1998.
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Cartlidge, David R., and J. Keith Elliott. Art and the Christian Apocrypha. London:
Routledge, 2001.
Celsus. On the True Doctrine: A Discourse against the Christians. Translated by R.
Joseph Hoffmann. New York: Oxford University Press, 1987.
Charlesworth, James H., editor. The Old Testament Pseudepigrapha. Two volumes.
Garden City NY: Doubleday, 1983.
Chen, Diane G. God as Father in Luke-Acts. New York: Peter Lang, 2006.
Corley, Kathleen E. 1 Peter. In Elisabeth Schssler Fiorenza, Searching the Scriptures,
Volume Two: A Feminist Commentary. New York: Crossroad, 1994.
Craddock, Fred B. First and Second Peter and Jude. Louisville KY: Westminster/John
Knox, 1995.
Dalton, William Joseph. Christs Proclamation to the Spirits. Rome: Pontifical Biblical
Institute, 1965.
Danker, Frederick William, editor. A Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament and
other Early Christian Literature. Third edition. Chicago: University of Chicago
Press, 2000.
Dickens, Charles. Our Mutual Friend. 18641865. Reprint, New York: Dodd, Mead,
and Co., 1951.
Dillard, Annie. The Maytrees. New York: HarperCollins, 2007.
. Pilgrim at Tinker Creek. New York: Harper & Row, 1974.
Donfried, Karl P. Peter. Anchor Bible Dictionary 5.25163.
Donne, John. Devotions upon Emergent Occasions. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan
Press, 1959.
Douglas, Lloyd C. The Big Fisherman. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1948.
. The Robe. 1942. Reprint, Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1999.
Ehrman, Bart D. Lost Christianities. New York: Oxford, 2003.
. Peter, Paul, and Mary Magdalene: The Followers of Jesus in History and Legend.
New York: Oxford University Press, 2006.
Eliot, George. Middlemarch. 1872. Reprint, New York: Barnes & Noble, 2003.
Elliott, J. K. The Apocryphal New Testament. Oxford: Clarendon, 1993.
Elliott, John H. A Home for the Homeless: A Sociological Exegesis of 1 Peter, Its Situation
and Strategy. Philadelphia: Fortress, 1981.
. The Elect and the Holy. Leiden: Brill, 1966.
. 1 Peter. Anchor Bible 37B. New York: Doubleday, 2000.
Enright, Anne. The Gathering. New York: Black Cat, 2007.
Eusebius. History of the Church from Christ to Constantine. Translated by G. A.
Williamson. New York: New York University Press, 1966.
Fanestil, John. Border Crossing. The Christian Century 125/20 (7 October 2008):
2225.
Feiss, Hugh. Essential Monastic Wisdom: Writings on the Contemplative Life. New York:
HarperCollins, 1999.
Feldmeier, Reinhard. The First Letter of Peter. Translated Peter H. Davids. Waco TX:
Baylor University Press, 2008.
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Fielding, Henry. Tom Jones. Edited R. P. C. Mutter. 1749. Reprint, New York:
Penguin, 1966.
Forster, E. M. A Room with a View. 1908. Reprint, New York: Penguin, 1978.
Frost, Robert. Robert Frosts Poems. Edited by Louis Untermeyer. New York: Pocket,
1946.
Garnsey, Peter, and Richard Saller. The Roman Empire: Economy, Society, and Culture.
Berkeley: University of California Press, 1987.
Goppelt, Leonhard. A Commentary on 1 Peter. Edited by Ferdinand Hahn. Translated
by John E. Alsup. Grand Rapids MI: Eerdmans, 1993.
Green, Joel B. 1 Peter. The Two Horizons New Testament Commentary. Grand Rapids
MI: Eerdmans, 2007.
Greenleaf, Robert K. Servant Leadership. New York: Paulist, 1977.
Gregory the Great. The Book of Pastoral Rule. Crestwood NY: St. Vladimirs Seminary
Press, 2007.
Harland, Philip A. Associations, Synagogues, and Congregations. Minneapolis: Fortress,
2003.
Hauerwas, Stanley, and William H. Willimon. Resident Aliens. Nashville: Abingdon,
1989.
Helprin, Mark. The Pacific and Other Stories. New York: Penguin, 2004.
Hopkins, Gerard Manley. Gerard Manley Hopkins: Poems and Prose. New York:
Penguin, 1953.
Horell, David. The Epistles of Peter and Jude. Epworth Commentaries. Peterborough
UK: Epworth, 1998.
. First Peter. New Testament Guides. New York: T. & T. Clark, 2008.
James, P. D. The Private Patient. New York: Knopf, 2008.
Jobes, Karen H. 1 Peter. Baker Exegetical Commentary on the New Testament. Grand
Rapids MI: Baker Academic, 2005.
Jones, Lloyd. Mister Pip. Toronto: Vintage Canada, 2007.
Keillor, Garrison. Lake Wobegon Days. New York: Penguin, 1985.
. We Are Still Married. New York: Penguin, 1990.
Kelly, J. N. D. A Commentary on the Epistles of Peter and of Jude. New York: Harper
and Row, 1969.
Kiley, Mark, editor. Prayer from Alexander to Constantine: A Critical Anthology.
London: Routledge, 1997.
Koester, Craig R. Hebrews. New York: Doubleday, 2001.
Kruse, Colin G. The Gospel according to John: An Introduction and Commentary.
Grand Rapids MI: Eerdmans, 2003.
Lamb, Wally. I Know This Much Is True. New York: HarperCollins, 1998.
Lapham, F. Peter: The Myth, the Man and the Writings: A Study of Early Petrine Text
and Tradition. JSNTS 239. Sheffield UK: Sheffield Academic, 2003.
Lewis, Naphtali, and Meyer Reinhold. Roman Civilization. Two volumes. New York:
Harper & Row, 1966.
253
254
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Bibliography
Liddell, Henry George, and Robert Scott. A Greek-English Lexicon. Oxford:
Clarendon, 1996.
Lindars, Barnabas. The Gospel of John. Grand Rapids MI: Eerdmans, 1972.
Lundin, Roger, and Mark Noll. Voices from the Heart. Grand Rapids MI: Eerdmans,
1987.
McCabe, Herbert. God, Christ, and Us. London: Continuum, 2003.
McCarthy, Cormac. All The Pretty Horses. New York: Vintage, 1993.
. The Crossing. New York: Vintage, 1994.
McCullough, Colleen. The First Man in Rome. New York: Avon, 1990.
Malherbe, Abraham J. The Cynic Epistles. SBL Sources for Biblical Study. Volume 12.
Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1977.
. Moral Exhortation, A Greco-Roman Sourcebook. Philadelphia: Westminster,
1986.
Naipaul, V. S. A Way in the World. New York: Knopf, 1994.
Norris, Kathleen. Amazing Grace: A Vocabulary of Faith. New York: Riverhead, 1998.
Noy, David. Foreigners at Rome: Citizens and Strangers. London: Duckworth, 2000.
OConnor, Daniel Wm. Peter in Rome: The Literary, Liturgical, and Archaeological
Evidence. New York: Columbia University Press, 1969.
Origen. Contra Celsum. Translated by Henry Chadwick. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, 1953.
Pearson, Birger A. Alexandria. Anchor Bible Dictionary 1.15257.
Pelikan, Jaroslav. The Emergence of the Catholic Tradition (100-600). Volume 1 of The
Christian Tradition. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1971.
Pelikan, Jaroslav, and Walter A. Hansen, editors. The Catholic Epistles. Volume 1 of
Luthers Works. St. Louis MO: Concordia, 1967.
Percy, Walker. The Moviegoer. New York: Knopf, 1967.
. Signposts in a Strange Land. Edited by Patrick Samway. New York: Farrar,
Straus, and Giroux, 1991.
Perkins, Pheme. First and Second Peter, James, and Jude. Interpretation. Louisville, KY:
John Knox, 1995.
. Peter: Apostle for the Whole Church. Columbia: University of South Carolina
Press, 1994.
Plautus. The Rope and Other Plays. Translated by E. F. Watlington. New York:
Penguin, 1964.
Potter, George R., and Evelyn M. Simpson, editors. The Sermons of John Donne.
Berkeley: University of California Press, 1962.
Reddish, Mitchell G. Martyr Christology in the Apocalypse. Journal for the Study of
the New Testament 33 (1988): 8595.
. Revelation. Macon GA: Smyth & Helwys, 2001.
Reicke, Bo. The Disobedient Spirits and Christian Baptism: A Study of 1 Pet. 3:19 and
Its Context. Kobenhaven: E. Munksgaard, 1946.
. The Epistles of James, Peter, and Jude. Anchor Bible. Garden City NY:
Doubleday, 1964.
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Bibliography
Rushdie, Salman. The Satanic Verses. New York: Random House, 2008.
Selwyn, Edward Gordon. The First Epistle of St. Peter. London: MacMillan, 1952.
Senior, Donald P. 1 Peter. Sacra pagina 15. Collegeville MN: Liturgical, 2003.
Shields, Carol. Larrys Party. Toronto: Random House of Canada, 1997.
. The Stone Diaries. New York: Penguin, 1993.
Smallwood, E. Mary. The Jews Under Roman Rule. Leiden: Brill, 1976.
Smyth, Herbert Weir. Greek Grammar. Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press,
1984.
Stringfellow, William. An Ethic for Christians and Other Aliens in a Strange Land.
Waco TX: Word, 1973.
Stowers, Stanley K. Letter Writing in Greco-Roman Antiquity. Philadelphia:
Westminster, 1986.
Trollope, Anthony. The Warden. New York: Dodd, Mead, and Co., 1906.
Verghese, Abraham. Cutting for Stone. New York: Knopf, 2009.
Volf, Miroslav. Soft Difference: Theological Reflections on the Relation between
Church and Culture in 1 Peter. Ex Auditu 10 (1994): 1530.
Waddell, Helen. The Desert Fathers. Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan Press,
1957.
Warrior, Valerie M. Roman Religion. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006.
. Roman Religion: A Sourcebook. Newburyport MA: Focus, 2002.
Webb, Robert L. The Petrine Epistles: Recent Developments and Trends. In Scot
McKnight and Grant R. Osborne, editors. The Face of New Testament Studies: A
Survey of Recent Research. Grand Rapids MI: Baker, 2004.
Wiedemann, Thomas. Greek and Roman Slavery. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins
University Press, 1981.
Young, Frances M. Brokenness and Blessing: Towards a Biblical Spirituality. Grand
Rapids MI: Baker Academic, 2007.
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2 Peter
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Acknowledgments
While it is the case that most writing is an exercise in solitude, no
writing is completed in isolation. Writers have a community of
support and, too, they write for an audience whose imagined presence shapes the way they frame their descriptions and arguments.
Writing this commentary on 2 Peter, I keenly have been aware of
my community of support. Under the leadership of President Bill
Underwood, Mercer University continues its long history of
demanding excellence in teaching and encouraging teachers to be
active scholars and writers. I deeply appreciate Mercer and the
support I have received from it for more than two decades. Richard
Fallis, Dean of the College of Liberal Arts at Mercer from
20012010, made certain that faculty in the college received support
and recognition for their work in and out of the classroom. I am
grateful to Rich for his quiet attention to the work of the faculty he
led.
At the departmental level, I have benefited from the selfless support
of Mrs. Nancy Stubbs, the administrative secretary for the Roberts
Department of Christianity. In addition to being a superb coordinator of the daily work of the department, Nancy is willing and eager
to assist any of us in the department as we extend our classroom
emphases. On this writing project, Nancy was always available to
help me track down books and articles, including doing the paperwork for inter-library loans and capturing electronic files of key
articles.
Bryan Whitfield is an assistant professor in the Roberts
Department of Christianity. He is only years away from completing
the Ph.D. in New Testament at Emory Universitys Candler School
of Theology. In the early stages of this writing project, Bryan was my
go-to guy for general conversation about the current state of New
Testament studies and the sometimes gossipy exchanges about
sources, personalities, and goals of New Testament scholars. Each
conversation was enlightening and encouraging. I am grateful to
Bryan for his collegiality.
Scott Nash and I have known each other since 1975 when we happened to sit next to each other in an intermediate Greek class in our
260
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Acknowledgments
first semester at The Southern Baptist Theological Seminary.

During our common years of service in the Roberts Department of
Christianity, our acquaintance has matured into a fast friendship.
Scott took a risk, I think, in agreeing to sign up a theologian to
write the commentary on 2 Peter. I confess that I was a bit anxious
about how things would work out because I know how high Scotts
standards are. Working with him was challenging as I imagined
him reading my drafts. The project, however, has progressed with
the result of a stronger relationship and, I hope, a finished product
that will not tarnish Scott and his standards. As our project wound
up, I gently was goaded to finish my work. Scotts good humor and
wry e-mails of encouragement saw me through to the end. I am
deeply grateful for Scotts friendship, collegiality, and modeling of
the effective work of a teacher-scholar.
Most of my writing happens in the solitude of my home study,
but never isolated from home. Lucy always is close by, and often
she is eager to hear about what I am working on. She indulged me
on the 2 Peter project, listening patiently to my reports of word
plays, quirks of style, and theological challenges. Since 1975, Lucy
and I have embraced marriage and the unique friendship that marriage allows. I am grateful for her, her friendship, and our life
together.
Finally, I am grateful for the family of faith that has been home
for Lucy and me since 1988. The First Baptist Church of Christ at
Macon is an unusual Baptist church in the South. The church is
unabashedly progressive, theologically and socially, but it never has
developed an activist edge that could be misinterpreted by those
who would want to accuse the congregation of being more concerned about causes than the gospel. Among a rich collection of
Sunday school classes eager for critical study of the Bible, the
Seekers Class at Macons FBC is a diamond in the midst of gems.
For a month in the fall of 2009, the Seekers let me bounce around
my ideas about 2 Peter and Jude in the context of traditional adult
church school Bible study. From them I derived encouragement as
I was reminded that Baptists still care about the Bible in its original
context and in the context of contemporary readers. With profound gratitude and pleasure, I dedicate this work to the Seekers
Class of the First Baptist Church of Christ at Macon, Georgia.
Richard Francis Wilson
Macon, Georgia, July 2010
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Second Peter has it all.
For scholars eager to explore issues of authorship and provenance,
the history of the canon of the New Testament, linguistic and rhetorical analyses, or matters of theological and ethical development,
2 Peter has at least a corner that promises a long visit. Parish ministers, too, have challenges when approaching 2 Peter. This short letter
is filled with exhortations for those who would live a godly life and
sharp cautions against being led astray by the whims of popular
culture. In that respect, 2 Peter may be one of the most relevant New
Testament works in the increasingly contentious and pluralistic
context of the twenty-first century. Nonprofessional readersstudents and all people drawn to the study of the New Testamentalso
may benefit from a critical reading of 2 Peter. Second Peter has something for all readers.
Authorship
Few contemporary interpreters of 2 Peter take at face value the claim

of 1:1 that Simeon Peter, a servant and apostle of Jesus Christ, is
the epistles author. That initial claim, along with the reference to the
writers impending death (1:14) and an allusion to a first letter from
the author (3:1), contribute to a broad consensus that the author of
2 Peter is attempting to establish credibility for the defense of the
apostolic teaching that drives the letter. Such devices are consistent
with the widespread practice of pseudonymity (using someone elses
name as ones own, especially in writing) in the early centuries of
Christian literature.
Witherington captures the current tenor on the discussion about
the authorship of 2 Peter in sweeping fashion: [T]here is strong consensus among most scholars, even many evangelicals . . . that 2 Peter
cannot have been written by Peter and certainly not by the Peter who
was responsible for 1 Peter. In terms of perspective, Greek style, theological content, language, dependency upon Jude and a host of
other factors, 2 Peter is said to be a clear example of New Testament
text written under an assumed name (pseudepigraphon).1
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Unraveling the issues of the authorship of 2 Peter is complex and,

finally, must conclude with a respectful question mark, even with
the broad consensus in favor of pseudonymity. There is no room
for dogmatism either for or against Petrine authorship, nor do easy
categories identifying the motives or methods of scholars apply. In
what follows, we will explore and accept the consensus against
Petrine authorship. However, I will also reject Brays assessment
that literary considerations are still the strongest arguments for
those who deny the traditional ascriptions of authorship, and those
who defend them still use the historical argument that there is no
compelling alternative explanations that obliges us to reject the tradition.2 In the end, we agree with Craddocks encouragements to
read 2 Peter in light of what we know, what we wished we knew,
and what we dont know.3 What we know is that 2 Peter is a canonical text, and therefore it beckons us to read and understand it
against the backdrop of the history of the church. What we wished
we knew are more details about the letter, its author, and its audience. What we dont know is whether or not our analysis will stand
up against past evidence and future discoveries. In the end,
however, we must proceed.
Both textual and contextual evidence suggest that 2 Peter belongs
to the luxuriant crop of pseudo-Petrine literature which sprang up
around the memory of the Prince of the apostles.4 Three aspects
of 2 Peter contribute to the conclusion that its author was of a generation later than the apostles. Most telling is the
Pseudo-Petrine Texts
reference to the death of our ancestors (3:4), an
This is Fred Laphams list of
apparent reference to the generation of the apostles.
Pseudo-Petrine literature.
Thus, the author positions himself in the post-apostolic
Gospel of Peter
community that is struggling to defend the hope of
Acts of Peter
Christs return in the face of the passing of the first genActs of Peter and the Twelve Apostles
eration of witnesses.
The Pseudo-Clementine Epistles
Then there is the brief paean to our beloved brother
1 Peter
2 Peter
Paul with a reference to all [of ] his letters that are
Epistle of Peter to Philip
equated with other scriptures (3:15-16). Accepting the
Apocalypse of Peter
traditional date of the death of Paul in AD 62 and the
Coptic Apocalypse of Peter
date of the death of Peter in AD 64, it is unlikely that
Perhaps The Act of Peter from the
before Peters death Pauls letters would have been colBerlin Codex should be added.
lected, and even more unlikely that Pauls letters would
have been elevated to the status of canon. [Pseudo-Petrine
Fred Lapham, Peter: the Myth, the Man and the
Writings (JSNTSup 239; London: Scheffield
Academic Press, 2003).
Texts]
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The more extensive textual evidence that 2 Peter is post-apostolic

is its apparent dependence, selectively, upon the Epistle of Jude (see
more below). The Epistle of Jude develops a sophisticated argument against false teachers in Judes community that relies upon
apocalyptic texts such as 1 Enoch and The Testament of Moses. The
author of 2 Peter edits Jude, leaving out those apocalyptic texts.
Kraftchick concludes that 2 Peter refashioned Judes examples
from 1 Enoch and The Testament of Moses because they were obscure
to his audience or because they were too similar to the myths he
had denied using (1:16).5 That 2 Peter depended, in part, upon
Jude works against 2 Peter being written by the apostle since Jude
has been established as a late first-century document.
Contextual evidence for the pseudonymity of 2 Peter rests upon
at least three issues related to the formation of the canon of the
New Testament. Working backwards, it is helpful to begin with
Eusebiuss extrapolation found in Ecclesiastical History (c. 322) of
three criteria for the early church to recognize, dispute, or regard as
false available literature. He settled
Eusebiuss Lists
upon a trio of considerations: aposIn his history of the early church, Eusebius lists
6
certain New Testament writings as either recogtolicity, orthodoxy, and endurance.
nized, disputed, or spurious.
That Eusebius included 2 Peter in his
list of disputed works underscores his
Since we are dealing with this subject it is proper to sum up the
writings of the New Testament which have already been mensuspicionsdrawn from broad obsertioned. First then must be put the holy quaternion of the
vations of the churches throughout the
Gospels; following them the Acts of the Apostles. After this
empireabout the authenticity of the
must be reckoned the epistles of Paul; next in order the extant
former epistle of John, and likewise the epistle of Peter, must be
epistle, both in terms of apostolic
maintained. After them is to be placed, if it really seem proper,
authorship and orthodox content.
the Apocalypse of John, concerning which we shall give the difEusebius surely was aware, too, that
ferent opinions at the proper time. These, then, belong among
the recognized writings (homologoumena).
2 Peter had come on the scene rather
Among the disputed writings (antilegomena), which are nevlate as compared to the widely
ertheless recognized by many, are extant the so-called epistle of
James and that of Jude, also the second epistle of Peter, and
accepted works. [Eusebiuss Lists]
those that are called the second and third of John, whether they
More than a century, perhaps a
belong to the evangelist or another person of the same name.
century and a half, before Eusebius
Among the spurious writings (notha) must be reckoned
also the Acts of Paul, and the so-called Shepherd, and the
compiled his lists of what may be conApocalypse of Peter, and in addition to these the extant epistle
sidered part of a New Testament, a
of Barnabas, and the so-called Teachings of the Apostles; and
working list of texts was compiled in
besides, as I said, the Apocalypse of John, if it seem proper,
which some, as I said, reject, but which others class with the
Rome, perhaps, around the time of
accepted books. And among these some have placed also the
Pius I (d. 157). The so-called
Gospel according to the Hebrews, with which those of the
Muratorian Fragment or Muratorian
Hebrews that have accepted Christ are especially delighted.
Canon is instructive for students of the
Eusebius, Ecclesiastical History 3.25.1-7.
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New Testament, but especially so for students of the Petrine literature. Generally the fragment situates the drama of canon formation
in the context of the concerns raised by Marcion in the mid-second
century. Twice the fragment mentions Marcion. Marcion was the
son of a bishop, and he developed particular ideas about orthodoxy.
He rejected what he perceived to be the violent and judgmental
God of the Old Testament and instead embraced a more compassionate New Testament God. In a word, Marcions reasons for
rejecting the Old Testament and many of the works now found in
the New Testament were rooted in a brewing anti-Semitism that,
unfortunately, flourished in later centuries of the church. Marcions
canon was spare: the Gospel of Luke and an edited collection of
Pauline epistles (he removed all positive references to the connections between historic Judaism and his understanding of an
independent Christianity). The second-century response to
Marcion was swift and furious. He was branded a hereticas the
Muratorian Fragment reflectsand became an impetus for an
orthodox development of the canon.
For students of Petrine literature, the Muratorian Fragment helps
to contextualize the place of 1 and 2 Peter and Jude in the development of the canon. The first thing noticed is that neither of the
Petrine epistles is recognized. Jude, on the other hand, is noted and
embraced. That Jude is embraced and the Petrine epistles are not is
evidence that the Petrine epistles either were unknown or not generally respected by the end of the second century. We will explore
the relationship between 2 Peter and 1 Peter and Jude in more
detail below.
The fragment does accept the apocalypses of John and Peter,
though some of us are not willing that the latter be read in
church.7 The caveat that the Apocalypse of Peter was not suitable
for use in worship is no doubt because of the graphiceven
luriddescriptions of the damned in hell. After a brief portrayal of
the righteous in heaven the apocalypse shifts:
20 And over against that place I saw another, squalid, and it was the
place of punishment; and those who were punished there and the
punishing angels had their raiment dark like the air of the place. 21
And there were certain there hanging by the tongue: and these were
the blasphemers of the way of righteousness; and under them lay fire,
burning and punishing them. 22 And there was a great lake, full of
flaming mire, in which were certain men that pervert righteousness,
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and tormenting angels afflicted them. 23 And there were also others,
women, hanged by their hair over that mire that bubbled up: and
these were they who adorned themselves for adultery; and the men
who mingled with them in the defilement of adultery, were hanging
by the feet and their heads in that mire. And I said: I did not believe
that I should come into this place. 24 And I saw the murderers and
those who conspired with them, cast into a certain strait place, full of
evil snakes, and smitten by those beasts, and thus turning to and fro
in that punishment; and worms, as it were clouds of darkness,
afflicted them. And the souls of the murdered stood and looked upon
the punishment of those murderers and said: O God, thy judgment
is just. 25 And near that place I saw another strait place into which
the gore and the filth of those who were being punished ran down
and became there as it were a lake: and there sat
Muratorian Fragment
women having the gore up to their necks, and over
The Muratorian Fragment (also called
the Muratorian Canon) is regarded as
against them sat many children who were born to
the
earliest
attempt to identify orthodox literathem out of due time, crying; and there came forth
ture for the early Christians (c. AD 170200).
from them sparks of fire and smote the women in
The fragment is instructive, especially for stuthe eyes: and these were the accursed who conceived
dents of the Petrine literature. The document
and caused abortion. 26 And other men and women
recognizes the Epistle of Jude as reliable, but
were burning up to the middle and were cast into a
fails to mention either 1 or 2 Peter. Even more
curious is that the fragment embraces the
dark place and were beaten by evil spirits, and their
Apocalypse of Peter, but cautions against using
inwards were eaten by restless worms: and these
it in church services.
were they who persecuted the righteous and delivThe Muratorian Fragment raises serious
ered them up. 27 And near those there were again
questions about the early acceptance of 1 and
women and men gnawing their own lips, and being
2 Peter as orthodox literature.
punished and receiving a red-hot iron in their eyes:
See Bruce M. Metzger, The Canon of the New Testament
(Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1997), 191201.
and these were they who blasphemed and slandered
the way of righteousness. 28 And over against these
again other men and women gnawing their tongues and having
flaming fire in their mouths: and these were the false witnesses.8
[Muratorian Fragment]
The importance of the Apocalypse of Peter is a third point of

interest in establishing a pseudonymous authorship of 2 Peter. Few
contemporary scholars have taken seriously the relationship
between 2 Peter and the Apocalypse of Peter as a matter of authorship of 2 Peter. Bauckham, Neyrey, and Lapham, with ascending
success, provide important insights through the mazes that appear
in explorations of the interdependency of Petrine and
Pseudopetrine texts. Each focuses upon the way 2 Peter adapts the
transfiguration as an argument in defense of the Parousia.
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In the Synoptic Gospels, the transfiguration narrative is a

Christological affirmation. On the other hand, the Apocalypse of
Peter transforms the Christological identity of Jesus into an eschatological anticipation of Christs return. Bauckham notes that
2 Peter 1:16-18 is the source for this transformation. Second Peters
less-than-accurate report of the transfiguration,9 regardless of
which Synoptic Gospel one looks to, becomes a more expansive
revelation to the twelve apostles with a sharp focus on the endtimes.10 Bauckham claims that the significance of 2 Peters
understanding of the Transfiguration for the date and character of
the work will be better appreciated if it is compared with secondcentury versions of the Transfiguration.11 He goes on to observe
that the 2 Peter passage is diverted to a new function: the revelation of the glory of the redeemed in paradise . . . applied, not to
Jesus, but to the destiny of Christians.12
Neyrey builds upon the differences of settings of the transfiguration in the Synoptics and in 2 Peter. He notes that, unlike the
synoptic setting in which the messianic identity of Jesus is affirmed,
2 Peters use of the event functions as a commissioning by God of
the person who receives the theophany,13 that is, Peter. Neyrey
connects 2 Peter to the Apocalypse of Peter as a tradition which
located the transfiguration at a different time in Jesus career and
interpreted it as a prediction of the Parousia.14
Laphams primary goal is to establish a coherent Petrine theology15 that engages canonical and noncanocial Petrine texts. He
notes that the Transfiguration is so central a feature of the Petrine
tradition . . . that it is important to be aware of the original purpose
of the story.16 Lapham concedes to a growing agreement among
modern exegetes that the story has no concrete historical foundation,17 and moves toward a composite understanding of how the
transfiguration narratives in the synoptic and Petrine traditions
address christological, theological, and eschatological convictions.
At the same time, he teases out nuances. The synoptic traditions
emphasize a distinct but not isolated christological confession: Jesus
is the Christ. Second Peter builds upon that confession in a way
that honors the Christology but presses toward a theological
emphasis with the focus upon the Majestic Glory of God (1:17).
In the commentary, we will take up the distinction between the
Synoptic Gospels confession that Jesus is the Christ and 2 Peters
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assertion that the majesty of Jesus Christ was revealed on the

holy mountain (1:16-18).
Laphams attention to the canonical and noncanonical texts associated with Peter, especially The Apocalypse of Peter, go a long way
toward establishing a post-apostolic community that drew from
and built upon the historical prominence of Peter in the apostolic
age. Taken together Lapham, Neyrey, and Bauckham situate 2 Peter
at least in the second century and therefore provide ample reasons
to conclude that 2 Peter, like other noncanoncial texts reflecting a
Petrine tradition, is a pseudepigraphon.
Origin, Audience, and Date
Second Peter offers few clues about the origin of the letter and its
intended audience. Unlike most New Testament letters, 2 Peter
does not specify an audience and thus leaves open the question of
its geographical origin. Three possible sites usually attract attention
from commentators: Rome, Asia Minor, and Egypt. Those who
favor Rome do so because of the strong traditions that place Peter
there at the end of his life and his career as the leader of the Roman
church. Traditions of Peters martyrdom in Rome and that city as
the presumed origin of 1 Petershe who is Babylon sends greetings (1 Pet 5:13)lend support to a Roman provenance. It would
seem, however, that had 2 Peter and 1 Peter been penned in Rome,
they would have had an earlier life as recognized authoritative texts
in the early church. That is not the case. Kelly notes that no NT
document had a longer or tougher struggle to win acceptance than
2 Peter.18 Second Peters absence from the earliest attempts to
identify a canon and the persistent questions raised about the
letters authority from the likes of Origen, Eusebius, and Jerome
make Rome an unlikely origin.19
Asia Minor also gains some support as place of origin and as the
intended destination of 2 Peter. The shape of the New Testament
canon links 1 and 2 Peter, but the consensus of most recent
scholars is that the two works are not related. Second Peter 3:1
claims, This is . . . the second letter I am writing to you. Davids
is judicious about the internal claim. Acknowledging scant information about the origin and audience, he adds, unless we believe
that 2 Pet 3:1 indicates that 2 Peter was written to the same communities of believers to which 1 Peter was addressed.20 First Peter
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Map of Rome, Asia Minor, and Egypt
Jerusalem
is addressed to communities of believers in Asia Minor, so Davids is

open to Asia Minor as the home of the recipients of 2 Peter.
The unless, however, hangs in the air for those unconvinced of
an organic relationship between 1 and 2 Peter. It need not be a suspicion. It could be an ironic support for the arguments of
pseudonymity. Asia Minor is the stated destination of 1 Peter (1 Pet
1:1). Add to the picture the dramatic conflict between Paul and
Peter recounted in Galatians (2:1-14) and the overt mention of
our beloved brother Paul who wrote to you according to the
wisdom given him (2 Pet 3:15), and Asia Minor makes sense as
both origin and destination for a pseudepigraphon in the name of
Peter.
Kelly observes that Egypt has been conjectured as [2 Peters]
origin, mainly on the grounds that it obtained its earliest . . . recognition there and was so speedily pounced upon by the author of
The Apocalypse of Peter.21 Lapham agrees that 2 Peter enjoyed popularity in the same communities that embraced The Apocalypse of
Peter, but with the benefit of more than three additional decades of
research since Kellys commentary, he offers a more thorough
assessment of the relationships between 2 Peter and the three extant
versions of The Apocalypse of Peter.22 What Lapham does not
concede is that The Apocalypse of Peterin its Greek versionis
Egyptian in origin. The greater probability, he writes, is that it
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originated not in Egypt, but somewhere in the Judaean or CoeleSyrian regions.23 Thus Lapham suggests that 2 Peter . . . shows
signs of having been written from Antioch or Caesarea in the east
[sic] . . . [and] seems to have been known at least towards the end
of the second century.24
As in the case of attempting to identify the author of 2 Peter, we
must apply a respectful question mark to the issues of origin and
audience. Craddocks refrain of what we know, what we wished we
knew, and what we dont know25 has particular bearing upon the
questions of the origin and audience of 2 Peter as do Reickes comments that the actual place of origin does not greatly matter, 26
and that 2 Peter is intended for the church in general.27
Given the uncertainties about authorship, origin, and audience,
any attempt to establish a date for the writing of 2 Peter is speculative. A reasonable window for the writing is open any time from
the late 90s, to take into consideration of 2 Peters use of Jude,28
and the second quarter of the second century, to take into consideration the inspiration 2 Peter gives to the Apocalypse of Peter.29
Relationship to 1 Peter and Jude
Few commentators in the last half-century invest much energy

exploring the relationship between 1 and 2 Peter. In the same
period, there has been increasing interest in the relationship
between Jude and 2 Peter. The growing fascination with the Jude2 Peter comparison has revived interest in 2 Peter in its own right,
too.
From antiquity, 2 Peter was under suspicion as an inauthentic
letter, as noted above. Jerome, the fourth-century linguist and
creator of the Vulgate, observed in his Lives of Illustrious Men that
He [Peter] wrote two epistles . . . the second of which on account
of its difference from the first in style, is considered by many not to
be by him.30 More recently, Kraftchick has drawn a comparison
between the two canonical Petrine epistles: [T]he two epistles
display radically different styles and language.31 He goes on to
note that First Peter tends toward a straightforward . . . syntax and
. . . vocabulary . . . [that are] neither rare nor ornate.32 By contrast, Second Peter is written in a grandiose style with ornate use
of figures and its language is far removed from everyday use.33
Reicke defends the ornateness of 2 Peter as a style that embodies a
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school of Greek rhetoric which embraced an artificial style comparable to that of the baroque. This was the so-called Asianism that
competed with strict Atticism.34
While the matters of style employed by 1 and 2 Peter appear as
the central reason to conclude that the two epistles are not organically related, the matter of theology is of concern, too. First Peter
primarily is a warning and pep talk for Christians in Asia Minor
that persecution is coming their way. First Peter presses the issue of
the example of Christs sufferings as a compelling reason for the
recipients to endure suffering, too. The epistle also challenges its
broad audience to suffer for the right reasons, specifically for their
faithfulness to the hope of the gospel. First Peter encourages the
church to cultivate a self-conscious identity as aliens and exiles
(1 Pet 2:11) and to conduct yourselves honorably among the
Gentiles (2:12).
By contrast, 2 Peter offers no theological reflection upon the sufferings of Christ and the importance of the cross. Neither does
2 Peter develop the importance of the church in the world. Instead,
2 Peter shifts theological attention to matters concerning judgment
and the Parousia. Elliott observes that 2 Peter has no developed
Christology or ecclesiology.35
Second Peter 3:1, This is now, beloved, the second letter I am
writing to you, often requires attention to 1 Peter as the supposed
first letter. Lapham revives the argument that canonical 2 Peter
may contain two letters from the same author with 2 Peter 3:1
being the beginning of a separate letter, the first two chapters of
2 Peter constituting substantially the former letter implied in the
verse.36 His argument rests upon two points. (1) [T]he writer
uses the present tense for both gravfw [graph] and diegeivrw
[diegeir], suggest[ing] that the second letter consists only of this
final chapter.37 (2) There is an exact parallel of the authors
intent to remind his readers of the truths they must maintain38 in
2 Peter 1:12 and 2 Peter 3:1-2. Against those who read the opening
of chapter 3 as an allusion to 1 Peter 1:10, Lapham notes that mere
mention of the prophets hardly represents a rousing reminder of
the apostolic warning of the rise of false teachers in the Church.
Such, however, is exactly the force of 2 Pet 1:12yet another indication that two Petrine letters have come together in what has
come to be known as 2 Peter.39
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271
The relationship of Jude and 2 Peter is well established. Even the

casual reader of the two epistles will notice parallels and allusions.
The task is to figure out which author used whom in the writing,
or if both authors had a common source. Mills notes that since the
early nineteenth century, a majority of scholarly opinion has
favored the priority of Jude.40 Other commentators have proposed
the priority of 2 Peter, but with each development in Petrine
research that position loses traction. Kraftchick summarizes the
compelling argument for the priority of Jude in three steps. First
there is the widely accepted conclusion that 2 Peter is
Jude and 2 Peter Parallels
a pseudepigraphon, which effectively removes the
Comparable Passages in Jude and
2 Peter
impulse for the author of Jude to borrow from it.
2 Peter
Jude
Next is the acknowledgment that Jude 4-16 is a care2:1-2
4
fully structured literary unit, but its counterparts in
2:3
5
2 Peter appear in a piecemeal fashion.41 Finally, it is
2:4
6
2:6
7
more plausible to understand 2 Peter as an expansion
2:10
8
of Jude than to consider Jude as a reduction of
2:11
9
2 Peter.42 [Jude and 2 Peter Parallels] Kraftchick also dis2:12
10
misses the idea that Jude and 2 Peter shared a
2:13-16
11
2:13, 17
12
common source because no common source has
2:17
13
been discovered, and there is no ancient evidence for
2:18
16
its existence. . . . If the common source did exist, one
3:1-2
17
is hard-pressed to explain why Jude would have been
3:3
18
43
composed.
Steven J. Kraftchick, Jude, 2 Peter (Nashville:
Abingdon Press, 2002).
Peter and Paul
The book of Acts opens with the high drama of the followers of
Jesus in Jerusalem awaiting the power of the Holy Spirit that is
unleashed on Pentecost (Acts 12). Acts ends with the equally high
drama, if understated, of Paul arriving in Rome and conducting
conferences with Jews about his commitment to preach the gospel
to the Gentiles (Acts 28, esp. vv. 23-29). The watershed between
these two scenes rises in Acts 15. The so-called Jerusalem Council
debates whether the good news of Jesus as the Messiah should be
offered to the Gentiles without demanding that they submit to circumcision. Not only is Acts 15 the watershed moment in the Acts,
but it is, arguably, the watershed moment in early Christianity.
Acts 15 is the first explicit narrative in the New Testament that
puts Paul and Peter in the same scene.44 Paul and Barnabas are
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called upon to defend their missionary work among the Gentiles.

Significantly, Peter speaks in defense of the Gentile mission, based
upon his experience with Cornelius at Joppa (Acts 10). The second
narrative where Peter and Paul are in the same scene comes in the
report of Paul in Galatians 1:18. Paul says he spent fifteen days
with Cephas; no details of that visit are given. A third meeting of
Peter and Paul also comes in Galatians. In what probably is a corroborating account of the Jerusalem Council, Paul describes a trip
to Jerusalem with Barnabas and Titus to
meet with James and Cephas and John that
Peter and Paul
concluded with the agreement that Peter
would proclaim the gospel to the circumcised (i.e., the Jews) and that Paul would
proclaim the gospel to the Gentiles. The
agreement was sealed with the right hand of
fellowship (Gal 2:1-10). Finally, Galatians
2:11-14 describes a contentious meeting of
Peter and Paul in Antioch. There Paul calls
out Peter for hypocrisy with regard to his
public and private relationships with the
Gentiles.
The four scenes recounted above help
frame 2 Peter 3:15-16. The perceived tensions between Peter and Paul in the
canonand in the early churchpresumably are on the mind of the author of 2 Peter.
Rico da Candia (16th C.). Saints Peter and Paul. Icon. Accademia,
Designating Paul as a beloved brother who
Florence, Italy. (Credit: Scala/Ministero per i Beni e le Attivit culturali/Art Resource, NY)
is misunderstood or misrepresented plays
into the agenda of the author of 2 Peter.
The perceived tensions between Peter and Paul hang like a cloud
over the canon. The origin of those tensions certainly derive from
Galatians 2:11-14. That 2 Peter attempts to soothe the tensions
further adds to the conclusion that 2 Peter is a late composition
and has the benefit of a broad perspective about what texts were
eventually embraced by the church as authoritative.
Style of the Work
Above all other considerations, 2 Peter is a pastoral letter. Its sharp

focus on specific matters of ethics and doctrine that challenge his
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audience is evidence that the goal of the letter is to nurture an

understanding faithfulness that includes both faithful living and
faithful thinking. The designation of 1 and 2 Timothy and Titus as
the Pastoral Epistles leaves the impression that they represent the
model for a pastoral letter, one that is directed to a leader of a congregation (or an overseer of many congregations) with strategies
and encouragements for church administration. As such, the idea
of a pastoral letter has been restricted in its scope.
Reicke expands the idea of epistles in the New Testament to
include pastoral concerns and motives for writing. He notes that
most New Testament epistles are not literary substitutes for conversation, like private letters, but ways of speaking publicly to
congregations that could not be addressed in person.45 He continues, if a church authority could not visit the believers he
wanted to address, he preached to them in writing . . . and the
people were able to listen to the words of the writer, as though the
latter were speaking personally.46
Pursuing his argument that 2 Peter was composed in Rome by
someone who may have come with Peter to Rome many years
before from one of [the] churches in Asia Minor,47 Witherington
theorizes that 2 Peter takes the form of an encyclical to the whole
church with the purpose of preserving the Petrine and early
Jewish legacy, in the wake of the Pauline one sweeping the across
the church.48 He concludes with emphasis: I would suggest that
[2 Peter] may well be the very first document and the very first
encyclical ever written to the entire extant church.49
As well as epistolary style, 2 Peter is shaped by the device known
as a testament or a farewell speech. Bauckham summarizes the
genre as employed in 2 Peter:
Papyrus 72,
the Bodmer VII Papyrus
(Credit: http://commons.
wikimedia.org/wiki/File:
Papyrus_Bodmer_VIII.jpg)
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(1) Ethical admonitions: before his death a patriarch gives . . . a
definitive summary of his ethical and religious instruction which [the
audiences] are to follow in the future, often with eschatological sanctions attached. (2) Revelations of the future: in accordance with the
ancient belief that the last hours of a great man were a time when he
was endowed with prophetic knowledge of the future . . . often in the
form of apocalyptic revelations . . . [and] as a basis for eschatological
paraenesis [instruction].50
Harrelson on Testaments
Apocryphal testaments are documents
found largely in the OT pseudepigrapha
and purport to be the last words of the biblical
personality named. There are testaments of the
Twelve Patriarchs, of Moses, or Job, of Abraham,
and many other biblical figures. . . . These documents are patterned after the blessings of Jacob
(Gen 49) and Moses (Deut 33). . . .
[A] feature of the last words of ancient worthies was the capacity of these dying ones to
impart moral guidance. . . .
These apocryphal testaments were of great
importance in the shaping of the moral traditions
drawn from the Bible. They also were valued for
their speculative reflections on the heavens and
the underworld, on the mysteries of the universe.
And some of the terms from the testaments of
Moses and the Twelve Patriarchs became particularly important in the development of Jewish and
Christian messianism.
Testaments were popular among first- and

second-century Jewish audiences and used and
modified by New Testament writers. [Harrelson on
Testaments]
Following Bauckham, we can see the importance of the impending death of Peter (2 Pet
1:12-15) as that which binds together the whole
letter. The these things of v. 12 refers to the
previous paragraph (1:3-11) that lays out the
essential relationship between faithful living and
faithful thinking: everything needed for life and
godliness, through the knowledge of him who
called us by his own glory and goodness (v. 3).
The passage not only looks back, but forward.
In the shadow of his impending death Peter
promises to make every effort so that after my
departure you may be able at any time to recall
these things (v. 15). Near the end of the
Excerpt from Walter Harrelson, Testaments, Apocryphal, in
Mercer Dictionary of the Bible (ed. Watson E. Mills et al.; Macon
letterat 3:1-2the theme of remembering
GA: Mercer University Press, 1990) 888.
appears again, but with a deft insinuation that
the writer is in the company of the holy prophets, . . . [and] the
Lord and Savior whose words also have been spoken through
your apostles. Taken as a whole, then, 1:3-15 meets the ethical
admonitions aspect of the testament genre.51
The revelations of the future aspect of the testament genre also
appears near the beginning and end of the letter. Second Peter
1:16-18 refers to the transfiguration as a revelatory moment in
which the majesty of Jesus discloses the Majestic Glory of God,
which is also an assurance of the power and coming of our Lord
Jesus Christ. Note, again, how this passage looks backward and
forward. Looking backward, one both sees and hears events associated with the baptism of Jesus and the transfiguration as found in
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the Synoptic Gospels. The main The Martyrdom of Saint Peter

point of the passage, however,
appears to be an argument for the
Parousia as a teaching distinct from
cleverly devised myths. Second
Peter 3:7-15a returns to the
revelations of the future aspect of
the testament genre, but with a
focus upon apocalyptic prophecy .
. . and . . . eschatological paraenesis.52
Bauckham develops a strong
argument for 2 Peter as an example
of the testament genre. In a
moment of self-congratulation,
perhaps, he claims that four passages from 2 Peter (1:3-11, 2:1-3a,
3:1-4, and especially 1:12-15)
would leave no contemporary
reader in doubt that 2 Peter
belonged to the genre of testa- Jean Fouquet (c.1415/201481). Les Heures dEtienne Chavalier: The Martyrdom of
Saint Peter. 15th C. AD. Muse Cond, Chantilly, France. (Credit: Ren-Gabriel Ojda,
ment.53
Runion des Muses Nationaux/Art Resource, NY)
In addition to the pastoral character of 2 Peter and its mimicry of
the testament genre, rhetorical critics have demonstrated that the
letter also bears the marks of a particular form of argumentation
that was used frequently and respected widely in the Greco-Roman
world. Watson concludes that 2 Peter is a rhetorical whole in its
present state54 that conforms to the standards of deliberative
rhetoric,55 which is designed to advise and dissuade the audience
with regard to a particular way of thinking and course of action.56
He also notes that within the rhetorical whole of 2 Peter there are
concentrated sections of judicial and epideictic rhetoric that
extend the force of the attempt to persuade the audience to reject
the opponents mind-set and behavior.57 [Rhetorical Criticism]
Focusing upon these concentrated sections of judicial and epideictic rhetorical style, Watson claims that there is only one
[rhetorical] question that drives the argument of 2 Peter, namely,
Is the doctrine of the Parousia and the judgment adequately supported, and are the moral restraints and Christian growth
essential?58 Judicial style, concerned with accusation and
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Rhetorical Criticism
What is Rhetorical Criticism? Contemporary
Rhetorical Criticism can be traced to Old
Testament scholar James Muilenburgs 1968 presidential
address to the Society of Biblical Literature in which he
challenged biblical scholars to explore the artistry of
texts as a way to begin to think the thoughts of the biblical writer after him. Three years later Amos Wilder
published the seminal work for New Testament scholars,
Early Christian Rhetoric: The Language of the Gospels.
Taken together, Muilenburg and Wilder launched a
renewed focus upon the way biblical writers constructed
their arguments with the goal of persuading readers to
develop new ways of seeing and expressing biblical
truths.
New Testament rhetorical critics especially rely upon
the rich traditions of Greeks and Romans like Aristotle and
Cicero as clues to understand how the construction of
arguments employed by New Testament writers added
power to their convictions. They emphasize the form and
structure of passages and books in the New Testament as
a way to expose the persuasiveness that drive the convictions of the biblical writers.
It is the case that ancient writers like Augustine and
Jerome, and reformation writers like Melancthon and
Calvin, were aware of the rhetorical devices used by biblical authors, but only since the mid-1970s has the critical
method become yet another tool for interpreting the
Bible.
defense,59 shapes 1:162:10a and 3:1-13

where 2 Peter refutes and counteraccuses
the claims of his opponents.60 Epideictic
style, which offers praises and blames . . .
with a view to increasing or decreasing
assent to some value,61 aptly characterizes
2:10b-22 where we find a barbed denunciation of the false teachers based upon
their teaching and deeds aimed at
decreasing audience assent to both.62.
[Abridged Rhetorical Outline]
Theological and Ethical Themes
Second Peters forceful defense of the

Parousia is the most obvious feature of the
letter. Once the author completes the preliminary matters of greetings and
encouragements, the letter immediately
turns to refute the charge that the power
and coming of our Lord Jesus Christ are
cleverly devised myths, and that the
conviction of Christs return rests upon
the revelation of Jesus majesty disclosed
Adapted from Duane F. Watson, Invention, Arrangement, and Style:
to the disciples on the holy mountain
Rhetorical Criticism of Jude and 2 Peter (SBLDS; Atlanta: Scholars Press,
1988) 128; and Paul E. Koptak, Rhetorical Criticism of the Bible: A
(1:16-18). As the letter moves toward its
Resource for Preaching, http://www.religiononline.org/showarticle.asp?title20 (accessed 15 May 2010).
conclusion, the author cites his opponents
who ask, Where is the promise of his
coming? with the claim that all things continue as they were from
the beginning of creation! (3:4). The final argument of the letter is
a defense of the Parousia in the face of its delay. Taken together,
then, the defense of the coming of Christ and an explanation for
the delay of that coming provide the verbal parentheses that enclose
the letter.
Judgment is a corollary to 2 Peters conviction of the certainty of
the Parousia. The materials borrowed from Jude and reworked as
part of the defense of the Parousia occupy most of chapter 2. The
author explores a selected catalogue of judgments described in
Scripture as proof that his opponents, too, will be held accountable
for their unbelief and for leading the weak astray. In 3:3-10 the
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inevitability of judgment is underscored. Abridged Rhetorical Outline

Below is an abridged outline of the rhetorical
The certainty of Christs coming and the
structure of 2 Peter.
judgment also serve to frame 2 Peters
concern for moral living as evidence of the I. Prescript, 1:1-2
power of the gospel. Second Peter 1:5-9
recites a list of virtues that will keep you II. Exordium (getting the attention of the audience so
they might be receptive to the argument as it
from being ineffective and unfruitful in the
unfolds), 1:3-15
knowledge of our Lord Jesus Christ (1:8).
In addition to the main theological con- III. Probatio (persuading the audience of the validity of
the argument), 1:163:13
cerns of Parousia and judgment and the
A.
First Accusation and Refutation, 1:16-19
broad ethical concerns of the Christian life,
B. Second Accusation and Refutation, 1:20-21
2 Peter touches upon an array of other
C. Counter Accusation, 2:1-3a
theological and ethical topics. In the comD. Third Accusation and Refutation, 2:3b-10a
E. Digressso (an attack upon the mind-set of the
mentary, we will treat each issue as it
opponents), 2:10b-22
appears, but a summary of secondary
F. Transitio (a return to the Exordium), 3:1-2
themes found in the letter may whet the
G. Fourth Accusation and Refutation, 3:3-13
readers appetite for what is to come.
Apostasy, both as threat and reality, appear IV. Peroratio (a conclusion), 3:14-18
A. Repetitio (summary of argument), 3:14-16
in 1:10 and 2:20-22. Second Peter 2:1 raises
B. Adfectus (an emotional appeal to consent to the
the specter of heresy. The question of the
argument), 3:17-18
authority of prophets and apostles and
perhaps Scripture appears in 1:19-21 and Adapted from Duane F. Watson, Invention, Arrangement, and Style:
Criticism of Jude and 2 Peter (SBLDS; Atlanta: Scholars
again in 3:2. The continuing power of God Rhetorical
Press, 1988) 81142.
as creator, judge, and redeemer is touched
upon in 3:3-10. Eschatological hope is
expressed in 3:13. The list of virtues found in 1:5-9 is complemented with numerous references to particular sins, including
greed and exploitation (2:3 and 2:13-18), lawlessness (2:8 and
3:17), corrupt desires and carousing (2:10-17).
Identifying the Opponents
Who are the opponentsthe false teachers (2:1) and the

scoffers (3:3)causing 2 Peter to condemn them with such force
and wrath? What can be known of them from the letter are, at best,
secondhand versions of what they believe, teach, and practice.
What is clear is that our author considers them to be a serious
threat to the temporal and eternal plight of his audience. That
alone should make contemporary readers cautious about taking at
face value what the letter attributes to the opponents. Kraftchick
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surmises that the readers and hearers of 2 Peter knew these

[alleged false] teachers and that, therefore, the author could not
completely misrepresent them or his own counter-arguments
would have lost credibility.63
Although they are accused of heresy (2:1) and even apostasy
(2:20-22), it appears that the opponents still consider themselves
authentic members of the community of faith. In the only attempt
to actually quote the words of the opponents in 2 Peter, they are
reported to have said that since our ancestors died, all things continue as they were from the beginning of creation! (3:4). The
reference to our ancestors is to the apostles. Broadly, the opponents identify with the community and, apparently, they have
gained a following within the community. If it were not the case,
2 Peter would not have been needed.
So, who are the opponents? Witherington notes that the standard answer used to be some form of Gnosticism, but this theory
has been thoroughly discredited by Neyrey and others.64 For three
decades Neyrey has been the main source for those attempting to
navigate the murky waters of New Testament sociological and
rhetorical analysis. That is especially the case for those seeking
clarity on the character of the opponents who elicited 2 Peters
vigorous response. Neyreys insights derive from his thorough
examination of ancient polemics against those who deny divine
providence in creation and judgment, deny the possibility of
prophecy, and contend that traditional doctrines of a deity engaged
in human affairs abolishes the idea of authentic freedom. Chief
among the ancient polemicists are Plutarch (De Sera Numinis
Vindicta) and Lactanitus (Divinae Institutiones and De Ira Dei).65
The works of Plutarch (d. 122) and Lactanitus (d. no earlier than
326) represent what Neyrey identifies as a commonplace argument from the early second century against the Epicureans.66
Epicurus (341270 BC) was a Greek philosopher who developed a
comprehensive view of the universe based upon pleasure, which
should be understood as living a life with no trouble. In his
Principle Doctrines67 he denies that gods are involved in the affairs
of human beings, affirms the pursuit of pleasure as the highest
goal of humans, posits that death is the end of each human life,
and, therefore, rejects any idea of postmortem justice by the gods.
Freedom for Epicurus was the freedom of fear of death and the fear
of retribution after death. Epicurus also rejected the Homeric
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279
myths as fictions designed to control

Epicurus
human beings.68
Neyrey does not suggest that there
is an organic relationship between
2 Peter and the polemical works of
Plutarch and Lactanitus (the dates of
the three works clearly militate
against such a claim), but he does
contend that the works disclose an
ethos of the Hellenistic era that pitted
pro-providentialists against antiprovindentialists. Neyrey observes
that when the template of Epicurean
doctrine . . . is placed over 2 Peter,
we are able to discern the contours of
the commonplace arguments, both
denying the judgment of God and
affirming it.69 He goes on to note
that the same argument can be
found in Jewish and Greek sources
without specific attribution to
Epicurus. Marble bust. Roman copy of a c. 275250 BC Hellenistic portrait. Hall
of the Philosophers, Palazzo Nuovo, Musei Capitolini. Musei Capitolini, Rome,
Epicurus and that the opponents
Italy. (Credit: Vanni/Art Resource, NY)
of 2 Peter voice a doctrine usually
associated with atheists such as
Epicureans.70
Finally, Neyrey explores the relationship between popular
Epicureans in the Hellenistic era and the Jewish Apikoros that
are prominent in post-biblical Talmudic literature. The terms,
Epicurean and Apikoros, appear to have common roots; some claim
that Apikoros is a transliteration of Epicurean and others deny such
a correspondence. Neyrey draws a cautious conclusion: While we
cannot be certain that Apikoros derives directly from Epicurean,
the similarity of positions held by both indicates a rather widespread and so common . . . stance in antiquity.71
With Neyrey and others, we identify the opponents that
occasioned the writing of 2 Peter to be representative of the
Epicurean ethos that challenged the confessions and practices of
post-apostolic Christianity.
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CONNECTIONS
Reading the Bible with critical curiosity demands a lot. Even the
casual reader of the Bible cannot avoid the questions that bubble
up from the pages. Because the Bible offers a sweeping overview of
how the conviction that God shapedand continues to shape
communities of faith, the questions that drive the history and
literature of those communities also have an impact upon contemporary readers. The Bible is literature of history, but it also is
contemporary literature for faithful people who believe that the
God first revealed to Abraham and Sarah is the same God who
speaks to and through the kings of ancient Israel and Judah, the
prophets who challenged those kings and their subjects, and was
made known in a definitive way through Jesus Christ. The New
Testament not only tells the Jesus story; it also reflects how the
early church relied upon the witness of the apostles to interpret the
covenants associated with Abraham, Moses, David, and Jeremiah in
light of the life, teachings, death, and resurrection of Jesus. The
New Testament, too, offers important insights into the way the
post-apostolic communities of faith moved toward becoming the
Body of Christ, the church that spread throughout the GrecoRoman world and continues to have a global impact in the
twenty-first century.
How shall we approach the Bibleand in the case of this commentary, 2 Peterin ways that takes seriously the vitality of the
church and richness of its contexts? Because we are faced with literature, we need to be attentive as much as possible to language and
style of 2 Peter. Relying upon experts of Hellenistic Greek and the
variety of motifs such authors employed, we may gather insights
that help us understand the literature in ways that make it possible
to apply it to our contemporary settings. Relying upon historians,
we may equip ourselves to make our contemporary understanding
remain consistent with original issues that lie behind the literature,
both in its initial context and in the changing contexts of the
church. Relying upon theologians and ethicists, we may be able to
keep our focus sharp upon the nuances that encourage both
Christian thinking and Christian living.
The preliminary matters addressed above in the introduction to
2 Peter are important for every reader. They remind the reader that
2 Peter emerged in a context that is still evolving in the twenty-first
century. Concerns about ethical living and doctrines that are true
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to the story of Jesus and the witness of the apostles are not only
matters of history; they are the pressing issues for every community
of Christians in every generation. Failure to give attention to the
questions of authorship, intended audience, and argumentation
will only weaken the effectiveness of interpretation.
The critical reader of the Bibleand in our case of 2 Peter
requires the skills often found among detectives and trial lawyers in
our culture. Think of the popularity in our contemporary culture
of television series, feature films, and novels that have made icons
of those with the skill to sift through data and arrive at reasonable
and sustainable assessments of available evidence.
Perry Mason is the enduring popular icon of a truth-seeking and
truth-finding trial lawyer. Based upon the literary works of Erle
Stanley Gardner, Raymond Burrs portrayal of Perry Mason captured the attention of three generations of television audiences and
continues to do well in syndication on cable stations. The original
series ran from 1957 through 1966 and was revived in made-fortelevision movies from 1985 to 1995. Burrs Mason was usually
paired with Ray Collinss Lt. Tragg, the Los Angeles detective who
amassed evidence against Masons client. Also prominent was the
prosecutor, Hamilton Burger (played by William Tallman), who
went toe to toe with Mason in the epitome of courtroom drama,
almost always in a losing effort. The iconic Perry Mason is a good
analogy for the goals of critical readers of 2 Peter, and most of the
biblical literature. Available evidence always needs to be sifted,
compared, and considered in the hope of establishing the best possible interpretation.
Because 2 Peter is both an apology for orthodoxy and an argument against the perceived heresy of the Epicurean ethos that
threatened to undermine the audience, we should consider contemporary ways that proponents of differing perspectives present
themselves and their opponents. With the appearance of FOX
News in 1996, the way people watch and listen to news changed
dramatically. Network news came under fire as biased with the
FOX claim to offer fair and balanced coverage. Factor in CNN,
public television, and MSNBC, and the viewing audience had a
full range of options. Of course, no network can promise genuinely
objective coverage of world and national news, but with the available options the responsibility falls to viewers to listen more
carefully and sift through the claims and counter-claims of the
talking heads who interpret daily events.
281
282
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Traditional print journalismnewspapers and magazineshave

long encouraged similar critical engagement of world and national
happenings, as well as providing perspectives about the rich array of
popular cultures of sports, finance, entertainment, and more. In
each case, the reader is called upon to evaluate the claims and
counter-claims of reporters, pundits, and columnists. No single
outlet can provide an unquestioned version of what happens day by
day. Readers must weigh the stories against what they know and
believe to be most nearly objective.
Second Peter is a sharp example from the ancient world that cultures are always divided on important issues. The letter grows out
of serious differences of perspective on what it means to think and
live faithfully in light of the gospel of Jesus Christ. Although it is
piece of ancient literature, 2 Peter is as contemporary as the
morning paper and the evening news. Todays readers will have to
consider seriously the way 2 Peter portrays the Epicureans and will
have to consider seriously the defense and counter charges made
against those opponents. Doing so will raise the questions of what
is central to the gospel. There also will be helpful lessons about the
ways the gospel is often exploited for reasons that have nothing to
do with the gospel. In the process, contemporary readers may find
themselves in a debate that is far removed from the ancient world,
but also will find themselves in the midst of the demands of discerning how the gospel is best applied to our context.
Finally, more than any other New Testament book, 2 Peter raises
the question of the canon. That 2 Peter had a difficult path toward
acceptance in the canon has been noted above. Its difficult path
also elevates the issue of canon as a matter of history and theology.
Historically, the canon came to be through a plodding path of
arguments for and against particular works being accepted as
authoritative. (As an aside, we note that 2 Peter reflects a for and
against argument for a particular position on the return of Christ
and how that teaching should have an impact upon the practical
life of the community of faith.) Theologically, 2 Peter raises,
perhaps, the issues of inspiration and the authority of Scripture.
The perhaps will be explored in the commentary section that
treats 2 Peter 1:19-21. For now, 2 Peter begs its readers to cultivate
openness to history and theological development. To say that no
prophecy of scripture is a matter of ones own interpretation (2 Pet
1:20) does not shut down the issue of the origin of Scripture.
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Instead, it opens the issues of inspiration and authority for an

ongoing discussion.
Notes
1. Ben Witherington III, A Socio-Rhetorical Commentary on 12 Peter, vol. 2 of
Letters and Homilies for Hellenized Christians (Downers Grove IL: InterVarsity Press,
2007) 26061.
2. Gerald Bray, ed., Ancient Christian Commentary on Scripture, New Testament,
XI: James, 12 Peter, 13 John, Jude (Downers Grove IL: InterVarsity Press, 2000) xx.
We reject Brays attempt to polarize the discussion about authorship along neat lines of
literary and historical analyses. Throughout this introduction is ample evidence that the
critical issues raised by 2 Peter are not so easily pigeonholed.
3. Fred B. Craddock, First and Second Peter and Jude (Int; Louisville: Westminster
John Knox Press, 1995) 13, 8593.
4. J. N. D. Kelly, The Epistles of Peter and Jude (HNTC; New York: Harper and Row,
1969) 236.
5. Steven J. Kraftchick, Jude, 2 Peter (Nashville: Abingdon Press, 2002) 8081.
6. Eusebius, Ecclesiastical History 6.25.11.
7. Bruce M. Metzger, The Canon of the New Testament (Oxford: Clarendon Press,
1987), 307. The citation is from Metzgers translation of the fragment.
8. Early Christian Writings, The Apocalypse of Peter, http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/text/apocalypsepeter-roberts.html.
9. Note that 2 Peter 1:16-18 merges the synoptic accounts of baptism and transfiguration. More important, 2 Peter reports that the apostles fully grasped the
significance of the appearance of Jesus clothed in glory, while the synoptic accounts
single out Peter for his failure to understand. Green pursues the argument that the
report of the transfiguration in 2 Peter rests upon an eyewitness account and, therefore,
predates the Synoptic Gospels (Michael Green, The Second Epistle of Peter and the
Epistle of Jude [2d ed.; Grand Rapids MI: Wm B. Eerdmans, 1987] 9193). The argument seems to be a stretch of the textual evidence and theological development of the
way the Petrine literature uses accounts of the transfiguration. Green agrees with
Bauckham that The Apocalypse of Peter relies upon 2 Peter, but he fails to acknowledge
the significant theological shift that Bauckham suggests in relation to the function of the
scene in the context of the Synoptics and, then, the second century.
10. Apocalypse of Peter 4.
11. Richard J. Bauckham, Jude, 2 Peter (WBC 50; Waco: Word Books, 1983) 212.
12. Ibid.
13. Jerome H. Neyrey, 2 Peter, Jude (AB 37C; New York: Doubleday, 1993) 173.
14. Ibid., 174.
15. F. Lapham, Peter: The Myth, the Man, and the Writings: A Study of Early
Petrine Text and Tradition (JSNT 239; London: Shefflield Academic Press, 2003) 1.
16. Ibid., 164.
283
284
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17. Ibid.
18. Kelly, Epistles of Peter and Jude, 224.
19. Witherington concedes that 2 Peter lacks apostolic authorship, but still argues
that there is no location more likely for the composition of 2 Peter than the growing
church in Rome (A Socio-Rhetorical Commentary, 272). Witheringtons argument fails
to address the absence of attention given to the letter before fourth century.
20. Peter H. Davids, The Letters of 2 Peter and Jude (Pillars New Testament
Commentary; Grand Rapids MI: Wm B. Eerdmans, 2006) 132. We also should note that
Davids embraces the authentic Petrine authorship both of 1 and 2 Peter.
21. Kelly, Epistles of Peter and Jude, 237.
22. Lapham, Peter: The Myth, the Man, and the Writings, chs. 6, 8, and 9. The
three versions of The Apocalypse of Peter include the Ethiopic version, which is
included in the Muratorian Canon, the version discovered in a monks tomb in Akhmim,
Egypt in 1887, and the Coptic version discovered at Nag Hammadi in 1945.
23. Ibid., 213.
24. Ibid., 169.
25. Craddock, First and Second Peter and Jude, 13, 8593; see above.
26. Bo Reicke, The Epistles of James, Peter, and Jude (AB 37; New York:
Doubleday, 1964) 145.
27. Ibid., 14546. Italics original. Note that Reicke goes on, nonetheless, to
support Rome as a reasonable origin of 2 Peter.
28. Kraftchick, Jude, 2 Peter, 2122, opens the window of the composition of
Jude a bit wider, suggesting AD 75-100.
29. Lapham, Peter: The Myth, the Man, and the Writings, 210, places the composition of the Ethiopic version of The Apocalypse of Peter, which appears to have been
the one included in the Muratorian Canon, at approximately 135.
30. Cited in Davids, The Letters of 2 Peter and Jude, 122, n. 5.
31. Kraftchick, Jude, 2 Peter, 76.
32. Ibid.
33. Ibid.
34. Reicke, The Epistles of James, Peter, and Jude, 14647. First Peter, then, is
the more formal, Attic style, while 2 Peter is the more elaborate style associated with
Asia Minor.
35. John H. Elliott, I-II Peter/Jude, in James, 12 Peter, Jude (ACNT;
Minneapolis: Augsburg Publishing House, 1982) 123.
36. Lapham, Peter: The Myth, the Man, and the Writings, 155.
37. Ibid., 156.
38. Ibid.
39. Ibid.
40. Watson E. Mills, Jude, in Mercer Commentary on the Bible (ed. Watson E.
Mills and Richard F. Wilson; Macon GA: Mercer University Press, 1995) 1320.
42. Ibid.
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43. Ibid.
44. Some might say that the scene of the martyrdom of Stephen in Acts 7 could
include Peter and Paul, but the text does not say so. Some also might cite Acts 9,
where Saul is brought . . . to the apostles (9:27) by Barnabas, but that scene lacks a
reference to Peter, although it is reasonable to conclude that Peter was present at the
meeting. Note that we are using ordinal numbers based upon the arrangement of the
canon and not a presumed historical sequence.
45. Reicke, The Epistles of James, Peter, and Jude, xxxi. It is the case that Reicke
does not use the term pastoral in his general comment, but one can infer that public
addressesvia epistlesestablish a pastoral tone in many New Testament letters.
46. Ibid.
47. Witherington, A Socio-Rhetorical Commentary, 281.
48. Ibid.
49. Ibid. Witherington adds force to his theory by suggesting that 2 Peter was,
perhaps, composed by Pope Linus, the second Bishop of Rome, succeeding Saint
Peter (ibid., 282). Witherington uses the term encyclical rather anachronistically, to
associate 2 Peter with the centuries-old practice of the Roman pontiffs. Above we have
argued against a Roman provenance for 2 Peter and against the early date of the letter
that Witheringtons theory requires. Those issues, however, need not undermine our
assessment of 2 Peter as a pastoral letter.
50. Bauckham, Jude, 2 Peter, 131.
51. Ibid., 132.
52. Ibid. Already we have raised the issue of the way 2 Peter uses the transfiguration as an expansive moment of revelation (see above). In the commentary, we shall
also take up the issue.
53. Ibid.
54. Duane F. Watson, Invention, Arrangement, and Style: Rhetorical Criticism of
Jude and 2 Peter (SBLDS; Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1988) 81. To fully appreciate
Watsons careful rhetorical analysis one should consult his documentation. Every page
includes references to classic works or rhetoric ranging from Plato, Aristotle, Cicero,
Quintilian, and many more.
55. Ibid., 85; see also pp. 913.
56. Ibid., 85.
57. Ibid., 86; see also pp. 913.
58. Ibid., 86. Note that Watson uses question in the specialized sense of rhetorical analysis as a way to summarize the heart of an argument. It is the case that the
question posed above appears to be at least two questions, as one would generally
use the term. Parousia and judgment, along with moral restraints and Christian growth
are, however, dimensions of the single rhetorical question about the validity of apostolic doctrine defended in 2 Peter (ibid., 87).
59. Watson, Invention, Arrangement, and Style, 9.
60. Ibid., 86.
61. bid., 10.
62. Ibid., 86.
285
286
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64. Witherington, A Socio-Rhetorical Commentary, 278. See also Neyrey, 2 Peter,
12228 and passim; Jerome H. Neyrey, The Form and Background of the Polemic in
2 Peter, JBL 99 (1980): 40731; Jerome H. Neyrey, The Apologetic Use of the
Transfiguration in 2 Peter 1:16-21, CBQ 42 (1980): 50419; and Jerome H. Neyrey,
Epicureans and the Areopagus Speech: Stereotypes and Theodicy,
http://www.nd.edu/~jneyrey1/epicureans.html.
65. Neyrey, Polemic, 409, and Neyrey, 2 Peter, 12224.
66. Neyrey, 2 Peter, 127.
67. Epicurus, Principle Doctrines, trans. Robert Drew Hicks, http://classics.
mit.edu/Epicurus/princdoc.html.
68. See Neyrey, Polemic, and 2 Peter, 12227, passim.
69. Neyrey, 2 Peter, 127.
70. Ibid., emphasis added. Epicurus and his popular followers were atheists only
insofar as they denied that the deity was engaged in the affairs of the world, i.e., that
God exercised providential care. Their deism affirmed the absolute transcendence of the
deity, thereby promoting a kind of practical atheism that promised human beings
freedom from the fear of judgment and retribution at the hand of God.
71. Ibid., 12728.
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Outline of 2 Peter
I. Opening (1:1-2)
II. Reminder and Encouragement (1:3-11)
A. Sufficiency of Divine Power and Promise (3-4)
B. Virtues of Faithful Thinking and Living (5-9)
C. Call to Faithfulness (10-11)
III. Peters Testament and Farewell (1:12-15)
IV. The First Three Denials and Defenses (1:162:3b)
A. Denial and Defense of the Parousia: The First Challenge
(1:16-18)
B. Denial and Defense of Prophecy: The Second Challenge
(1:19-21)
C. Denial and Defense of the Master: The Third Challenge
(2:1-3a)
V. Scriptural Proof of the Reality of Judgment (2:1-10a)
A. Judgment of the False Teachers (1-3)
B. Judgment of the Angels (4)
C. Judgment of the Generation of Noah (5)
D. Judgment of Sodom and Gomorrah (6-8)
E. Summary of the Reality of Judgment (9-10)
VI. Bold Denunciation of the Opponents (2:10b-22)
A. Beasts, Blots, and Blemishes (10b-14)
B. Followers of Baalam (15-16)
C. Slaves of Corruption and Apostates (17-22)
VII. Second Reminder and Encouragement (3:1-2)
VIII. Second Denial and Defense of the Parousia: The Fourth
Challenge (3:3-7)
IX.
Denial and Defense of Judgment: The Fifth Challenge (3:8-13)
X.
Final Reminder and Encouragement (3:14-18)
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Conversional Knowledge
of Jesus Christ and the
Demand for Character
Development
2 Peter 1:1-11
COMMENTARY
Opening, 1:1-2
The opening of 2 Peter is unusual when compared to most letters in

the New Testament. While it does offer a designation of the author, it
lacks a specific reference to an audience. Even the designation of the
author as Simeon Peter, a servant
and apostle of Jesus Christ, is odd.
Peter
Only here and in Acts 15:14 is Peter
referred to as Simeon. The term
underscores a distinctly Jewish tone
that will develop in the letter. It also
offers, perhaps, a link to the tradition
of the Jerusalem Council that Acts 15
establishes. The Jerusalem Council is
a watershed moment in the early
church where conservative Jews
represented by Peter and by James,
the apparent leader of the Jerusalem
churchengaged more progressive
Jews like Paul and Barnabas who
defended their bold presentation of
the gospel to Gentile audiences. In
the end, the conservative faction of
Peter Paul Rubens (15771640). Saint Peter the Apostle with
the early church affirmed the work of
two keys in his hands. Museo del Prado, Madrid, Spain. (Credit:
Paul and Barnabas. According to
Alinari/Art Resource, NY)
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2 Peter 1:1-11
Acts, the meeting in Jerusalem represented a shift of the spread of

the gospel away from Jewish communities of faith to those with
Gentile origins. In Galatians Paul offers a corroborating report of
the Jerusalem Council, but refers to Peter by his Aramaic appellation, Cephas.1 The three ways to refer to PeterSimon Peter,
Cephas, and Simeon Peterreveal something of the diversity of
the early church and the different ways Peter is remembered. In all
cases Peter is the undeniable leader of the Twelve. In the opening of
2 Peter there is a subtle preference to emphasize the Jewishness of
Simeon Peter.
While there is no clear evidence that 2 Peter relies upon the
passage from Acts, we can reasonably infer that 2 Peter is aware of
the multiple and sometimes conflicting roles of Peter in the early
church. Peter becomes an icon for the Jewish branch of the early
church. His Aramaic identity places him in Galilee and in the
company of Jesus. At the same time Peter is not isolated. Both Acts
and Galatians imply healthy relationships between Peter, the
Jerusalem church, and the Gentile world.2 In the end 2 Peter
attempts to develop good will between the Jewish and Gentile
incarnations of the church with the reference to our beloved
brother, Paul (3:15).
Peter3 identifies himself as a servant and apostle of Jesus Christ.
The terms are common in the letters of the New Testament and
reflect the certain conviction that Jesus Christ is both Lord and the
one who imbues others with power and authority to articulate the
gospel. As servant, Peter acknowledges the authority of Jesus
Christ. As apostle, Peter claims to share the authority of Jesus
Christ as prophet and teacher. Peters apostolic authority is woven
throughout the letter and will be developed as the central argument
in defense of the certainty of Christs return and of divine judgment of those who deviate from an orthodox doctrine and ethics.
The audience is identified not on the basis of geographical location, as is frequently the case in the New Testament (see, e.g., 1 Pet
1:1-2), but rather on the basis of a shared faith that is of equal
standing with ours (as in RSV). Bauckham highlights the egalitarian tone of the phrase, noting that the faith of these later
believers is not inferior to that of the apostles and that the phrase
establish[es] at the outset the major concern of the letter: to communicate the apostles teaching to a postapostolic generation.4 In
the introduction I made a case for 2 Peters being intended for a
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2 Peter 1:1-11
291
Isotimon
broad audience in Asia Minor because Peter and
The concept of isotimon (equality) is
5
Paul were well known in the region. [Isotimon]
most important in Greek law and politics.
The faith as precious as ours is secured
There is hardly a term which is so common as this
through the righteousness of our God and
in discussion of law, and nowhere has the close
connection between equality and law found such
Savior Jesus Christ (1:1b). Righteousness is an
a clear and full expression . . . as among the
important theme for the letter, appearing seven
Greeks (34546).
times (1:1, 13; 2:5, 7, 8, 21; and 3:13) as a
binding theme. As the theme unfolds, it
The Greek ideal of [equality] among men is a
reflection or part of the cosmic equality . . . [and]
becomes apparent that Peter primarily uses the
is an essential [power] of the [cosmos]; it creates
term with an ethical dimension. In 2 Peter 2:3border, and consequently it is divine (346).
10a righteousness is used to describe the
character of Noah, who is a herald of righteous[Equality] is basic to society in Greek political and
legal theory, so in Greek philosophy the personal
ness, and also of Lot, who three times is praised
society of friends rests upon the same fundafor his godliness in an ungodly context and who
mental principle (347).
was tormented in his righteous soul by the
unrighteousness that surrounded him. In 2:21
The concept of legal equality can itself be deepPeter puts a hard edge on righteousness, sugened to the point where it becomes a principle of
gesting that his opponents had lost that essential
judicial righteousness . . . [that] implies simply
quality of character that comes from knowing
that the judge will dispense the same law without
Christ. At the end of the letter, Peter reminds his
respect of persons (347).
readers that the true home of righteousness is
These secular forms of equality, which are deterin the new heavens and a new earth (3:13) for
mined by early law and righteousness, are
which he and they are waiting. The ethical bent
confronted in the NT by another kind of equality
of Peters use of righteousness leads Davids to
which is established by the love of Christians and
by the divine gifts of grace (348).
conclude that the ethical quality would be
better translated justice in that the divine
This fact of the endowment of all Christians with
patron granting faith acts justlywith fairness
the same spiritual gift is described . . . specifically
and lack of favoritismin making his grant.6
in . . . 2 Pt 1:1 (349).
Who is the divine patron granting such a
Gustav Sthlin, i[so~, ijsovth~, ijsovtimo~, TDNT 3:34355.
faith as precious as ours (1:1b)? Peter says it
comes from our God and Savior Jesus Christ. Theologians
steeped in Trinitarian traditions chafe under the phrase, noting that
Peter equates God with Jesus Christ and fails to mention the work
of the Holy Spirit. They should not. As a matter of history, the
development of a Trinitarian theology is on a far horizon at the
time of the writing of 2 Peter. The Trinity is not a construction
found in the New Testament, although there are evidences of a
movement toward developing such a doctrine.7 Peter is not in the
position to distinguish between the work of God and the work of
Jesus Christ. What he knows is that salvation is from God and
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2 Peter 1:1-11
Development of the Trinity in the Early Church

While the New Testament does introduce the language of
Father, Son, and Holy Spirit, it does not attempt to
develop a coherent teaching about the Trinity. That task fell to the
early church. The broad contours of Trinitarian doctrine have been
in place since the creative work of theologians in the West such as
Tertullian (AD 160220) and Augustine (AD 354430). Tertullian
coined the term trinitas as a way to maintain the oneness of the
substance of God while allowing God to interact with the world
through personae (Latin for masks).
Augustine had the insight to embody the elements of the Trinity
into a social or psychological context. He suggested that one entity
often functions in multiple ways: a man can be a father, a son, and
a husband simultaneously without compromising his core identity
(of course, the same is true of a woman who often functions as a
mother, a daughter, and a wife simultaneously).
In the East, the Cappadocian Fathers (brothers Basil the Great
and Gregory of Nyssa, and their friend, Gregory of Nazianzus)
shaped a more mystical and interactive doctrine of the Trinity that
focused upon the interpenetration (perichoresis) of the Father,
Son, and Holy Spirit that emphasized the unity of the godhead
over the distinctions that theologians in the West were eager to
articulate.
comes through Jesus Christ. For

Peter, faith emanates at once
through both.
Trinitarian theologians who
chafe under the equation of God
and Jesus Christ in 1:1b get
modest relief in v. 2 where Peter
does distinguish between God
and Jesus our Lord. They will
have to wait, however, for the
only reference to the Holy Spirit
in 2 Peter that will come in 1:21.
Even there they will be frustrated
because Peter will not invest any
energy toward an understanding
of how God, Jesus Christ, and
the Holy Spirit coalesce into the
Trinity. [Development of the Trinity in the
Early Church]
The opening of the letter ends

with a prayer or a blessing. Peter
hopes for grace and peace for
his audience in abundance in
the knowledge of God and of
Jesus our Lord (1:2). The grace
(charis) and peace (eirn) reflect
the Hellenistic and Jewish flavor
of 2 Peter and, thus, further
frame the context of the letter.
Peter recognizes the classical
Greek ethos of his audience, especially the Epicureanesque ideas
Jan van Scorel, Saint Augustine altar, c. 1520. Church St. Stephen, Jerusalem, Israel.
that undermine the thinking and
living of his readers.8 Against that
classical Greek influence, Peter will underscore the distinctly Jewish
origins of the gospel and its teachings of judgment. Grace derives
from the secular setting where subjects receive favor from a ruling
authority. Peace echoes the Hebrew shalom, which is the well
being found in relationship to God and Gods people. The dual
phrase belongs to the world of Semitic culture9 and is a common
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construction found in Pauls letters (Rom 1:7; 1 Cor 1:3; 2 Cor

1:2; and Gal 1:3) and elsewhere in the New Testament.
The final phrase of the opening introduces another key theme of
2 Peter: the knowledge (epignsis) that come through or by God
and our Lord Jesus (1:2). Reicke renders epignsei as intimate
knowledge;10 Neyrey prefers acknowledgment.11 Kraftchick
observes that in Christian teaching, epignsis almost becomes a
technical term for knowledge obtained through conversion.12 He
goes on to note that references to knowing Christ are rare elsewhere in the New Testament, but prominent in 2 Peter (1:2, 3, 8;
2:20; 3:18), reflecting the authors concern to
Epignsis
show the interaction of the church with Christ,
Epignsis (decisive knowledge of God)
has become almost a technical term for
now and in the future.13
the
decisive
knowledge of God which is implied in
The technical use of epignsis in 2 Peter makes
conversion to the Christian faith. The verb, too, is
clear that his prayer and blessing for his audioften used in this sense. . . . 2 Pt. 1:3, 8; 2:20
ence that grace and peace be yours in
mention God or Christ as object (of such knowledge). The theoretical element is present . . . , yet
abundance in the knowledge of God and of
it is assumed that Christian knowledge carries
Jesus our Lord (1:2) includes his hope that they
with it a corresponding manner of life. (707)
will continue to be changed because of their
intimate encounter with Christ. Conversion for
The Christian view of knowledge is . . . largely
determined by the OT. An obedient and grateful
Peter is not a one-time event, but is rather the
acknowledgment of the deeds and demands of
beginning of a journey of transformation that is
God is linked with knowledge of God and what He
being realized and will be realized both now
has done and demands. It is keeping that this
and to the day of eternity (3:18). [Epignsis]
Christian knowledge is not a fixed possession but
develops in the life of the Christian as lasting obeSecond Peter opens with a prayer and
dience and reflection. . . . It is characteristic that
blessing, May grace and peace be yours in
the guiding factor is not interest in Christian
abundance in the knowledge of God and of
learning but the edification of the community that
Jesus our Lord (1:2) and closes with an exhoris advanced by the gnw`s i~ [gnsis] of the individual. (707708)
tation, But grow in the grace and knowledge of
our Lord and Savior Jesus Christ (3:18). The
Rudolph Bultmann, ginwvskw, gnw`s i~, ejpiginwvskw,
opening prayer and blessing, followed by the
ejpivgnwsi~, TDNT 1:689719.
closing exhortation, embrace the whole letter
with a pastoral inclusio. In between, Peter encourages and even
cajoles his readers to remember their new birthright of conversion
through Christ so that they might be strong in the face heretical
teachings and temptations to live ungodly lives.
Reminder and Encouragement, 1:3-11
Peter stumbles, grammatically speaking, into the body of the letter.

Verses 3-4 defy standard rules of grammar from the initial particle,
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hs (as or since) to the ambiguous connections between principle phrases such as his divine power, through the knowledge of
him who called us, and these things. The convoluted construction of these verses leads Kelly to muse that one is tempted to
think that the author had not sorted the matter out clearly in his
own mind.14 Reicke and Witherington are more generous in their
assessments, suggesting that the Asiatic Greek rhetoric of 2 Peter is
the reason for the difficult grammar. Reicke explains, perhaps, why
modern translationsincluding his ownattempt to smooth the
rough construction for modern audiences: a literal
Head of an Apostle
translation would sound too bombastic. The ancients
were more used to rhetorical extravagance.15
Witherington elaborates on the style of 2 Peter, noting
that Asiatic Greek . . . tended to be hyperbolic and
lavish in character and suggests that 2 Peter 1:3ff. is
rather grandiose, like a Rubens work of art.16
While Bauckham agrees that 2 Peter 1:3-4 presents
grammatical challenges, he also provides an insight that
helps the contemporary reader understand the function
of 2 Peter 1:3-11, identifying it as a miniature farewell
sermon that summarizes Peters definitive teaching as
he would wish it to be remembered after his death.17
The short homily quickly moves through three points:
Peter Paul Rubens (15771640). Head of an
Apostle. Galleria Borghese, Rome, Italy. (Credit:
the sufficiency of divine power and promise (vv. 3-4),
Alinari/Art Resource, NY)
virtues of faithful thinking and living (vv. 5-9), and a
call to faithfulness (vv. 10-11).
Sufficiency of Divine Power and Promise, 1:3-4
We take vv. 3-4 to build upon the opening section of the letter and
thus regard the untranslated hs in v. 3 to hold the reader in a lingering embrace by a faith as precious as ours through the
righteousness of our God and Savior Jesus Christ (1:1b). The lingering embrace continues to shape the readers understanding of
the power of faith that brings them new life in Christ. Since (hs)
the readers have received such a faith, they can depend upon the
divine power as sufficient for their needs. The five instances of the
third person pronoun in these verses certainly hark back to our
God and Savior Jesus Christ in v. 1b. As noted above, Peter is not
constrained to distinguish between the works of God and Christ. It
is the divine power that secures the hope that the readers may
become participants of the divine nature.
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Between the phrases divine power (v. 3) and divine nature

(v. 4), Peter reminds the readers that their intimate, conversional
knowledge [epignsis] of God and Jesus our Lord (1:2) is secure if
they persevere. Each phrase begs for attention. Kraftchick notes
that divine power is unique in the New Testament and is the
only Christian use of the expression prior to Justin [Martyr] in the
mid-second century. He goes on to say that the phrase, however, is
common among Greek philosophers and Hellenistic Jewish authors
to express Gods work in the physical realm.18
The second phrase, divine natureindeed, all of v. 4
prompted Ksemann to write one of the truly famous sentences in
New Testament criticism: It would be hard to find in the whole
New Testament a sentence which, in its expression, its individual
motifs and its whole trend, more clearly marks the relapse of
Christianity into Hellenistic dualism.19 Ksemann since has been
refuted, if not discredited, on two counts. First is his assumption
that the opponents in 2 Peter were Gnostics,20 and second is his
conviction that 2 Peter accommodated to their dualism. Davids
answers the question, Has 2 Peter imported Greek dualism into
Christian thought?21 with a defense of the Jewishness of 2 Peter.
He properly claims that the dualism in Judaism and in 2 Peter is at
root ethical, not ontological.22 We will return to this issue below.
Between the phrases divine power (v. 3) and divine nature
(v. 4), Peter employs three compound constructions that elaborate
upon what divine power has done and is doing for his readers.
The first is that they have received (that is, have been given [vv. 3
and 4]) everything needed. Peter joins life and godliness (v. 3)
as what divine power has done for those who have the intimate
knowledge (again, epignsis) through Christ. The second is that
they have been called . . . by his own glory and goodness. The
third is that he has given us, through these things, his precious
and very great promises. Kraftchick observes that these three pairs
each have the effect of stress[ing] the magnitude of Gods promises23 for the readers. Thus, life and godliness magnifies a life
characterized by godliness, while glory and goodness focuses
upon glorious goodness, and precious and very great promises
serves as a capstone for the constructions.24
Of vv. 3 and 4 Green exclaims, What contrasts these verses
contain!25 His excitement is less about the elements of the compound phrases noted above than it is the rare and daring words
Peter uses that are uncommon in the New Testament but full of
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meaning in the pagan world.26 Indeed. Peter uses the language of

his opponentseven before he takes up their challengesin ways
that appeal to those among his readers who may be swayed by their
claims. It is the case, as Green notes, that Peter is assuredly sailing
very close to the wind in using pagan language in this polemical
way,27 but the result is a stunning appeal to his audience to entertain the arguments that will follow.
With the compound constructions, Peter appeals to his readers to
remember the power of the calling from God in Christ. Three
times Peter uses us to describe the recipients of divine power.
Kelly underscores the us as a reference to Christians generally,
and not only to the apostles as elsewhere in the letter.28
Finally, vv. 3 and 4 return to Peters point: that through divine
power (v. 3) his audience may escape from the corruption that is
in the world because of lust, and become participants of the divine
nature (v. 4). Here we return to Ksemanns famous critique of
2 Peter as a capitulation to Hellenistic dualism. In isolation, v. 4
does seem to reflect a dualism that pits the corruption of the physical world against divine nature. Verse 4, however, is but a part of
the whole significance of the precious and very great promises of
God in Christ. Indeed, v. 4 contains the germ of the rest of the
letter. Here we have not a dualism of the material world and the
spiritual world, but a first glimpse of Peters conviction that sin corrupts while grace redeems. The moral and theological meanings of
corruption that is in the world because of lust are clear. The
world is not innately corrupt; the world is permeated by the corrupting influence of sin. The escape from that corrupting
influence of sin can be found looking back and looking forward.
The promises of God in Christ are certain; they have been secured
by divine power and are the means by which followers of Christ
may live a godly life in the world. The divine promises must also be
nurtured, as we will see in vv. 5-9. The promises are secure but
require attention to faithful thinking and faithful living. In the end,
Peter argues, God will bring judgment upon the godless and will
usher in new heavens and a new earth, where righteousness is at
home (3:13). Peters convictions begin with the promises of God
in Christ, continue with the nurturing of a godly life, and culminate in Christs return and the day of the Lord (3:10).
When, then, does Peter think the followers of Christ may attain
the divine nature? Verses 3 and 4 suggest that divine nature is
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attained only through the final act of Gods power, that is through
the power and coming of our Lord Jesus Christ (1:16; when we
get to that passage we will explore the multiple meanings of
coming, to include both the incarnation and the presence of
Christ as judge at the end of the age). As noted above, the escape
from the corruptions of sin in the world is progressive: it has been
secured by Gods power, is activated through conversion, and will
be completed at the consummation.
Virtues of Faithful Thinking and Living, 1:5-9
The second point in the miniature farewell sermon (see above)
forges a chain of Christian virtues in a hortatory vein. The chain,
however, is not ornamental. For this very reason links these verses
to the preceding section. We also take vv. 5-9 as a continuation of
the lingering embrace that begins with v. 3 and, thus, continues to
develop the idea in v. 1b, a faith as precious as ours through the
righteousness of our God and Savior Jesus Christ.
The chain of virtues is similar in form to what we find in Paul,
specifically in Romans 5:3-5, Galatians 5:22-26 (and, less so, Phil
4:8). Perhaps Peter knew those lists of virtues and mimicked the
style. The reference to our beloved brother Paul . . . [and] all his
letters (3:15-16) opens the possibility of such an influence.
Peter is a proponent of an active faith that relies upon and builds
upon the work of God in Christ. Because God has given us everything needed for life and godliness (1:3), Peter exhorts his readers,
saying you must make every effort to support your faith (v. 5).
The NIVs make every effort to add to your faith helps clarify the
translation of the NRSV, but still falls short. Davids notes that the
verb translated to add [epichorgsate] is far more colorful than
that translation might indicate. In secular usage it meant to
provide at ones own expense.29 Although the verb appears but
once, it is understood each time a new link in the chain of virtues is
introduced; as such epichorgsate assists the variegation of the
passage as it moves from faith to love. [Epichorgein]
Colorful, indeed! Peters exhortation demands a lot from his
readers. The certainty of the work of God empowers the follower of
Christ to cultivate a moral life that is consistently godly. As we shall
see, Peters opponents appear to have diminished the need
for moral development as a result of their denial of judgment (see
1:8-9 and 2:3b-10a).
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Epichorgein
This verb, which generally means to support,
to add, or to supply, only appears in the New
Testament in 2 Peter 1:5.
Hillyer carefully explores the term:
Epichcorgein . . . has a vivid history. In the great days of
ancient Athens, the plays of the dramatists like
Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides required large and
costly choruses. But when such a play was put on, some
wealthy public-spirited Athenian defrayed the vast outlay
on the chorusand consequently was known as the
chorgos. The noble productions were extravagantly
expensive, but the chorgoi vied with each other in their

generosity. So epichcorgein is far richer a term than the
somewhat colorless add [or support] of many English
translations of this verse.
Believers, Peter is saying, must be lavish in the time
and effort they put into developing their Christian lives
not being satisfied with getting by on the minimum, but
striving like the chorgos of old to achieve the finest and
most attractive production. The Christian is duty-bound,
or rather love-bound, to offer the world the best possible
advertisement of what Gods grace can do.
Norman Hillyer, 1 and 2 Peter, Jude (NIBC; Peabody MA: Hendrickson
Publishers, 1992) 16465.
The chain of virtues is forged through a literary devise known as

sorites, . . . a set of statements which proceed, step by step, through
the force of logic or reliance upon a succession of indisputable
facts, to a climactic conclusion, each statement picking up the last
word (or key phrase) of the preceding one.30 The eight virtues of
the chain begin with faith and end with love. Bauckham notes
that there is some evidence that a catalogue of virtues beginning
with pistis (faith) and ending with agap (love) was an established Christian form of sorites in the postapostolic era.31 At the
same time, as is the case in vv. 3 and 4, the virtues included in the
chain borrow significantly from the ethos and language of
Hellenistic philosophy. Bauckham rejects any notion that Peter has
capitulated to Hellenistic philosophy despite his liberal use of terminology from its schools of thought.32
In 2 Peter the list of virtues is a chain and not a ladder (as in
Green33). Although faith and love are appropriate Christian
virtues with which to begin and end the chain, there is no apparent
progression or growing importance of the remaining virtues. The
number of the virtues in the chaineighthas been cause for
modest disagreement among reputable interpreters.34
Faith (pistis) is the first link in the chain and recalls a faith as
precious as ours (equal standing with ours [RSV]) in 1:1). Faith
is one of the cardinal virtues of the Christian faith, only challenged
for the first position by love. By mentioning it first Peter lets his
readers know that all of Christian thinking and living springs from
faith in the power of God revealed through Jesus Christ. In the
New Testament generally faith means trust or believing in
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something or someone. It specifically comes to mean acceptance

of the Christian message.35
Goodness (aret) is the second link in the chain. In Hellenistic
philosophy, the term finally emerged to mean virtue and came to
embody the highest example of divine and human character as in
excellence of achievement, while New Testament uses of the term
are rare, only in Philippians 4:8 and here.36 Once again
Peter is bold in his use of Hellenistic terms. The juxtaAret
position of faith and goodness in the first two links
of the chain of virtues demonstrates Peters willingness
to walk a fine line between the ethos of his opponents
and his own convictions about apostolic teaching.
Knowledge (gnsis) is the third link in the chain.
Temporarily Peter departs from his preferred term,
epignsis (that is tied to conversion; see above), and
reverts to a more classical Hellenistic term that merely
denotes . . . the intelligent comprehension of an
object.37 Peter demands that conversional knowledge
of Jesus Christ also include particular knowledge of
what it means to confess Christ. There must be both a
subjective confession that Jesus Christ is the definitive
revelation of the power of God and an objective understanding about what that confession means for daily
Aret (Efficiency), one of the four allegories of
living. The Christian life, for Peter, is more than a
Virtue. Roman copy of a Greek original, second
feeling; it must include an understanding of what it
half 2d C. Found in front of the Celsus Library,
Ephesus. Marble, Kunsthistorisches Museum,
means for the mundane aspects of life in community.
Vienna, Austria. (Credit: Erich Lessing/Art
Resource, NY)
As a virtue, knowledge is the means to create an
informed congregation of believers.
Self-control (enkrateian) is the fourth link in the chain. The
term is rare in the New Testament, but was regarded by Socrates as
a cardinal virtue. Later Greek philosophers used the term as
descriptive of the ideal of free and independent man . . . who is
under no control but who freely controls all things and who in selfrestraint maintains his freedom. Paul employs the term as an
athletic metaphor for self-discipline (1 Cor 9:25) and also in the
context of his discussion of sexual restraint, even in the context of
marriage (1 Cor 7:9). Peters use of the term also suggests that
Christians should cultivate sexual continence.38
Peters emphasis upon self-control is especially striking. He
combats his opponents who speak bombastic nonsense, and with
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licentious desires of the flesh they entice people . . . [whom they

promise] freedom, but they themselves are slaves of corruption
(2:18-19) with a term from their own classical moral traditions.
Endurance (hypomonn) is the fifth link in the chain. The term
alsoas did aret and engkrateiancame to be regarded in Greek
philosophy as an important virtue. Endurance is an active and
energetic resistance to hostile power, a standing firm, and the
ability to remain calm, without excitement, fear, or passion, in the
face of the assaults of destiny. Christian use of the term is shaped
by eschatological hope that allows one to remain steadfast under
the difficulties and tests of the present evil age.39
Once more Peter deftly uses a term that was part of the vocabulary of his opponents. The popular ethos of Hellenistic philosophy
resisted any notion of a providential God who was active in human
affairs.40 They prided themselves for their mortal, and moral,
autonomy and the endurance they maintained over against all
claims that the present world was a place of preparation for a world
to come. In contrast, Peter develops endurance as a Christian
virtue that does not rely upon autonomy but, rather, great promises of God in Christ that empowers believers to escape from the
corruption that is in the world (1:4).
Godliness (eusebian) is the sixth link in the chain. The basic
meaning of the term is piety; originally there was a reference to
the gods, but in the development of Hellenistic philosophy the
emphasis shifted to the orders of domestic, national, and international life.41 In Christian parlance, and especially in 2 Peter (there
are four references to godliness: 1:3, 6-7 [a repetition]; and 2:9),
the term reverts to the gods, but with a distinctly Christian twist.
Instead of the Greek gods, the focus rests upon the power of God
in Christ (1:2-3); see above.
Mutual affection (philadelphian) is the seventh link in the
chain. A compound construction joining words for brother and
love, the term describes both physical and spiritual relationships
among family members, friends, and social groups. The generic
meaning of brotherly love is focused as a moral virtue in
Christian writings and appears in virtue lists, but nowhere as a
virtue beyond Christian writing.42 Again Peter uses a common
term from Hellenistic culture in an uncommon way for his
Christian readers.
Love (agap) concludes the chain and, with faith, establishes
the key virtues that encompass Christian morality. In its prebiblical
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context, agap is one of three ways to convey love (the other two
are eros, a passionate love that desires the other for itself, and
philia, which moves toward mutuality as in friendship). The verb
agapa comes to mean a giving, active love on the others behalf.
The separation of the meanings, however, is not rigid; often the
terms are used as synonyms, all referring to a general concept of
love. In specific Christian contexts ajgajph derives from a consciousness of equal unworthiness before God and His mercy . . .
and there grows up a Church which knows of a love that does not
desire but gives.43
Peters chain of virtues is stunning in the way it boldly employs
the ethical mandates of the Hellenistic world, yet transforms them
with a distinctly Christian bearing. He does not flinch in the face
of his opponents who were attempting to mitigate Christian values
in favor of classical Greek philosophies. Instead he mounts an
aggressive apology for Christian values. Later the apology will
become a transparent polemic against his opponents (see 2 Pet
1:162:22).
Peters own summary of the importance of the chain of virtues
underscores his conviction that faith requires an active cultivation
of the Christian life, as was stated earlier: you must make every
effort to support your faith (1:5). For if these things are yours
and are increasing among you, they keep you from being ineffective and unfruitful in the knowledge of our Lord Jesus Christ (1:8)
also issues a caution. The sentence employs a construction known
as a litotes that affirms a value by denying its opposite. The first
clause, if these things are yours and are increasing among you, is
a direct reference to the chain of virtues and is followed by an
awkward statement of negation, ouk argous oude akarpous
kathistsin, that literally translates to they make you neither ineffective nor fruitless.44 The pairing of similar terms is a common
feature of 2 Peter that serves to emphasize a point. In this case, the
active pursuit of virtues prevents one from becoming indolent and
unproductive. Turning the pair of terms toward Peters positive
intent, that the virtuous Christian will increase in the knowledge
of our Lord Jesus Christ (1:8), is a reminder that a conversional
knowledge (which is the meaning of epignsis) of Christ raises the
question of the fate of those who are indolent and unproductive.
That is the caution.
Verse 9 describes those who are not actively pursuing the virtues
as nearsighted and blind and forgetful of the cleansing of past
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sins. As the letter unfolds, Peter will accuse his opponents of apostasyof denying the faith and knowledge of Jesus Christ. They
have left the straight road and have gone astray, Peter declares, and
it would have been better for them never to have known the way
of righteousness than, after knowing it, to turn back (2:15 and
21). The caution against becoming lazy and fruitless in 1:8-9 is
mild when compared to the harsh condemnation of the apostates
in chapter 2.
Call to Faithfulness, 1:10-11
The final point in the miniature farewell sermon (see above)
issues a call to faithfulness that brings the homily to challenging
conclusion. Therefore . . . be all the more eager to confirm your
call and election, for if you do this, you will never stumble. For in
this way, entry into the eternal kingdom of our Lord and Savior
Jesus Christ will be richly provided for you. Here we find another
pair of terms, call and election, that, taken together, emphasize
the power . . . [and] promises that make it possible for Christians
to become participants of the divine nature (1:3-4). Returning to
the points in vv. 3 and 4 also reminds the readers that their salvation is the work of God and their own work. God in Christ has
done by grace (v. 2) the work of making a way for Christians; now
there is responsibility on the part of Christians to follow the path.
If you do this, Peter says, you will never stumble.
The challenge to persevere in the cultivation of a moral life ends
with a final reminder that Gods grace is active in the life of
Christians. Entry into the eternal kingdom of our Lord and Savior
Jesus Christ will be richly provided for you includes a future
passive form of the same verb Peter used in v. 5 (epichcorgein) to
encourage his readers to invest themselves in the development of
moral character. The lavishness of pursuing the Christian life now
is emphasized as the lavishness of God who will secure entry into
the eternal kingdom of our Lord and Savior Jesus Christ. Kelly
notes that only here in the New Testament do we find the phrase
eternal kingdom; he sees in the phrase evidence that the eschatological perspective has altered. The kingdom is no longer thought
of coming to men, still less as already present . . . ; it lies in the
future and is equated with the endless blessedness upon which
believers who hold fast will enter at the Parousia.45
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303
CONNECTIONS
Two features of 2 Peter 1:1-11 may capture the attention and imagination of contemporary readers. First is Peters insistence that the
Christian life is an active pursuit of character formation, an emphasis that challenges the common notion
Gutirrez and Cone: Two
Theologians of Praxis
that Christianity is primarily a development of
orthodox doctrine. The second feature is Peters bold
engagement of the broad cultural ethos of his day,
including competing philosophies that offer differing
ways to develop faithful thinking and faithful living.
During the last quarter of the twentieth century, liberation theologies emerged that challenged a
doctrine-only approach to Christianity. Gustavo
Gutirrez in Latin America and James Cone in the
United States appeared as critical reformers who
claimed that orthodoxy included moral development
and theological activism. They developed an underFr. Gustavo Gutirrez, priest and
standing of a theology of praxis, insisting that
theologian
Christians should strive for right actions as well as right
(Credit: Mohan, http://commons.wikimedia.org/
thinking. Reading theology from the underside, that
wiki/File:Gustavo_gutierrez.jpg)
is, from the perspectives of oppressed minorities in the
world, Gutirrez and Cone pressed for theology that
was not content with the privileged pronouncements
of scholars ensconced in the church and its centers of
learning. They contended that authentic theology
should develop a healthy suspicion about status quo
positions of theologians and ethicists if those positions
contributed to the marginalizing of members of the
church and prevented a prophetic encounter with the
state of the world.
A common faith in Christ and attention to the state
of the world receive focused attention in 2 Peter
1:1-11. Peters claim that Christians have received a
Dr. James Cone at the 174th
faith of equal standing with ours (1:1, as in RSV) is
Convocation of Union Theological
important because it removes the privilege of apostolic
Seminary in the City of New York.
authority from the apostles alone and therefore imag(Credit: Steve McFarland, http://en.wikipedia.
org/wiki/File:JamesHalCone.jpg)
ines a church where all members have, by divine grace,
equal access to the power of faith. Gutirrez writes,
Theology will be a reflection in and on faith as liberating praxis
. . . . This reflection starts from a commitment to create a just
304
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fraternal society, and must contribute to make it more meaningful,

radical, and universal.46 Cone asks, What has the gospel of God
to do with the weak and helpless and their struggle for freedom in
human society? and answers, This question forces us to [re]consider the [meaning of ] biblical faith.47
The chain of virtues in 2 Peter 1:5-7 provides a focus for readers
eager to rethink what biblical faith looks like in a contentious
setting. Peter challenges his readersand contemporary readers
to rely upon their conversional knowledge (epignsis) of the heart of
the gospel and to expand their understanding of faith in the face of
false teachers.
The beginning of the twenty-first century is awash in postmodernism, a broad reconsideration of the orthodoxies of the modern
era. Not since the Reformation have there been such extensive challenges to accepted authorities of western culture. Postmodernism
reflects the questioning of contemporary culture and explores the
possibility that the answers offered by science, philosophy, and religion do not come in a one size fits all option. The postmodernists
contend that truth is broader than the systems and schools of
thought that attained privileged status in the modern age with the
rise of science and increasingly specialized academic disciplines
and, therefore, requires each person to open herself or himself to
truth and to interpret it in light of an engagement of the world and
personal and communal experiences. [Postmodernism]
While some expressions of postmodernism are relativistic in a
thoroughgoing way, Christian postmodernism maintains that the
gospel is true and is useful as a means to engage changing culture.
The challenge of Christian postmodernism, then, is to take seriPostmodernism
Postmodernism is largely a reaction to the
assumed certainty of scientific, or objective,
efforts to explain reality. In essence, it stems from a
recognition that reality is not simply mirrored in human
understanding of it, but rather is constructed as the mind
tries to understand its own particular and personal reality.
For this reason, postmodernism is highly skeptical of
explanations that claim to be valid for all groups, cultures,
traditions, or races, and instead focuses on the relative
truths of each person. In the postmodern understanding,
interpretation is everything; reality only comes into being
through our interpretations of what the world means to us
individually. Postmodernism relies on concrete experience
over abstract principles, knowing always that the

outcome of ones own experience will necessarily be fallible and relative, rather than certain and universal.
Postmodernism is post because it denies the existence of any ultimate principles, and it lacks the optimism
of there being a scientific, philosophical, or religious truth
which will explain everything for everybodya characteristic of the so-called modern mind. The paradox of the
postmodern position is that, in placing all principles under
the scrutiny of its skepticism, it must realize that even its
own principles are not beyond questioning.
http://www.pbs.org/faithandreason/gengloss/postm-body.html
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ously the gospel and its demands while at the same time taking
seriously the multiple claims for truth in the contemporary world.
Brian McLaren is the most visible and thoughtful Christian postmodernist of recent years. McLaren is not a trained theologian, but
he has nearly twenty-five years of practical, pastoral experience. He
is a prolific writer who continues to engage culture through a
Christian lens. From 2001 to 2005 McLaren published a trilogy48
that is the best-to-date example of how Christian faith can strive to
maintain its historical integrity while also being open to other ways
of thinking and living. In 2010 McLaren released A New Kind of
Christianity: Ten Questions That Are Transforming the Faith, which
continues to probe the postmodern character of Christianity.49
Readers of 2 Peter who might also have read or shall read Brian
McLaren will find striking similarities of method and content.
With courage and resolve, Peter takes seriously the claims of his
contemporaries with whom he had some things in common and
many things not in common. As we saw above, Peter was not
opposed to using the language of his opponents and reforming it
into distinctly Christian ideas. Second Peter may be a useful model
for any generation of Christians who are willing to engage and even
confront the culture in which they live.
Notes
1. See Gal 2:1-14, and note 1 Cor 1:10-17 where Paul also refers to Peter as
Cephas.
2. It is the case that Gal 2:11-14 discloses tension between Paul and Cephas over
Gentile-Jewish relations.
3. In the introduction I made the case that 2 Peter is a pseudepigraphon, but in this
commentary I will take at face value the claim of Petrine authorship and thereby avoid
the need to constantly remind readers of that position.
4. Richard J. Bauckham, Jude, 2 Peter (WBC; Waco: Word Books, 1983) 167.
5. For further discussion, see the introduction.
6. Peter H. Davids, The Letters of 2 Peter and Jude (The Pillars New Testament
Commentary; Grand Rapids: Wm B. Eerdmans, 2006) 162.
7. See, for example, the benediction in 2 Cor 13:13 where Paul extends the hope
that the grace of the Lord Jesus Christ, the love of God, and the communion of the
Holy Spirit be with all of you. While there is an attempt to distinguish what later will be
called the three persons of the Trinity, there is no attempt by Paul or any other New
Testament writer to construct a doctrine of the Trinity. That task falls to theologians of
later generations.
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8. For further discussion of the identity of the opponents, see the introduction.
10. Bo Reicke, The Epistles of James, Peter, and Jude (AB 37; New York:
Doubleday, 1964) 150f. He also offers adequate knowledge as a possible translation.
11. Neyrey, 2 Peter, Jude, 149.
12. Steven J. Kraftchick, Jude, 2 Peter (ANTC; Nashville: Abingdon Press, 2002)
88.
13. Ibid., 89.
14. J. N. D. Kelly, The Epistles of Peter and Jude (HNTC; New York: Harper and
Row, 1969) 300.
15. Reicke, The Epistles of James, Peter, and Jude, 153.
16. Ben Witherington III, A Socio-Rhetorical Commentary on 12 Peter, Letters and
Homilies for Hellenized Christians, vol. 2 (Downers Grove IL: InterVarsity Press, 2007)
298, 306.
19. Ernst Ksemann, An Apologia for Primitive Christian Eschatology, in Essays
on New Testament Themes (trans. W. J. Montague; Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1982)
17980. The essay first was a lecture delivered at the Beinrod Convention and the
Berlin Society for Evangelical Theology on 10 September and 10 October 1952, respectively. It subsequently appeared in Zeitschrift fr Theologia und Kirche (1952)
42:27296 (ibid., 169, n. 1). It is fair to claim that Ksemanns essay launched at least
two generations of scholars eager to explore and refute his harsh criticisms of 2 Peter.
20. For further discussion of the question of the opponents, see the introduction.
21. Davids, The Letters of 2 Peter and Jude, 174.
22. Ibid., 175.
24. Ibid.
25. Michael Green, The Second Epistle of Peter and the Epistle of Jude (2d ed.;
TNTC; Grand Rapids: Wm B. Eerdmans, 1987) 73.
26. Ibid. The specifics of the pagan terms are important. Green writes, The false
teachers laid emphasis on knowledge; so Peter stresses that the object of knowledge in
the Christian life is the Lord who calls men. They thought that knowledge dispensed
with the need for morality, so Peter emphasizes two words common in pagan circles for
ethical endeavor, eusebia (godliness) and aret (goodness). They appear to have
thought that holiness of living was impossible . . . , so Peter speaks to them of the
divine power. . . . Rival pagan schoolmen asserted that you escaped the toils of corruption (phthora) by becoming participants in the divine nature either by means of nomos
(lawkeeping) or physis (nature). Peter takes up their language, and replies that it is
by sheer grace.
27. Green, The Second Epistle of Peter and the Epistle of Jude, 74.
28. Kelly, The Epistles of Peter and Jude, 299300.
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30. Bauckham, Jude, 2 Peter, 175, with reliance upon H. A. Fischel, The Uses of
Sorites (Climax, Gradatio) in the Tannaitic Period, HUCA 44 (1973):119.
31. Ibid., 176.
32. Ibid., 188. See also Green, The Second Epistle of Peter and the Epistle of Jude,
80: Far from being a mere repetition of pagan ideals, Peters list is qualitatively different. For it begins with faith and ends with love, and these are the indispensable root
and fruit of Christian ethical behaviour. It may share a good deal in the goals and aspirations of secular moralists . . . but it will transform them by trust in Jesus . . . and will
embody them in that selfless agap love which flows only from those who have come
to participate in his divine nature.
34. Kelly, The Epistles of Peter and Jude, 306, and Neyrey, 2 Peter, Jude, 155
support the idea that eight held some mystical wholeness. Bauckham, Jude, 2 Peter,
176, through a comparison of 2 Pet 1:5-7 and Shepherd of Hermas, Visions 3:8:7,
deems any mystical interpretation of Peters chain of virtues inappropriate. His comparison, instead, suggests that 2 Peter and Shepherd are variations on a form in use in the
catechesis of the Roman church. Shepherd includes seven virtues while 2 Peter has
eight and, therefore, suggests that the author may [think] of faith as the foundation, to
which seven virtues are added.
35. Rudolf Bultmann, TDNT 6:20815.
36. Otto Bauerfeind, TDNT 1:45761.
37. Rudolf Bultmann, TDNT 1:68992.
38. Walter Grundmann, TDNT 2:33942.
39. Friedrich Hauck, TDNT 4:58182, 58587.
40. For further discussion of the opponents, see the introduction.
41. Werner Foerster, TNDT 7:176-77, 18184.
42. Hans Freiherr von Soden, TDNT 1:14446.
43. Ethelbert Stauffer, TDNT 1:3555.
44. See Bauckham, Jude, 2 Peter, 188 and Witherington, A Socio-Rhetorical
Commentary on 12 Peter, 312.
46. Gustavo Gutirrez and Richard Shaull, Liberation and Change (Atlanta: John
Knox Press, 1977) 82.
47. James H. Cone, The Gospel and the Liberation of the Poor: How My Mind Has
Changed, ChrCent 98 (1981): 162; and Black Consciousness and the Black Church,
Christianity and Crisis 30 (1970): 245.
48. Brian D. McLaren, A New Kind of Christian: A Tale of Two Friends on a Spiritual
Journey (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 2001); A Generous Orthodoxy: Why I Am a
Missional, Evangelical, Post/Protestant, Liberal/Conservative, Mystical/Poetic, Biblical,
Charismatic/Contemplative, Fundamentalist/Calvinist, Anabaptist/Anglican, Methodist,
Catholic, Green, Incarnational, Depressed-yet-Hopeful, Emergent, Unfinished CHRISTIAN (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 2004); and The Last Word and the Word after That:
A Tale of Faith, Doubt, and a New Kind of Christianity (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass,
2005).
307
308
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49. Brian D. McLaren, A New Kind of Christianity: Ten Questions That Are
Transforming the Faith (SanFrancisco: HarperOne, 2010). McLaren also maintains an
active website, www.brianmclaren.net, where readers can keep up with Brians continuing journey of faith. (Ah! What a postmodern thing to do!)
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Peters Testament and

a Defense of Parousia,
Prophecy, and
the Master
2 Peter 1:122:3a
COMMENTARY
Following opening greetings and a reminder and encouragement
about the demands of the Christian life, which took the form of a
short homily (2 Pet 1:1-11), the heartand the heatof the letter
quickly develops. Peter pens a short testament and takes up three of
five challenges posed by his opponents. The testament sets up the
occasion of the letter. The challenges of his opponents appear to set
Peter off, too; from 1:162:22 and again in 3:3-13, we find a
growing ire. Apology turns to polemic and polemic becomes attack.
Peters Testament and Farewell, 1:12-15
Two primary themes are woven through these four verses. The first
one mentioned, and arguably the more important of the two, is the
function of memory. The second one, and clearly the more dramatic,
is the death of Peter. Each theme is mentioned three times. Peters
impending death (vv. 13, 14, and 15) makes memory (vv. 12, 13,
and 15) necessary as a reason for hope for the readers.
The combinations of memory and death contribute to the designation of these verses as an example of the testament genre.1 The
testament genre is most common in the pseudepigraphical literature of Hellenistic Judaism,2 and also appears to have some
relationship to the farewell speech found in several New Testament
works, such as John 1517, Acts 20:17-38, and, perhaps, Philippians
1:12-30. Testaments and farewell speeches share three common
features: an announcement of the impending death of the supposed
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2 Peter 1:122:3a
author, a series of
reminders of his legacy as
a teacher or prophet, and
warnings about false
prophets or teachers who
will threaten the memory
of the teacher and his
teachings.
Peters testament and
farewell is linked to the
preceding section (2 Pet
1:3-11) by the phrase
these things. There we
have a concise summary
of Peters teaching that is
rooted in the conversional
knowledge (epignsis) of
This is a depiction of the farewell speech of Jesus to the apostles by Duccio
Jesus Christ. Kraftchick
di Buoninsegna.
Duccio (di Buoninsegna) (c. 12601319). Farewell of the Apostles. Panel from the back of the
observes that v. 12 is a
Maesta altarpiece, Museo dellOpera Metropolitana, Siena, Italy. (Credit: Scala/Art Resource, NY)
difficult Greek construction that combines a
future indicative form of the verb I shall with the present
indicative of the infinitive to remind, made even more odd with
the adverb always.3 The effect of Therefore I intend to keep on
reminding you of these things is a claim that the letter itself will
become an enduring reminder and encouragement of Peter and his
teaching.
The following phrase, though you know them already and are
established in the truth that has come to you, is at least hyperbole
and even may be mildly patronizing. The verb eidotas lacks the aura
of certainty of epignsis, which is 2 Peters signature term for
knowledge. The force of eidotas suggests that the readers are
familiar with the truth.4 They may be aware of the truth, but
not yet secure from the unstable (3:16) pronouncements of the
false teachers who have prompted the writing of the letter. If the
recipients of 2 Peter did indeed know the truth and were established in it, why would the letter be necessary? The patronizing
hyperbole of v. 12 must therefore be shaped by Peters hope that his
readers will come to embrace the truth that has come to you.
Farewell of the Apostles
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311
Such a reading of v. 12 is consistent with overarching tone of pastoral encouragement that marks 2 Peter.
The word group derived from strix, to make fast, appears
four times in 2 Peter. Here in 1:12 we find a passive form, estrigmenos, that suggests the truth is stronger on its own than it is
among the readers. The truth may be established, but the recipients of the letter are not yet firm. Further evidence that the readers
still are vulnerable to moral and theological softness comes later in
the letter at 2:14; 3:16; and 3:17. In 2:14 and 3:16, respectively, we
find the only uses of astriktous and astriktoi in the New
Testament.5 In 2:14 the false teachers entice unsteady souls; in
3:16 the ignorant and unstable are condemned for their misuse
of Pauls letters. The letter comes near an end with a return to a
more hopeful regard for stability. In 3:17 we read, You therefore,
beloved, since you are forewarned, beware that you are not carried
away with the error of the lawless and lose your own stability. The
readers of 2 Peter still are vulnerable. Peter still is pastoral. The
truth (see 1:12) is firm.
The ideas of memory and death collide in vv. 13-14, with
memory getting squeezed on either side by death. Peter think[s] it
right, as long as I am in this body, to refresh your
Sknoma
memory, since I know that my death will come
Classically, the term is used to idensoon. The terms body and death are variatify the dead body of a man or
tions on the term for tent and only appear in the
animal. This term only appears in the New
New Testament here and in Acts 7:43, 46. The
Testament in Stephens speech in Acts 7:43
and 7:46, and in 2 Peter 1:13-14. In 2 Peter
term suggests a recognition that life is transitory.
the tent is a metaphor for the body, as
What Peter thinks is right is to refresh your
seen in the construction in 1:14, where the
memory, even as he ponders his approaching
term is paired with ajpovqesi~ [apothesis],
death. As we have seen, 2 Peter is intent on prowhich refers . . . to putting off of a garment
as a description of death.
viding things to remember: the heart of the
Wilhelm
Michaelis, skhnhv, skh`no~, skhvnwma,
gospel (1:1-2), the power and promises of God
skhnovw, ejpisknovw, kataskhnovw, skhnophgiva,
(1:3-4), the need for a growing faith that leads to
skhnopiov~ TDNT 7:38384.
moral character (1:5-9), and the call and election (1:10). Now Peter gets personal. Between his life in this
body [tent] and the time when he will fold up his tent and die,
he wants to instill a lively memory of his life and teaching in the
minds of his readers. [Sknoma]
Peter claims that he will die soon, as indeed our Lord Jesus
Christ has made clear to me (1:14). The Johannine tradition
includes two places where Jesus says something to Peter about his
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2 Peter 1:122:3a
death. In 13:36-38 Simon

Peter asks Jesus, Lord, where
are you going? Jesus replies,
Where I am going, you
cannot follow me now; but
you will follow me afterward.
Then we find Simon Peters
brash promise to lay down
[his] life for Jesus, only to be
rebuked by Jesus and hear the
prediction that before the
cock crows, you will have
Georges de La Tour (15931652). Denial of St. Peter. Musee des Beaux-Arts, Bordeaux,
denied me three times. The
France. (Credit: Runion des Muses Nationaux/Art Resource, NY)
second reference comes in the
epilogue of the Gospel of
John, 21:18-19, where the risen Christ indicate[s] the kind of
death by which [Simon Peter] would glorify God.
Given our assessment that 2 Peter is a pseudepigraphon, it is
unlikely that the writer would rely upon part of the Petrine tradition that cast Peter in an unfavorable light, as is the case with John
13:36-38.6 The claim, therefore, that our Lord Jesus Christ has
made clear to me (1:14) that I soon will die seems to be an allusion to John 21:18-19.7
Peters testament and farewell concludes with the promise, I will
make every effort so that after my departure you may be able at any
time to recall these things (1:15). The verse contains the third and
final references to death and memory, the ideas that have shaped
the testament. Neyrey notes that Peters impending death, departure, is exodus, and he pairs the term with the entry into the
eternal kingdom of our Lord and Savior Jesus Christ (1:11). He
writes, Just as one puts off the tent of the flesh . . . and puts on
immortality, so one experiences an exodos from this dwelling and an
eisodos into a new kingdom. The heightened language used to
describe death as a passage . . . serves to give greater value to the
richness of the promises of God for a future life which will come
with the Parousia of Christ.8
Now the these things of v. 12which gathered up vv. 3-11
are compounded by the future memory of Peters death with the
repetition of these things in v. 15. The letter is the promissory
note that the community of faith may draw upon as they continue
their journey of faithful thinking and faithful living.
Denial of St. Peter
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313
The First Three Denials and Defenses, 1:162:3b
Bauckham sees two literary devises that frame 2 Peter 1:162:3b.

First there is a chiasm that includes 1:16-18 and emphasizes the
importance of the apostles, followed by 1:19-21, which establishes
the importance of the prophetic tradiChiasm
tions in the Old Testament. Then there
The chiasm is a literary devise employed by clasis an exposition in 2:1a about the false
sical and biblical authors that creates an
prophets in the Old Testament, followed
argument or illustration that demonstrates the relationship between related or opposing themes. The term
by an explicit warning about false
derives from the Greek letter chi (C). A chiastic structure
teachers in Peters audience in 2:1b-3.
moves from the upper left (A) of the letter to the lower
The chiasm develops an A-B-B-A strucleft (B), to the lower right (B, again), before moving to the
ture with the first two elements (1:16-18
upper right (A, again). The chiasm may be simple, with
only four points, or complex, with multiple points along
and 1:19-21) combining the integrity of
the way. The movement from A to A also is called a ring
the apostles and prophets, and the
construction.
last two elements (2:1a and 2:1b-3)
In 2 Pet 1:162:3b the chiasm takes its most simple
linking false prophets and false teachers.
form. First there is an assertion about the true teaching of
the apostles (A1), followed by an assertion about the OT
Bauckham notes, too, that this
prophets (B1). The integrity of the OT prophets is constructure may be reinforced by
trasted with the false OT prophets (B2) and the false
an inclusio formed by sesophismenois
teaching (A2) of Peters opponents. In the construction,
mythois exakolouthsantes in 1:16 and
A1 and B1 indicate the ideas of true apostles and
prophets, while B1 and A2 indicate the ideas of the false
exakolouthsousin . . . plastois logois in
prophets and the false teachers. C (chi) marks the spot
2:2-3.9 [Chiasm] [Inclusio]
Denial and Defense of the Parousia:
The First Challenge, 1:16-18
Certainly there is no more exciting paragraph than this one in 2 Peter. Too, it
must be one of the most challenging
passages in all the New Testament. In
only three sentences it rejects a mythic
foundation for Christian eschatology
and claims an eyewitness report of the
transfiguration, with the added claim
that the transfiguration not only was the
revelation of the identity of Jesus as the
Christ, but also a confirmation of the
promised coming of Christ at the end
of time.
Implicit in v. 16 is the charge Peters
opponents leveled against him that he
where the reader can see the contrast between what is

true and what is false.
Inclusio
The inclusio is a literary device characterized by
the repetition of a word or phrase (or similar
words and phrases) to mark the beginning and end of the
treatment of a particular theme. In that way the inclusio
represents a pair of verbal parentheses that set limits on
a discussion. In Mark 4 the parable of the soils opens
with Listen! and ends with Let anyone with ears to
hear listen. The repetition of listen at the beginning
and end of the parable helps the hearer or reader focus
upon the meaning of the parable as a metaphor for
receptivity.
An inclusio may only enclose a few lines or a paragraph, or it may be extended over a much longer block of
text. In 2 Peter there is an obvious inclusio that begins at
1:16 with cleverly devised myths (sesophismenos
mythos exakolouthsantes) and ends at 2:3a with deceptive words (exakolouthsousin . . . plastois logois).
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Mythos (myth)
Although the origin of mythos is debated, the basic
meaning seems to be thought. If the thought is
unexpressed, it remains an idea; once expressed, thoughts
become words, sayings, and stories. Because words have
different references, mythos came to be distinguished from
a word (logos) that referred to facts, especially narratives
rooted in history.
According to Sthlin, the New Testament use of mythos
is quite unequivocal. He adds, The only occurrences of
the term are in negative statements (1 Tm. 1:4; 4:7; Tt.
1:14; 2 Pt. 1:16; and in sense 2 Tm. 4:4). There obviously is
a complete repudiation mu`qo~ [ mythos] (781).
2 Pet 1:16-21 is the only New Testament passage to use
mythos outside of the Pastorals. The reference is to the
eschatological proclamation of the apostles. This is
grounded upon an anticipatory view of the glory of the
returning Lord which was granted to them . . . [by] experience . . . [and] not merely on the Mount of Transfiguration
(784).
Further, for Jewish, Christian, and later writers, mythos
eventually comes to be seen as the complete opposite of
truth (altheia). Sthlin asserts, The antithesis between
myth and truth . . . takes on a new depth in the NT. . . . The
NT could not say a word or history contained truth if it has
nothing in common with reality (78586).
had resorted to cleverly designed myths

in proclaiming the power and coming of
our Lord Jesus Christ. [Mythos (myth)]
Only here in the New Testament do we
find such a claim. [James Wm. McClendon, Jr.,
on Myth in Christian Theology]
In the introduction I noted that Peters

opponents appear to reflect convictions
derived from the Greek philosopher,
Epicurus;10 they directed their rejection
of myths toward Peters apostolic
preaching about the power and coming
of our Lord Jesus Christ. Peter flatly
rejects the charge. [Excerpt of Epicuruss Letter
to Herodotus] Peters defense of the
coming (Parousia) of Christ is the core
of the letter. The coming of Christ
directly concerns two of the five apologetic and polemical sections of the letter
(1:16-18 and 3:3-7). Two other of the
five sections address divine judgment as
Gustav Sthlin, mu`qo~, TDNT 4:76269, 78186.
a corollary of the Parousia (2:1-10a
and 3:8-13). The remaining section is
a defense of prophecy and a rejection of false prophets
(1:19-212:3a).11 [Parousia]
Peters defense rests upon his claim that we had been eyewitnesses of his majesty. For he received honor and glory from God
the Father when that voice was conveyed to him by the Majestic
Glory, saying, This is my Son, my Beloved, with whom I am well
pleased. We ourselves heard this voice come from heaven, while we
were with him on the holy mountain. The obvious reference here
is to the transfiguration, but even casual attention notices that there
are significant differences between Peters eyewitness account and
the way the transfiguration is described in the Synoptic Gospels.
Absent from Peters account are the specific presence of James and
John and the appearance of Moses and Elijah. Only the Gospel of
Luke specifically relates glory to the narrative. None of the
Synoptic Gospels mention the Majestic Glory. While all of the
Synoptic Gospels report the divine voice, only Matthew comes
close to recording the divine voice that Peter says we ourselves
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James Wm. McClendon, Jr., on Myth in
Christian Theology
What is the proper place of myth in Christian
theology? Already as the New Testament period
drew to a close, the mythic impulse of old Greece came
washing in upon the young Christian movement. As
early as the later New Testament books, it became
necessary to resist that influence. . . . Of course the
word myth is used today in a myriad ways, many of
them innocuous. . . . I believe, however, that when two
particular senses of myth are combined, the result is a
powerful and perverse tendency in present-day theology.
For one writer myth may be used to mean a story of
the gods (or of God). If this stood alone, it would appear
that the entire Bible is (as a matter of definition)
mythic, and if that is all that is claimed, no harm is
done. On the other hand, myth sometimes means a
story of events outside our time and space, in another
world . . . . If the Bible is in this second sense a mythical Book, it cannot be a historical one. . . . Again, this is
315
a harmless claim if it merely notes that some biblical

stories seem to have no earthly referent. But when the
two senses are combined and in combination applied to
the central biblical narrative, then the Bible, to the
extent that its account of Jesus is mythical, can speak
of God only at the cost of being unable to speak of
history. Thus it will be unable to make any sense of
Gods historical involvement with Jesus of Nazareth. If
incarnation is in this double sense a myth, the historical
model is helplessly unable to answer [the underlying
question], What right has Jesus to be absolute Lord?
because such an understanding of the historical Jesus is
necessarily mythicaland thus outside history itself. In
sum, the mythic Jesus, if divine, is not historical (and
therefore not incarnate), while Jesus, if historical, is not
mythical and in these terms not divine. Case closed.
James Wm. McClendon, Jr., Systematic Theology: Doctrine (Nashville:
Abingdon Press, 1994) 26061.
heard. Finally, Peter says his experience happened on the holy

mountain, yet the Synoptic Gospels do not associate the mountain as a holy place.
How should we understand the transfiguration in its Gospel and
Petrine settings? First, we should not hold Peter to the standards of
the Gospels (even the Gospels have variations in their narratives).
Neither should we assume that the transfiguration is used in the same way in the Gospels Excerpt of Epicuruss Letter to Herodotus
The greatest anxiety of the human mind
and in 2 Peter. The Gospels include the narraarises through the belief that the heavenly
tives as a way to confirm the messianic identity
bodies are blessed and indestructible, and that at
of Jesus by linking the reports of the divine the same time they have volition and actions and
voice at the baptism to the echo of the divine causality inconsistent with this belief; and through
voices baptismal pronouncement at the trans- expecting or apprehending some everlasting evil,
figuration. Peter has a much more expansive either because of the myths, or because we are in
dread of the mere insensibility of death, as if it had
goal. For Peter the transfiguration not only to do with us; and through being reduced to this
looks back to the baptism narratives, but it state not by conviction but by a certain irrational
serves to identify Jesus as the Christ, and it also perversity, so that, if men do not set bounds to their
serves to prove the connection between Jesus terror, they endure as much or even more intense
anxiety than the man whose views on these
and the apostolic teaching of the power and matters are quite vague. But mental tranquility
coming of Jesus at the end of the age (cf. means being released from all these troubles and
2 Pet 3:3-7). The identity of Jesus as the Christ cherishing a continual remembrance of the highest
has been accepted, perhaps even by Peters and most important truths.
Letter to Herodotus,
opponents. What is disputed is whether Jesus Epicurus,
http://www.epicurus.net/en/herodotus.html.
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2 Peter 1:122:3a
Parousia
In its general meaning, Parousia indicates
presence or an appearance. In Hellenism,
the term developed a technical use to indicate the visit
of a ruler or the presence of the gods, such as at cultic
festivals.
Oepke points out that early Christianity also developed a technical understanding of the term as a
reference to Jesus who has come already as the One
who is still to come (865). Popular understanding of
Parousia as the return of Christ is foreign to the New
Testament but prevalent in later Christian writings.
The coming of Christ in Messianic glory seems to
have made its way into primitive Christianity with Paul,
asserts Oepke (865). The term also becomes important
in 2 Peter, where it is used three times (1:16; 3:4, 12). In

2 Peter, doubts about the Parousia require reinterpretation. Believers should hasten toward the parouiva
th`~ tou` qeou` . . . hJmevra, 3:12 (Parousia ts tou
theou hmera =the coming of the day of God) (869).
Parousia is the point where history is mastered by
Gods eternal rule. The significance of the NT parousia is
that the tension between non-fulfillment and fulfillment,
between concealment and manifestation, between faith
and sight, should be resolved, and that the decisive contribution towards this has already been made in Christ
(870).
Albrecht Oepke, parousiva, pareimi, TDNT 5:85960, 86570.
Christ will come in power as judge. Peters testimony is consistent

with the technical meaning of Parousia that emerged in the early
church, that Jesus [is the one] who has come already and the One
who is still to come.12 [Gospel Parallels of Transfiguration]
How, too, shall we understand
the parts of the transfiguration tesThe Transfiguration
timony that are unique to Peters
version? The claim to be an eyewitness (along with other
unnamed apostles) who both saw
and heard evidence of Jesus
receiv[ing] honor and glory from
God the Father have, according to
Neyrey, the force of a forensic
defense mounted on behalf of the
Parousia prophecy.13 In a contemporary idiom, Peter takes the stand
as an expert witness.
References to the majesty of
Jesus at the transfiguration, and
that he received honor and glory
from God the Father[,] . . . the
Majestic Glory, narrow the distinction between Jesus and God.14
Glory (doxa) is a curious term. In
the classical period it meant
Raphael (14831520). The Transfiguration (detail), upper part with Christ, 1520. Oil on
opinion or reputation; by the
wood, Pinacoteca, Vatican Museums, Vatican State. (Credit: Scala/Art Resource, NY)
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2 Peter 1:122:3a
Gospel Parallels of Transfiguration
Mark 9:2-8
Matthew 17:1-8
Six days later, Jesus took with him
Peter and James and his brother
John and led them up a high mountain, by themselves. And he was
transfigured before them, and his
face shone like the sun, and his
clothes became dazzling white.
Suddenly there appeared to them
Moses and Elijah, talking with him.
Then Peter said to Jesus, Lord, it
is good for us to be here; if you
wish, I will make three dwellings
here, one for you, one for Moses,
and one for Elijah.
While he was still speaking, suddenly a bright cloud overshadowed
them, and from the cloud a voice
said, This is my Son, the Beloved;
with him I am well pleased; listen to
him!
When the disciples heard this,
they fell to the ground and were
overcome by fear. But Jesus came
and touched them, saying, Get up
and do not be afraid.
And when they looked up, they
saw no one except Jesus himself
alone.
Six days later, Jesus took with him

Peter and James and John, and led
them up a high mountain apart, by
themselves. And he was transfigured before them, and his clothes
became dazzling white, such as no
one on earth could bleach them.
And there appeared to them Elijah
with Moses, who were talking with
Jesus.
Then Peter said to Jesus, Rab-bi,
it is good for us to be here; let us
make three dwellings, one for you,
one for Moses, and one for Elijah.
He did not know what to say, for
they were terrified. Then a cloud
overshadowed them, and from the
cloud there came a voice, This is
my Son, the Beloved; listen to him!
Suddenly when they looked
around, they saw no one with them
any more, but only Jesus.
317
Luke 9:28-36
Now about eight days after these
sayings Jesus took with him Peter
and John and James, and went up
on the mountain to pray. And while
he was praying, the appearance of
his face changed, and his clothes
became dazzling white. Suddenly
they saw two men, Moses and
Elijah, talking to him. They appeared
in glory and were speaking of his
departure, which he was about to
accomplish at Jerusalem. Now
Peter and his companions were
weighed down with sleep; but since
they had stayed awake, they saw
his glory and the two men who
stood with him. Just as they were
leaving him, Peter said to Jesus,
Master, it is good for us to be here;
let us make three dwellings, one for
you, one for Moses, and one for
Elijah, not knowing what he said.
While he was saying this, a cloud
came and overshadowed them; and
they were terrified as they entered
the cloud. Then from the cloud came
a voice that said, This is my Son,
my Chosen; listen to him!
When the voice had spoken,
Jesus was found alone. And they
kept silent and in those days told no
one any of the things they had seen.
New Testament period it denotes divine and heavenly radiance,

the loftiness and majesty of God, and even the being of God.15
It is clear that Peter intends to equate the majesty of Jesus with
the Majestic Glory of God.
The holy mountain, as Kraftchick notes, likely reflects Psalm
2:6, where Zion is referred to as the holy hill.16 The psalm is one
of the important coronation psalms in the Old Testament that later
comes to be a messianic psalm. Psalm 2 is the source behind the
baptismal pronouncements in the Synoptic Gospels (You are [in
Mark and Luke] and This is [in Matthew] my son) that is
echoed in the transfiguration narratives.
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2 Peter 1:122:3a
Baptism of Christ
Baptism of Christ. Relief from the portal. 12th C. Romanesque. Zeno, Verona, Italy. (Credit:
Scala/Art Resource, NY)
In 1:16-18 Peter mounts

a defense of the first denial
of the Parousia by his
opponents. He offers an eyewitness account that refutes
the claim that he has used
cleverly designed myths
and, by allusion, ties the
majesty . . . honor and
glory of Jesus Christ to the
rich tradition of messianic
hope. In the end, then, Peter
extends messianic hope to
eschatological hope for the
power and coming of our
Lord Jesus Christ.
Denial and Defense of Prophecy: The Second Challenge,

1:19-21
Often this passage has been used to support a version of the
authority of Scripture. A close reading, however, shows that Peter
primarily is focused upon defending the integrity of prophecy and,
more specifically, a proper interpretation of prophecy. At the time
of the writing of 2 Peter, issues of canon and therefore the authority
of Scripture had not yet become a primary concern for the church.
Only with Marcions work in the middle of the second century
would those issues rise to the level of critical consideration.17 It is,
of course, appropriate for later readers of the New Testament to use
2 Peter as they argue the bases for claiming the authority of
Scripture, but it is not appropriate to assume that their interest in
defending Scripture was what was on Peters mind.
The defense of prophecy and its interpretation is part of the
larger argument that Peter mounts in 1:162:3b as he moves from
the integrity of the apostles and prophets and denounces false
prophets and false teachers. In 1:16-18 Peter relied upon apostolic
authorityand his own eyewitness experience of the
Transfiguration. Now he is constrained to defend prophecy against
his opponents who besmirched Peters teaching of the Parousia.
Implicit in v. 20 is the charge against Peter by his opponents,
namely that Peter was guilty of an idiosyncratic interpretation of
prophecy. What we wish we knew are the specifics of the charge.
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319
Which prophecies of Scripture had Peter used to teach the

Parousia? How do those prophecies make the prophetic message
more fully confirmed, as v. 19 claims? Craddock suggests that
from their prior instruction the readers know to which prophecy
he refers. We are the ones who do not know.18
In the face of not knowing, Craddock mentions the wide use of
Daniel 7:13-14 by New Testament writers to relate the coming of
the son of Man to the Jesus story. He expresses his own guess
and that is all it isis Psalm 2. . . . The word confirmed in
prophecy is that which was stated in verses 17-18, the
Transfiguration story. There reference was made to the holy mountain (Psalm 2:6) and the voice from heaven quotes Psalm 2:7.19
Either passage makes sense. Apocalyptic passages in the Synoptic
Gospels (Mark 13 and par.) rely upon the Daniel text. For the
internal argument in 2 Peter, however, Psalm 2 is an obvious
choice.
Now we can take up v. 19s claim that we have the prophetic
message more fully confirmed. The construction is bebaioteron
. . . logon, which specifically is the confirmation of the prophetic
word as it shows itself to be grounded in an event.20 The construction is particularly significant in light of 1:16-18 where Peter
refuted the claim that his teaching of the Parousia was a cleverly
devised myth. As an eyewitness to the
Bebaios
event of the transfiguration, which was an
In general usage bebaios means something firm
as in having inner solidity. A more abstract use
experience he shared with other apostles,
of
the
term
suggests something is sure, reliable, or
he doubly refutes the claim of his oppocertain.
nents that he was using a myth. [Bebaios]
According to Schlier, bevbaio~ is often found with refThe rest of v. 19 is a bit of flowery rheterence to lovgo~ as a way to indicate that the logos rests
on an insight into things and grants insight (600).
oric rooted in allusions to Old Testament
The New Testament reflects the general usage. In 2 Pt.
metaphors. Peter urges his readers to be
1:19 the profhtikov~ lovgo~ is bevbaio~ . . . not in so
attentive to the prophetic message as
far as it maintains an insight, but in so far as it shows itself
to a lamp shining in a dark place, until
to be grounded in an event (602).
the day dawns and the morning star rises
Heinrich Schlier, bevbaio~, bebaiovw, bebaiwsi~, TDNT 1:600602.
in your hearts. Psalm 119:105 says that
your word is a lamp to my feet and a light to my path; perhaps
Peter has that image in mind. Neyrey reads until the day dawns as
an anticipation of Peters phrases day of judgment in 2:9 and 3:7,
day of the Lord in 3:10, and day of God in 3:12. He offers a
flowing interpretation of the metaphors of the lamp and the day:
The disciples guide themselves by a lesser light (lamp) at night,
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2 Peter 1:122:3a
until the full light of day (the sun) arises. The

lamp is the prophecy of the Lords Parousia and
Gods day of judgment, which guides us during a
time of darkness.21
Later, in 2 Peter 3:10-13, the Parousia is
described in sweeping cosmic terms:
Oil Lamp
Oil lamp with depiction of the Good Shepherd. 3rd C.

From Florentius. Skulpturensammlung und Museum fuer
Byzantinische Kunst, Staatliche Museen, Berlin,
Germany. (Credit: Bildarchiv Preussischer
Kulturbesitz/Art Resource, NY)
But the day of the Lord will come like a thief, and
then the heavens will pass away with a loud noise,
and the elements will be dissolved with fire, and
the earth and everything that is done on it will be
disclosed. Since all these things are to be dissolved
in this way, what sort of persons ought you to be
in leading lives of holiness and godliness, waiting
for and hastening the coming of the day of God,
because of which the heavens will be set ablaze
and dissolved, and the elements will melt with
fire? But, in accordance with his promise, we wait
for new heavens and a new earth, where righteousness is at home.
There the hints of cosmic upheaval and renewal suggested in

2 Peter 1:19b are fully expressed. Kelly finds all of v. 19, but especially v. 19b, highly instructive for the light it throws on the
writers picture of the End. . . . [Peters] language betrays the beginnings of an attempt to give eschatology a personal and even
psychological orientation. The Parousia is conceived of as having a
transforming effect in the hearts of faithful believers22 in ways that
are consistent with final consummation of all creation.
Finally, with regard to 2 Peter 1:19, we must consider the
morning star (phsphoros). The term literally means light bearer,
which appears in Latin as Lucifer. The Greeks and Romans knew
the morning star as Venus, which, as Witherington points out
(citing Cicero), precedes the sun23 rather than rising after dawn.
We should not puzzle for long about it because Numbers 24:17 [a
star shall come out of Jacob, and a scepter shall rise out of Israel]
. . . seems to be in the background here.24
Peters opponents had accused him of using myths (1:16). As
noted above in our summary of the larger argument found in
2 Peter 1:162:3b, the second charge against Peter was that he was
guilty of an idiosyncratic interpretation of prophecy. In vv. 20-21
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2 Peter 1:122:3a
that charge is answered succinctly: there are no private, personal

interpretations of prophecy; prophecy is not an expression of
human will; and prophecy originates with God.
Against the claim that his interpretation of prophecy is idiosyncratic, Peter claims that no prophecy of scripture is a matter of
ones own interpretation (v. 20b). Neyrey notes that the issue . . .
is not the source of prophecy, but its interpretation and develops
the idea by saying that group-oriented culture can illuminate how
a correct interpretation can be known.25 The group orientation
is precisely what we find in v. 20b. Peter already has defended his
teaching of the Parousia through eyewitness reports and tradition
(vv. 16-18). Now he appeals to both of those as a rebuttal that his
teaching of the Parousia is idiosyncratic. Of course we must note
that Peters opponents could make a similar claim. They, too, have
a group-oriented culture that affirms a different tradition. The
Epicurean ethos was a well-established way of interpreting reality.
The opponents lack the eyewitnesses to affirm their claims, but
how could they call upon eyewitnesses to report what they believed
was not historical?
Peters claim that no prophecy ever came by human will
(v. 21a) already has been demonstrated in vv. 16-17 where Peter
emphasizes that the divine voice at the transfiguration affirmed the
majesty when Jesus received honor and glory from God the
Father. Still, the argument is tenuous. Who is to say that a
prophecy comes from human will or divine will? Davids cites
Deuteronomy 18:20 as a way to validate prophecy: But any
prophet who speaks in my name a word . . . that I have not commanded the prophet to speakthat prophet shall die.26 The
passage continues: If a prophet speaks in the name of the LORD
but the thing does not take place or prove true, it is a word that the
LORD has not spoken (Deut 18:22). The issue is unresolved. The
open-endedness of prophetic verification means that the confirmation of a prophetic pronouncement always waits for a future
confirmation. Peter has laid the foundation for his apostolic and
prophetic teaching of the Parousia, but the final proof will have to
wait. The Parousia has not come, but in the transfiguration Peter
finds anticipatory evidence that it will come. Peters argument rests
upon past experience and tradition and yet yearns for the future
confirmation of the prophecy rooted in the divine voice (see 1:17).
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Peters defense of prophecy and its proper interpretation concludes with the straightforward assertion that no prophecy ever
came by human will, but men and women moved by the Holy
Spirit spoke from God (v. 21). Bauckham draws attention to the
verb pher that is used twice in this verse (and also in v. 17 to indicate the source of the heavenly voice at the transfiguration). In an
attempt to capture the intent of the verb, he translates the phrases
in v. 21, because prophecy never came [nexth] by the impulse of
man, but men impelled [pheromenoi] by the Holy Spirit spoke
from God.27 Prophecy, then, does not come from human will, but
from the Holy Spirit. It is the power of the Holy Spirit that impels
true prophets to speak an authentic word from God. Thus, the
words at the Transfiguration came from God, [and are] comparable
to [Peters] concern here to stress that the words of OT prophecy
also came from God.28
Denial and Defense of the Master: The Third Challenge,
2:1-3a
This short paragraph functions two ways in Peters extended argument. First it brings a close to the chiasm and inclusio noted above.
The correlations of apostles and prophets with false prophets and
false teachers are completed in these verses. The key
The Rebellious Slave
terms, sesophismenos mythos exakolouthsantes in 1:16
and exakolouthsousin . . . plastois logois in 2:2-3 form
a set of verbal parentheses that binds together the
passage from 1:162:3b. In 2:1-3b we also have an
introduction to the next section of Peters argument
that will demonstrate the certainty of judgment and
boldly will denounce the false teachers. (In our next
chapter we will explore these themes.)
Peter claims that the false teachers . . . will even
deny the Master who bought them (2:1). The
Master is a rare designation for Christ, but it is consistent with the frequent designation of apostles and
followers as servants or slaves. See, for example,
the salutations in Romans, Philippians, and 2 Peter
where Paul, Paul and Timothy, and Peter are called
slaves. Christ is the Master who has purchased the
freedom of his followers. The phrase, the Master who
Michelangelo Buonarroti (14751564). The
Rebellious Slave. 15131516. For the tomb of
bought them is thus a reference to the redemptive
Pope Julius II (14431513). Marble, Louvre, Paris,
France. (Credit: Scala/Art Resource, NY)
work of God in Christ.
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Second Peter 2:1-2 also raises the ominous note of apostasy, both in relation to the false teachers and to the
many [who] will follow their licentious ways, and because
of these teachers the way of truth will be maligned. Peter
already has concluded that the false teachers are apostate.
Their denial of the Master will bring swift destruction
upon themselves (cf. 2 Pet 2:15, 20-21). A discussion of
the reality and threat of apostasy in 2 Peter will be reserved
for the next chapter.
323
Cultural Icons
Marilyn Monroe, 19261962
CONNECTIONS
(Credit: http://commons.wikimedia.org/
wiki/File:Marilyn_Monroe,_The_Prince_
and_the_Showgirl,_1.jpg)
Every generation of every era produces figures who grow

larger than life because of their associations, accomplishments, and influence. From those clusters of standouts
emerge a few people who become enshrined in cultural
memory as icons or, as our contemporary culture calls
them, superstars. The few genuine superstars achieve an
almost mythic status as they are remembered and lionized
for who they were and what they did. American culture has
Elvis Presley, The King of Rock
such icons who not only stand out, but who transcend our
n Roll, 19351977
common standards of excellence. For example, in politics
wiki/File:Elvis_presley.jpg)
we have had, as of 2009, forty-four presidents. By any reckoning, only three or four have become icons: Washington,
Jefferson, Lincoln, and Franklin Roosevelt. In business and
industry, few have risen to the level of Cornelius Vanderbilt,
Andrew Carnegie, or John D. Rockefeller. Even the worlds
of entertainment and sports provide examples of cultural
icons. Marilyn Monroe and Clark Gable, Elvis Presley and
Janis Joplin, and Paul Robeson and Maria Callas elevated
Willie Mays, the quintessential
film, popular music, and classical vocal performance to
five tool baseball player, b.
heights few entertainers will ever approach. And what about
1931.
Willie Mays, Johnny Unintas, and Oscar Robertson, each of
wiki/File:Willie_Mays_cropped.jpg)
whom, respectively, put an indelible mark on baseball, football, and basketball?
In the early church a similar thing happened. Jesus had twelve
apostles and more disciples (that is, followers) than we can know.
Out of the apostles, Peter and John became the superstars, along
with the untimely born (1 Cor 15:8) apostle, Paul. The early
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2 Peter 1:122:3a
church superstars were valued for their associations with Jesus, for
significant work in nurturing the aborning church, and for their
influence that spread during their lives and endured after their
deaths. It is not surprising that the New Testament enshrined their
influence and memory in twenty-one or so of the canonical works
of literature, even though some of the works that bear their names
were cautiously, or suspiciously, regarded well into the fourth
century. And, we should add, there is a raft of literary works among
the noncanonical literature of the early church that claim the
memory and influence of Peter, John, and Paul.
In 2 Peter, contemporary readers glimpse the iconic or superstar
status of Peter in the early church. The letter builds upon Peters
testament (2 Pet 1:12-15) as a way to advance Peters influence
and memory, and as a way to preserve the essential gospel teachings
that were associated with Peter. The letter is bare bones. It promotes the conviction that Jesus was the Christ, Gods Son. It
promotes, too, the conviction that the followers of Jesus should
cultivate a lifestyle and character that are consistent with the
gospel. And it fiercely defends the apostolic teaching that the
Christ who came in Jesus of Nazareth will come again in glorious
power of the Parousia.
Second Peter also gives contemporary readers a glimpse of the
early church that is not much different from the church of the
twenty-first century, or, for that matter, the church through two
millennia. The church of 2 Peter was divided over issues of ethics
and doctrine. It appears that they all confessed that Jesus was the
Christ, but they had different interpretations about what that
meant. That sounds a lot like the twenty-first-century church!
In Second Peter the author is most concerned about the apostolic
teaching of the Parousia, the coming of Christ as judge at the end
of the age. He is constrained to defend his understanding of the
apostolic teaching against popular opinionsthat he regards as
false teachingand to argue that the teaching of Parousia firmly is
rooted in the prophecy from the Old Testament. Peter supplements
the prophetic teachings of the Old Testament with his version of
the transfiguration, which, in the letter, takes the force of an eyewitness account of the event.
Contemporary readers who take up 2 Peter need to be prepared
to engage both the ethical and theological nuances of the gospel.
Doing so they also should remember that 2 Peter is not merely a
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2 Peter 1:122:3a
relic of history that provides answers to important questions.

Second Peter is, at least, a way to model healthy debate among
people in the church who have different takes on the implications
of the gospel. We might wish that we had at our disposal a document from Peters opponents that is as carefully constructed as
2 Peter, but we dont. We only have one side of the debate. As a
result, we should weigh the arguments and the implied counterarguments of the letter honestly and respectfully. That is, after all,
what 2 Peter attempts to do. At the same time, contemporary
readers of 2 Peter should recognize Peters resolve. He does not take
a whatever attitude. He believes that lifestyle and doctrine matter
and, therefore, is willing to press his convictions.
Notes
2. Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs is the most developed collection of works
in the genre. James H. Charlesworth, ed., The Old Testament Pseudepigrapha, Vol. 1:
Apocalyptic Literature and Testaments (New York: Doubleday, 1983) and The Old
Testament Pseudepigrapha, Vol. 2: Expansions of the Old Testament and Legends,
Wisdom and Philosophical Literature, Prayers, Psalms, and Odes, Fragments of Lost
Judeo-Hellenistic Works (New York: Doubleday, 1985) are excellent resources. The
texts also are available online at http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/0801.htm.
102.
4. Truth (altheia) is a transparent synonym for the gospel. Of 2 Peter 1:12s use
of the term, Rudolph Bultmann says, ajlhvqeia [altheia] is simply Christianity, TDNT
1:244.
5. Gnther Harder, sthrivzw, ejpiothrivzw, sthsijgmov~, ajsthvs ikto~, TDNT
7:65657.
6. We will return to this idea below in the context of how 2 Peter uses the tradition
of the transfiguration as a way to refute the claim of Peters opponents that he has
follow[ed] cleverly devised myths (1:16-18) to promote his teaching of the Parousia.
7. Richard J. Bauckham, Jude, 2 Peter (WBC 50; Waco: Word Books, 1983)
199201, arrives at the same conclusion. Bauckham also considers some noncanonical
passages that relate to predictions of Peters death.
10. For further discussion of the opponents, see the introduction. I noted that
Peters opponents may not have been doctrinaire Epicureans so much as they were
influenced by the popular understandings of the Epicurean philosophy.
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11. Note that I treat 2 Pet 2:1-3a as a seam in the argument that overlaps at
the end of the third challenge and the beginning of the exposition on the reality of
judgment.
12. Albrecht Oepke, parousiva, pareimi, TDNT 5:865.
13. Neyrey, 2 Peter, Jude, 176. The term epoptes, translated as eyewitness,
only appears in 2 Pet 1:16. The term also carries a note of authority as in the case of
composers of history who write of what they have firsthand experience.
14. Trinitarian theologians will chafe, again, but they should not. See the exposition, above, on 1:1. Peter sees the transfiguration as a broader commissioning of Jesus
to include the role of judge with the future coming of the day of God (3.12).
15. Gerhard Kittel, dokevw, dovxa, doxavxw, sundoxavxw, e[ndoxo~, ejndoxavxw,
paravdoxo~ TDNT 2:23337.
17. For further discussion of the issues of canon, see the introduction.
18. Fred B. Craddock, First and Second Peter and Jude (IBC: Louisville:
Westminster John Knox Press, 1995) 106.
19. Ibid.
20. Heinrich Schlier, bevbaio~, bebaiovw, bebaiwsi~, TDNT 1:602.
Row, 1969) 323.
23. Ben Witherington III, A Socio-Rhetorical Commentary on 12 Peter, Letters and
332; the citation comes from Ciceros De natura deorum 2.20.53.
24. Witherington, A Socio-Rhetorical Commentary on 12 Peter, 332.
Witherington does note that Num 24:17 is regarded as a messianic passage. It would
have been helpful, too, had Witherington mentioned that Numbers is heavily influenced
by the priestly traditions of the exilic period as a way to clarify the messianic reading of
the passage. Even more helpful would have been an acknowledgment that Num 2224
is home to the Balaam oracles and that Balaam is the speaker in 24:17. In 2 Pet 2:15-16
Peter uses Balaam as an example of a false prophet who was rebuked for his own
transgression. The rebukewhich we will take up belowcomes before the oracle in
Num 24:17. The Balaam oracles trace something of a transition of Balaam from being a
false prophet to becoming an authentic prophet. If Witherington is correct about the
allusion to Num 24:17 in 2 Pet 1:19and we think that he isthen some disclosure of
the context of Num 2224 would have been helpful.
26. Davids, Peter H. Davids, The Letters of 2 Peter and Jude (The Pillars New
Testament Commentary; Grand Rapids: Wm B. Eerdmans, 2006) 213. Davids relies
upon the NIV, but here I have cited the NRSV.
28. Ibid.
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The Certainty of
Judgment
2 Peter 2:1-22
COMMENTARY
In the introduction I briefly examined the relationship between Jude
and 2 Peter.1 We noted that 2 Peter 2 depends heavily upon Jude.
Comparing Jude and 2 Peter, we find that Peter edits out allusions to
the aftermath of the exodus (Jude 5), the sensational report of the
archangel Michael contend[ing] with the devil and disputed about
the body of Moses (Jude 92), references to Cain and Korah (Jude
11), and a prophecy of eschatological judgment (Jude 14-15) from
1 Enoch, an apocalyptic work popularly read and used in the early
church, including its use by the authors of the Gospel of Mark
(13:24-27) and the Gospel of Matthew (25:31-46).
Seeing what parts of Jude are included in, and augmented in,
2 Peter raises the question, Why these parts and not others? Peter
keeps Gods punishment of the angels when they sinned; God cast
them into hell and committed them to chains of deepest darkness to
be kept until the judgment(2:4). He adds an allusion to Noah (2:5).
He also keeps the fiery destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah (2:6)
but expands the story with a reference to the rescue of Lot as a way to
demonstrate that the Lord knows how to rescue the godly from trial,
and to keep the unrighteous under punishment until the day of judgment (2:7-9). Finally, Peter preserves the Balaam reference
(2:15-16). Why these parts of Jude and not the others?
Kraftchicks assessment (already cited in the introduction) is that
2 Peter refashioned Judes examples from 1 Enoch and The Testament
of Moses because they were obscure to his audience or because they
were too similar to the myths he had denied using (1.16).3 There is
no doubt that a story about the archangel Michael having a spat with
the devil over the corpse of Moses sinks to the standards of myth
that Peter rejects. The use of material from 1 Enoch about The Lord
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2 Peter 2:1-22
. . . coming with ten thousands of his holy

ones to execute judgment on all . . . (Jude
14-15, which is quoted from 1 En. 1:9)
is less certainly mythic by Peters definition.
Watson has a different view, one that is
more kind to Peter, based upon a rhetorical analysis. He defends the rhetorical
wholeness of 2 Peter. Against those who
see 2 Peter 2s use of Jude as haphazard or
as part of a latter interpolation of a draft
letter, Watson concludes, 1:20b3:7 is
adequately explained as an original and
integral part of 2 Peter.4 With specific
reference to why Peter used Jude the way
he did, Watson writes, It is easier to conceive that 2 Peter reworked [Jude] making
it rhetorically more effective.5
At the end of chapter 2, I noted that
Ignaz Guenther (17251775). Saint Michael Defeating Satan. c. 1750.
Polychrome limewood sculpture. Skulpturensammlung und Museum
2 Peter 2:1-3a functions two ways in
fuer Byzantinische Kunst, Staatliche Museen, Berlin, Germany. (Credit:
Peters extended argument. First it brings a
Bildarchiv Preussischer Kulturbesitz/Art Resource, NY)
close to the chiasm and inclusio I noted
earlier.6 As I wrote in chapter 2, the correlations of apostles and prophets with false prophets and false
teachers are completed in these verses. The key terms, sesophismenois mythos exakolouthsantes in 1:16 and exakolouthsousin
plastois logois in 2:2-3 form a set of verbal parentheses that binds
together the passage from 1:162:3b. Second Peter 2:1-3b also
gives us an introduction to the next section of Peters argument that
will demonstrate the certainty of judgment and boldly denounce
the false teachers.7 Now we turn to 2 Peter 2:1-3 as the introduction to an extended section that establishes scriptural proof of the
reality of judgment.
Saint Michael Defeating Satan
Scriptural Proof of the Reality of Judgment, 2:1-10a
In keeping with the argument from 1:20-21 that no prophecy of

scripture is a matter of ones own interpretation, because no
prophecy ever came by human will, but men and women moved
by the Holy Spirit spoke from God, Peter now offers more exam-
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2 Peter 2:1-22
329
ples. He already has argued that his teaching of the Parousia conforms to a prophecy of scripture found in Psalm 2 and is confirmed
by his eyewitness report of the transfiguration (1:16-18).8 Without
developing that argument further, he shifts his attention to the certainty of judgment; in 2 Peter Parousia and judgment are two sides
of a single coin. The coming of the Lord Jesus Christ will confirm
the very great promises (1:4) of God in Christ and will result in
the judgment of those who deny the Master (2:1).
Judgment of the False Teachers, vv. 1-3
The false teachers are among you (v. 1), Peter writes.9 It is a
sobering claim that underscores the challenge Peter faces. His
opponents are part of the community. Although they are insiders
and, apparently, have considerable influence in the community,
they teach an outsiders doctrine. They bring in
Hairesis
destructive opinions (v. 1) that, in Peters
The basic meaning of the term is a
assessment, depart from the core of apostolic
choice . . . in the general sense of choice
teaching. These destructive opinions are
of a possibility, or even to an office. The term
takes one particular meaning in Hellenism
hairesis apleias. Here we find the word here[where] the predominant objective use of term
sies, a word that generally refers to a school of
[denotes] a. doctrine and especially b. school.
thought but in polemical contexts comes to
The effect of choosing a teacher, a teaching, and
mean an idea that is contrary to what is
therefore, a school of like thinkers demands
delimitation from other schools.
regarded as true. Heresy is more than a contrary
Schlier notes, The basis of the Christian
opinion, however. Heresy is, as Whaley
concept of ai[resi~ is to be found in the new sitobserves, the perversion of truth. Unlike an
uation created by the introduction of the Christian
outright falsehood, heresy contains elements of
ejkklhsiva [ekklsia]. ?ejkklhsiva and ai[resi~
are material opposites. The latter cannot accept
truth that make its error much more difficult to
the former; the former excludes the later.
10
detect. [Hairesis]
Heinrich Schlier, ai[revomai, ai[resi~, ai[retikov~,
Ironically, the destructive opinions will lead
ai[retivzw, diairevw, diaivrwsi~ TDNT, 1:18083.
to the swift destruction (v. 1 uses the same
word, apleia, in each phrase) of the false teachers. The swiftness of
their destruction should not be understood as a temporal reference
but as an eschatological reference. As the letter develops, the term
apleia also will appear in 3:7 and 3:16. Taking in all four uses of
apleia in 2 Peter, we agree with Davids observation that there is a
double irony in [v. 1]. First their teachings are destructive to others,
so destruction is coming upon them. Second, looking forward to
ch. 3, they deny coming judgment . . . but in fact judgment will
come upon them. One wonders whether the author smiled at his
own black humor.11 [Apollymi and Apleia]
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2 Peter 2:1-22
The false teachers not only promote destructive opinions; they model an immoral lifestyle.
Peter describes the false teachers as licentious,
greedy, and exploitative in vv. 2-3. Because we
only have Peters characterization of his opponents and none of their teachings, we should be
cautious in accepting at face value the charges
brought against them. If the opponents are, as I
Albrecht Oepke, ajpovllumi, apwvleia, VApolluvwv, TDNT,
suggested in the introduction,12 teachers influ1:39497.
enced by the popular ethos of Epicureanism,13
then we might have reason to see vv. 2-3 as caricatures of their position rather than an accurate report. Neyrey observes that polemics
in the ancient world, like most other forms of speech,
Aselgeia
were quite stereotypical. Hence, accusations of the
Bauernfeind has observed that the
sort made in 2:1-3a need to be seen less as actual
apparent original meaning of the
term is license, but it also may have been
statements of what the authors opponents did or said
used figuratively of the soul . . . (with
than as projections of what their errors lead to.14
Apollymi and Apleia
The basic meaning of the term is to
destroy or kill as in battle. Figuratively
the term may be applied to something that is
lost (as the sheep, coin, and son in Luke 15).
In the NT the term takes on an even more
grave meaning, eternal destruction. apleis is a
favourite word in 2 Peter, appearing 2 Peter 2:1,
3; 3:7, 16.
u{bri~ [hybris pride]).

The term in the NT only appears in the
sensual sense of voluptuousness or
debauchery. The term characterizes
Sodom and Gomorrah (2 Pet 2:7) . . . [and]
also heresy and apostasy (Jd. 4; 2 Pt. 2:2,
18) where it also suggests sexual
excess.
[Aselgeia]
Epicurus and those who followed his teachings did

place a high emphasis upon pleasure, but the
pleasure was not conceived in bald terms of sensuality and moral profligacy. Epicurus taught that
authentic pleasurewhich he understood to be no
troublewas rooted in a certain kind of reason
Otto Bauernfeind, ajsevlgeia, TDNT, 1:490.
rather than sensual experiences. Nonetheless, it is
clear that some of Epicuruss followers did understand his teaching
as one of unbridled hedonism. [Six Teachings of Epicurus]
In addition to the charge of licentiousness (vv. 2, 7, and 18)
and the near-synonymous charges of lust (v. 10) and dissipation
(v. 13),15 Peter accuses the false teachers of being greedy and practicing exploitation. Green draws attention to 1 Thessalonians 2:5
where Paul refutes charges of greed and exploitation against him:
We never came with words of flattery or with a pretext of greed.
It is instructive to contrast 2 Peter 3:3 and 1 Thessalonians 2:5,
Green writes, where Paul denies that he is a teacher . . . like the
wandering sophists of the Graeco-Roman world, whose main
concern was not truth, but success.16 The contrast is helpful for
two reasons. First, it broadens our glimpse of the early church to
see that it was as vulnerable to charlatans as is the church in every
era, including the twenty-first century. What the wag says about
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2 Peter 2:1-22
Six Teachings of Epicurus
These six teachings of Epicurus are excepted
from Principal Doctrines:
1. A happy and eternal being has no trouble himself and
brings no trouble upon any other being; hence he is
exempt from movements of anger and partiality, for
every such movement implies weakness.
5. It is impossible to live a pleasant life without living
wisely and well and justly, and it is impossible to live
wisely and well and justly without living pleasantly.
Whenever any one of these is lacking, when, for
instance, the person is not able to live wisely, though he
lives well and justly, it is impossible for him to live a
pleasant life.
8. No pleasure is in itself evil, but the things which
produce certain pleasures entail annoyances many times
greater than the pleasures themselves.
18. Pleasure in the body admits no increase when once
the pain of want has been removed; after that it only
admits of variation. The limit of pleasure in the mind,
331
however, is reached when we reflect on the things

themselves and their congeners which cause the mind
the greatest alarms.
20. The body receives as unlimited the limits of pleasure;
and to provide it requires unlimited time. But the mind,
grasping in thought what the end and limit of the body
is, and banishing the terrors of futurity, procures a complete and perfect life, and has no longer any need of
unlimited time. Nevertheless it does not shun pleasure,
and even in the hour of death, when ushered out of existence by circumstances, the mind does not lack
enjoyment of the best life.
30. Those natural desires which entail no pain when not
gratified, though their objects are vehemently pursued,
are also due to illusory opinion; and when they are not
got rid of, it is not because of their own nature, but
because of the persons illusory opinion.
Epicurus, Principal Doctrines, trans. Robert Drew Hicks,
http://classics.mit.edu/Epicurus/princdoc.html.
greedy exploiters of welcoming church people, The gospel calls

some to do good and gives others an opportunity to do well, has
universal application. Second, the contrast underscores what we
already have seen in 2 Peter, namely, that the recognized apostles
were not immune to popular criticism.
Second Peter 2:1-3 demonstrates the interrelatedness of theology
and ethics. The way of truth that Peter says will be maligned
(v. 2) is paved with stones of doctrine and lifestyle, or, stated more
simply, it is paved by authentic words and deeds. It is not an eitheror; it is a both-and. In the Sermon on the Mount (Matt 57), Jesus
takes both the scribes and Pharisees to task for their respective onesidedness. The scribes emphasized words at the expense of deeds,
while the Pharisees emphasized deeds at the expense of words. Jesus
contends that the kingdom in its fullness pursues both words and
deeds. Peter presses the same point.
The way of truth (2:2, h hodos ts alheias) is a succinct
description of apostolic teaching,17 or, at least, the Christian way
of life which alone corresponds to divine revelation.18 In the
phrase, the way of truth will be maligned, Peter is less interested
in exploring the content of the way of truth than he is in
lamenting the fact that the false teachers, both by their doctrine
and lifestyle, will lead others astray, and that the cumulative effect
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2 Peter 2:1-22
of the false teachers and those who

follow them will be the tarnishing
of the image of the community.
Second Peter 2:3b begins a single
long sentence that is held together
by a succession of conditional
clauses, if . . . then (the if
appears in v. 4 and is repeated in vv.
5, 6, and 7; the then only is executed in v. 9). Like a lawyer
prosecuting an appeal case before a
jury, Peter prepares to call key witnesses from the biblical record who
can support his claim that Their
Julius Schnorr von Carolsfeld (17941872). Sermon on the Mount (Matt 5:1-3).
Woodcut from the Luther Bible. (Credit: Foto Marburg/Art Resource, NY)
[the false teachers in v. 2:1] condemnation, pronounced against
them long ago, has not been idle, and their destruction is not
asleep. Implicit in the claim must be the opponents teaching that
God as judge is either idle or asleep, which is a rejection of
Peters teaching about the certainty of judgment. In 2 Peter 3:3-7,
and again in 3:8-13, Peter will explicitly return the charge of his
opponents.
For now he is content to allude to the famous contest between
Elijah and the prophets of Baal on Mt. Carmel in 1 Kings 18. In
that story the false
Elijah on Mount Carmel
prophetsthe prophets
of
Baalperformed
histrionic acts before an
altar prepared for a sacrifice with the intent to
persuade their god to
send the fire. After a
morning-long appeal
was unanswered, Elijah
mocked them, saying
Cry aloud! Surely he is
a god; either he is mediating, or has wandered
away, or he is on a
journey, or perhaps he is
Elijah on Mount Carmel. Fresco. c. AD 239. Synagogue, Dura Europos, Syria. (Credit: Art Resource, NY)
Sermon on the Mount
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asleep and must be wakened (v. 27). The allusion to Elijahs taunt
of the prophets of Baal, which turns out to be the prelude to the
destruction of the false prophets on Mt. Carmel, uses the false
teachers claims that Peters God is idle or asleep against them. The
turn of the table is stunning. In the same way that Elijah will prove
victorious, Peter reminds his readers that he, too, will be vindicated. Through the allusion, Peter renews the pronouncement of
condemnation . . . against them [the false teachers] long ago; it
still is in effect. And now comes the string of biblical witnesses.
Judgment of the Angels, v. 4
The first of the three biblical witnesses appears to rely upon
Genesis 6:1-4, according to Neyrey, because it forms a unity with
other examples from Genesis, Noah, and Lot.19 More likely
Genesis is a tertiary source that is embedded in a secondary source,
1 Enoch, that Peter discovered in Jude 6, his primary source.
Craddock20 and Green21 both agree that Peter knew 1 Enoch,
although Green is less confident than Craddock.22
Master of the Rebel Angels
Bauckham,23 however, doubts that Peter knew
1 Enoch but is confident that Peter followed Jude.
Jude 6 does have a clear allusion to Genesis 6:1-4:
And the angels who did not keep their proper
dwelling, followed by an allusion to 1 Enoch, he
has kept in eternal chains in deepest darkness for the
judgment of the great Day.24 The confusion that
prompted our flurry of citations to Craddock, Green,
and Bauckham is found in the comparison of Jude 6
and 2 Peter 2:4. What is most alike in the two verses
are the references to chains and deepest darkness,
which depend originally upon 1 Enoch. What also is
curious is that 2 Peter 2:4 uses the classical Greek
term, Tartarus, rather than the Hellenistic Jewish
term, Gehenna, as the place where the rebel angels are
in deepest darkness to be kept until the judgment.
Neyrey is less troubled by the confusion than many
commentators (including this writer). Gathering up
the levels of allusions in 2 Peter 2:4, he muses that
The use of an example readily recognized by Greeks
and Jewish hearers seems calculated to appeal to
Master of the Rebel Angels (14th C.). Oil on wood
common knowledge about divine judgment of the
with gold background. Louvre, Paris, France. (Credit:
wicked. This suggests a pluralistic audience of Jew
Runion des Muses Nationaux/Art Resource, NY)
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2 Peter 2:1-22
Kosmos
Sasse points out that the basic meaning of the
term is order, and when used to designate the
world, it becomes one of the most important terms in
Greek philosophy to the degree that claims that kosmos
is the cosmic system in the sense of cosmic order. In
that sense, the Greek philosophers understood that the
universe was a place of order, a perfect unity, and a
place of beauty.
Hellenistic Judaism softened the Greek philosophical
ideals of order, perfection, and beauty, largely because
the Heb OT has no word for the universe.
New Testament uses of kosmos often mean the sum
of all created being, but there is the conviction that like
all that is created, the kovsmo~ has only limited duration. The kosmos is vulnerable to decay or corruption
(as in 2 Pet 1:4) because the world . . . is now
estranged from its Creator and Lord.
And so, the New Testament moves toward an understanding of the kosmos as the sum of the divine
creation which has been shattered by the fall, which
stands under the judgment of God, and in which Jesus
Christ appears as the Redeemer.
Therefore, when the kovsmo~ is redeemed, it ceases
to be kovsmo~. The reconciled and redeemed world is
no longer kovsmo~ aiw;n ou\to~ [kosmos ain outos =
the eternal world]; it is basileiva tou` qeou` [basileia
tou theou = kingdom of God].
and Gentile, as well as an author familiar

with and eager to employ pagan stories
which reinforce the Bible.25
Judgment of the Generation of Noah, v. 5

The second biblical witness Peter summons
is the ancient world that bore the brunt
of divine judgment. Already in 2 Peter
1:19b we glimpsed Peters wide vision of
the Parousia and judgment as Gods final
actions encompassing all creation. Later, in
2 Peter 3:10-13, the glimpse will become
fully developed. Between the glimpse and
the big picture Peter also puts an emphasis
upon the thorough scope of Gods involvement with creation: the cosmos was not
spared judgment. [Kosmos]
While the goal of presenting three biblical witnesses to judgment is primary in
this long sentence that covers vv. 3b-10, in
v. 5 we have the first of two statements that
God the judge also is God the redeemer.
The examples of Noah (v. 5) and Lot (v. 7)
Hermann Sasse, kosmevw, kovsmo~, kovsmio~, kosmikov~, TDNT
anticipate the end of the sentence where we
3:86874, 88394.
read, then the Lord knows how to rescue
the godly from trial, and to keep
God Locks the Ark
the unrighteous under punishment until the day of judgment
(v. 9).
Although the ancient world
in Noahs generation is judged
and destroyed, Noah, a herald of
righteousness, with seven others,
when [God] brought a flood on a
world of the ungodly, is saved.
Here Peter alludes to a tradition
of Noah as a preacher of repentance that Neyrey calls a
commonplace in Jewish writGod Locks the Ark. Detail of one of 54 scenes from the Old and New Testament, from
ings.26 Bauckham also cites
a paliotto, the decorated altar frontal. Carved ivory plaque. (Credit: Erich Lessing/Art
Resource, NY)
traditions that see Noah as the
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eighth person as a reflection of the eschatological symbolism of

the number eight [as] . . . new creation; thus, Noah, preserved
from the old world to be the beginning of the new world after the
Flood, is a type of faithful Christians who will be preserved from
the present world to inherit the new world after the judgment.27
Judgment of Sodom and Gomorrah, vv. 6-10a
The third biblical witness called before our imagined jury are the
cities of Sodom and Gomorrah. The narratives in Genesis 1819
describe the prelude to destruction, the destruction, and the aftermath. Only the destruction and its prelude figure in Peters
argument. Peter summarizes the destruction in the phrase by
turning the cities of Sodom and Gomorrah to ashes he condemned
them to extinction (v. 6a). Sodom and Gomorrah were utterly
destroyed by fire. Peter interprets the destruction as a proleptic
example of what is coming to the ungodly (v. 6b). Following the
model of the previous witness, Peter holds out Lot, as he did with
Noah, as proof that the Lord knows how to rescue the godly from
trial (v. 9a).
Peters claim that Lot was a righteous man greatly distressed by
the licentiousness of the lawless of his city (v. 7) relies upon the
prelude to the destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah in Genesis
18:22-33, where Abraham is brave enough to argue with the Lord.
Abrahams argument attempts to determine how many righteous
people would be needed before the Lord would stay his hand of
judgment. The argument moves, by steps, from fifty to forty-five to
forty to thirty to twenty to ten. In
Lot and his Daughters Leaving Sodom
the end, Abraham does not prevail;
the destruction of Sodom and
Gomorrah is sealed.
In the narrative Lot is saved,
along with his wife (although in
the departure from Sodom she,
too, is destroyed) and his two
daughters. The Genesis story does
not claim that Lot is righteous,
but that inference may be made on
the basis of Abrahams argument
with the Lord. At best, Lot is hosGuido Reni (15751642). Lot and his Daughters Leaving Sodom, c. 16151616.
Oil on canvas, National Gallery, London, Great Britain. (Credit: National Gallery,
London/Art Resource, NY)
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pitable (see Ezek 16:49-50). Peter also seems to rely upon Ezekiel
9:4, according to Bauckham.28
The long sentence that began at v. 3b now comes to an end in
v. 9. Relying upon the biblical evidence that God did not spare
the angels (v. 4), the ancient world (v. 5), or Sodom and
Gomorrah (v. 6), and noting that God saved Noah (v. 5) and
rescued Lot (vv. 7-8), Peter closes his appeal to our imagined jury,
saying, then the Lord knows how to rescue the godly from trial,
and to keep the unrighteous under punishment until the day of
judgment.
Summary of the Reality of Judgment, vv. 9-10
In this closing appeal, Peter makes explicit what has been implied
all along, that Parousia and judgment are two sides of a single coin.
The day of judgment refers both to the Parousia and the beginning of the final judgment that was pronounced against [the
ungodly] long ago (2:3b). In v. 10 Peter summarizes, too, his
charge against the false teachers as those who indulge their flesh in
depraved lust, which recalls 2 Peter 1:4, the corruption that is in
the world because of lust. He also recalls the charge that the false
teachers even deny the Master (2 Pet 2:1) with the statement they
despise authority.
Bold Denunciation of the Opponents, 2:10b-22
To this point, 2 Peter has been a reasoned defense of Parousia and

judgment, balanced with polemics against the teaching and
lifestyles of Peters opponents. The rest of chapter 2 moves to a
more aggressive style of rhetoric that leaves behind reasoned
apology and polemic of ideas and behaviors and becomes nothing
less than personal attacks directed against the false teachers. The
attacks are vicious in the ears of twenty-first-century readers.
Craddock is correct in noting that this rampage of rhetoric . . . [is]
distasteful to some of us, especially those drilled since childhood in
the old maxim, If you cannot say anything good about someone,
then say nothing at all.29 He goes on to observe that in Peters day
such speaking as we have here was a form of rhetoric . . . familiar
to audiences of the time and that they may have found in it a
measure of sober entertainmentassuming they were not the ones
being denounced.30
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The attacks move in three phases. First the false teachers are
branded with a series of descriptions of their extravagance. Next
they are condemned as latter-day charlatans in the line of Balaam.
Finally, they are excoriated as apostates.
Beasts, Blots, and Blemishes, vv. 10b-14
Verses 10b-11 continue Peters penchant for using word pairs to
drive home points. The false teachers are bold and willful and
foolish enough to slander the glorious ones . . . [who are] greater
in might and power. Bold and willful allow a wide array of synonyms such as headstrong, audaciously arrogant, brazenly
self-important, and the like. The glorious ones probably refers to
angelic beings, but the meaning is not clear. Bauckham reminds us
that Jude 8-10 lies behind Peters words.31 In Jude the glorious
ones are angels. The reference precedes Judes account of the
archangel Michael [contending] with the devil . . . about the body
of Moses [without bringing] a condemnation of slander against
him (Jude 9). Bauckham speculates that Peter did not know the
story, and therefore he misunderstood the point . . . in the same
way that modern commentators have misunderstood it.32 Peters
misunderstanding leads him to confuse the good angels and the
bad angels that were prevalent in Hellenistic Jewish stories. Judes
story about the archangel Michael shows that even an archangel
knows how to show reserve when contending with a fallen angel,
knowing that slander is not an effective weapon
against a powerful foe. Peter seems clumsily to
Satan in His Original Glory
borrow a valid pointdont slander celestial
powersand apply it to the false teachers as evidence
of their audacious arrogance. The false teachers have
denied the Master (2:1) and shown contempt for
prophecy and the apostolic teaching (1:19-20).
Bauckham sorts through the confusion: The most
plausible view is that in their confident immorality
the false teachers were contemptuous of the demonic
powers. When they were rebuked for their immoral
behavior and warned of the danger of falling into the
power of the devil and sharing his condemnation,
they laughed at the idea, denying that the devil could
William Blake (17571827). Satan in his Original
have any power over them.33
Glory: Thou wast Perfect till Iniquity was found in
The contemptuous, audacious arrogance of the
Thee (c. 1805). Tate Gallery, London, Great Britain.
(Credit: Tate, London/Art Resource, NY)
false teachers leads Peter to dehumanize them. The
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are like irrational animals, mere creatures of instinct, born to be

caught and killed. They slander what they do not understand, and
when those creatures are destroyed, they also will be destroyed, suffering the penalty for doing wrong (vv. 12-13a). The rampage of
rhetoric reaches a nadir in these verses. Even though Peters audience may have been accustomed to such vitriol (see above),
twenty-first-century readers should flinch at the notion that false
teachers were born to be caught and killed. Such rhetoric in our
day has too often given permission to zealots to kill literally. We
concede the point of Peters context, but we cannot affirm any
application of his hot opinion. False teachers, irrational or not,
driven by instinct or not, still keep their humanness. Rebuke them,
yes. Argue the errors of their thinking and lifestyles, yes. Pave the
way for their slaughter, no.
In fairness to Peter, he is not suggesting that his readers take up
cudgels against the false teachers. In v. 12 Peter lumps the beastly
false teachers with the literal beasts who will be destroyed. Perhaps
here is an echo of v. 5, the judgment of the ancient world in the
time of Noah. The flood led to the destruction of beasts and
humans and, for Peter, served as evidence of the judgment that will
come at the Parousia. Peter is willing to wait for Gods judgment
upon the world as a final purification that was prefigured in the
flood; in that final judgment the beastly false teachers, too, will
perish. The end of v. 12 and the beginning of v. 13, they also will
be destroyed, suffering the penalty for doing wrong, does not
capture the apparent word play in the original (en t phthopa autn
kai phthapsontai adikoumenoi misthon adikias). Kraftchick offers
an alternate translation that comes closer: They shall be destroyed
with the same destruction they have brought about.34
The rest of vv. 13-14 makes clear what we have assumed all
along: Peters opponents, the false teachers, are indeed participants
in the community. Peter says of them, They count it a pleasure to
revel in the daytime. They are blots and blemishes, reveling in their
dissipation while they feast with you. They revel in the daytime
and [revel] in their dissipation while they feast with you. The
reveling is a commentary on the hedonistic character of the
opponents (hdon [pleasure in this passage] is the origin of the
English term, hedonism). While they feast with you probably is
a reference to the Lords Supper.35 Not only do the false teachers
share the table of the Lord with the community; Peter also accuses
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339
them of trolling for sexual conquests at the table. He says, They

have eyes full of adultery, insatiable for sin. They entice unsteady
souls. They have hearts trained in greed. These three short sentences disclose Peters exasperation
Hdon (pleasure)
over the false teachers, including
The word hJdonh [hdon] derives from the same root as
hJduv~ [hdys], sweet, pleasant, delightful . . . and
their teaching, their lifestyles, and
shares with this adj. the original sense of what is pleasant to the
their very presence. Accursed chilsenses. . . .
dren! Peter cries. Davids frames the
Already in its earliest use . . . the term . . . bears the broader
interjection pastorally, suggesting
sense of a general feeling of pleasure or enjoyment. The development from the sensual to the psychical and then to the ethical .
that Peter is a pastor, and he is
. . is often to be noted in the evolution of words and their meanupset by what he sees happening to
ings. . . .
unstable individuals in the commuFor the Greeks hJdonh, which affects life in so many ways, is . .
nity.36 The exclamation appears to
. a problem, since on the one side it is something which is necessarily integrated into [life] and which essentially enriches it, while
bring an end to the section. What
on the other it often seems to threaten and even to dissolve the
we have seen in vv. 10b-14 is that
true meaning and purpose of life. . . .
Peter regards the false teachers as
hJdonh is one of the marks of a definite orientation of life
beasts, blots, and blemishes on the
opposed to the Christian. As such it has its place in the antithesis
on which the world of the NT thinking is based. . . .
community in particular and the
The term hJdonh is linked particularly with false teachers,
church in general. As the letter
whose ethical characterisation is almost always for more comprecomes to a close, Peter will still be
hensive in the NT than their theological.
thinking about the stains and
Gustav Sthlin, hJdonh TDNT, 2:90911, 919, 925.
potential stains left by the false
teachers. He will write, strive to be found by him at peace,
without spot or blemish (3:14). [Hdon (pleasure)]
Followers of Baalam, vv. 15-16
In two short verses Peter offers yet another way to describe the folly
of the false teachers and to expose them as apostates. They have
left the straight road and have gone astray, following the road of
Balaam son of Bosor (v. 15),37 he writes. There is no mistake
about Peters assessment of the false teachers as apostates. They are
members of the community, they participate in the Lords Supper
(albeit with questionable motives, as noted in 2:13-14), and yet
they promote ideas and moral examples that are contrary to Peters
understanding of authentic apostolic teaching. To say that they
have left the straight road and have gone astray cannot be muted
with claims that the false teachers never had accepted the gospel.
They deny the Master who bought them, Peter wrote in 2:1. The
certainty of their apostasy will be developed further below. [Balaam
and His Oracles]
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2 Peter 2:1-22
For now Peter focuses on comparing the false teachers to Balaam,

a prominent figure in Numbers
2224 who also becomes a watchword for self-serving greed or
divination elsewhere in the Old
Testament (see Deut 23:4-5; Josh
13:22; 24:9-10); but in Nehemiah
13:2 and Micah 6:5 Balaam
becomes a symbol of how God can
use a non-Israelite to accomplish
divine purpose. Peter uses Balaam
as a watchword for greed, noting
how Balaam loved the wages of
doing wrong (v. 15b). Peter capitalizes upon the comic feature of
the Balaam story by noting that
[Balaam] was rebuked for his own
transgression; a speechless donkey
spoke with a human voice and
restrained the prophets madness
(v. 16). For Peter, Balaam was a
charlatan who attempted to speak
the truth, only to be confounded
by an ass who knew better. Peters
use of the story develops even
further his comparison of the false teachers to beasts.
Balaams donkey was better at perceiving truth than his master.
By comparison, the false teachers are less than a dumb donkey
who finds his voice in an encounter with an angel of the Lord
(Num 22:23-30).
Balaam and His Oracles

In Num 2224 Balaam son of Beor brings comic relief to
the stories of the Israelites in the wilderness. These chapters also demonstrate that a non-Israelite can be used by God to
announce the truth of divine presence and will.
The best known of the Balaam exploits is the tale of how his
donkey saves him from being killed by an angel of the Lord while
Balaam travels at the behest of King Balak of Moab to place a
curse on the Israelites. The donkey sees what Balaam does not
an angel of the Lord with a sword who is attempting to block
Balaams progress. Three times the angel blocks the path and the
donkey turns away or lies down. Each time Balaam beats the beast.
After the third beating the Lord gives the donkey a temporary gift of
speech and the ass rebukes his master. The Lord opens Balaams
eyes and he, too, sees the angel. The end of the story has Balaam
blessing the Israelites rather than cursing them. This story earns
Balaam the reputation as a prophet for hire, despite the fact that, in
the end, he prophesies for and not against Israel.
The four oracles of Balaam (Num 23:7-10, 18-24; 24:3-9, 15-19)
all provide blessings on Israel and describe divine power. The fourth
oracle (Num 24:15-19) came to be regarded as a messianic
prophecy with its vision of a star shall come out of Jacob, and
scepter shall rise out of Israel (v. 17).
The legends of Balaam and his oracles shape the argument of
2 Peter. The dramatic shaping comes in 2 Pet 2:15-16 where Peter
seizes the reputation of Balaam as a prophet for hire and casts him
as the kind of charlatan Peter believes his opponents to be. The
subtle shaping comes in 2 Pet 1:19, where many commentators
see the morning star as an allusion to the messianic prophecy of
the star . . . out of Jacob in Num 24:17.
Slaves of Corruption and Apostates, vv. 17-22

Second Peter 2 ends with a stream of expressions that drive home
his conviction that the false teachers are apostates. They are waterless springs and mists driven by a storm; for them the deepest
darkness has been reserved (v. 17). They are dry wells and clouds
that promise rain but do not bring it. They promise living water
but do not deliver; for that reason they are destined for judgment.
Their teaching is bombastic nonsense that [promises] freedom
but is entangled in corruption (vv. 18-19). Their licentious
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lifestyles entice people who have Balaams Talking Ass

just escaped from those who live in
error (v. 18). Most notable is
Peters claim that they themselves
are slaves of corruption; for people
are slaves to whatever masters them
(v. 19). The claim is an echo of 2:1.
By denying the Master who
bought them, the false teachers
become slaves of corruption.
Most damning is the observation,
For if, after they have escaped the
defilements of the world through
the knowledge of our Lord and Balaams Talking Ass (Num 22:20-35). Nuremberg Bible (Biblia Sacra Germanaica),
Savior Jesus Christ, they are again 1493. Victoria and Albert Museum, London, Great Britain. (Credit: Art Resource, NY)
entangled in them and overpowered, the last state has become worse for them than the first. For it
would have been better for them never to have known the way of
righteousness than, after knowing it, to turn back from the holy
commandment that was passed on to them (vv. 20-21). In this
passage Peter uses his signature term, epignsis, twice
(vv. 20 and 21), which we have rendered as conversional knowledge, to apply to the false teachers. He believes the false teachers
have indeed tasted the saving knowledge of
God in Christ, but he also believes that they
A Pigsty
have departed from it. Their apostasy condemns them because of their corruption.
Capping the apostasy of the false teachers,
Peter employs a pair of proverbs that also
underscores their beastly character: The dog
turns back to its own vomit, and, The sow
is washed only to wallow in the mud (v. 22).
The first proverb comes from Proverbs 26:11;
the second is a general saying that Peter must
have known. Dogs and pigs were symbols of
Glazed green terracotta model. Han Dynasty (2d C. BCAD 2d C.).
all that is unclean. Peter applies the proverbs
Musee des Arts Asiatiques-Guimet, Paris, France. (Credit: Erich
to the false teachers both as an illustration of
Lessing/Art Resource, NY)
their uncleanness and as an illustration of
their apostasy, as a return to their sinfulness before they encountered the conversional knowledge of God in Christ.
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2 Peter 2:1-22
CONNECTIONS
Second Peter 2 reminds contemporary readers that the church
always has been a place of contention and controversy. Usually differences of theological and ethical convictions are beneath the
surface of the community that worships together and strives to
become witnesses to the power of the gospel. Now and again,
however, these differences bubble up and change the character of
the church. Contemporary readers all have experienced the effects
of contention and controversy that lead to divisions in local congregations and schisms that tear apart larger church bodies that
purport to share basic theological and ethical positions. Second
Peter 2 is, in that regard, a mirror in which the contemporary
church finds itself reflected.
The issues in 2 Peter are both theological and ethical. Peters
arguments for apostolic teaching about the Parousia and judgment
are spurred on by his deep concerns about the ethical implications
of accepting or rejecting certain teachings. In the lifestyles of the
false teachers he set out to expose, Peter finds theological flaws that
allowed them to become wanton. Bad ethics often are the first clue
to an underlying bad theology. In the loose morality of the false
teachers, Peter saw an inadequate theology that refused to take seriously the moral demands of the Christian life. The false teachers
claimed a moral freedom (2 Pet 2:19) that worked itself out as evidence that they had, in fact, become slaves to their own pursuits of
pleasure.
A crucial dimension to Peters attempt to expose the false teachers
on the basis of their ethics is their apparent eagerness to peddle to
unsteady souls their view of a gospel without demands for righteousness (2 Pet 2:14). They are charlatans, Peter contends, filled
with greed and lust. The history of the church includes a long
record of charlatans. In the contemporary world the presence and
success of charlatans seems to have been enhanced by the availability of mass media. Television and radio hucksters of religion
have huge followings as they preach their gospel of prosperity.
Unsteady souls in our day never quite figure out that the prosperity
the hucksters preach only allows them to line their pockets with illgotten gain. Now and again a scandal breaks that exposes the
ugliness of their enterprises, including moral laxity. As Balaam
became a watchword for charlatans in Peters day, so Jim Bakker
and others of his ilk are symbols of what can go wrong in the
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2 Peter 2:1-22
church. Because of them, the way of truth will be maligned

(2 Pet 2:2).
Contemporary readers of 2 Peter 2 should be shocked by the vitriolic rhetoric. Contextually, I understand that first-century readers
did not find personal attacks offensive (I agree with Craddock that
the attacks might even have had entertainment value38). Our
context as readers is different than the original audience of 2 Peter,
however. In our day, personal attacks often come from radio or television personalities whose confrontational style works best in the
security of their studios. They blather and bash their opponents
without having to see them or deal with rejoinders. Their bashing
of opponents is gleefully received by adoring fans who, in turn,
emulate the harshness of their media hero, further contributing to
the erosion of civil discourse. In some instances the hot rhetoric
against physicians who perform abortions, for example, inflames an
unstable person who hears the verbal attack as a mandate for a
deadly physical attack. Any rhetoric-spurred act of violence should
make us reconsider what we say about whom to whom and why.
It is clear that the writer of 2 Peter knew the letter of Jude. One
would have hoped that he had better understood the lesson of
Michael the archangel as he struggled with the devil over the body
of Moses (Jude 9).39 Instead, in his eagerness to expose the false
teachers, Peter slips in the mud he slings and comes up looking a
bit soiled himself.
Notes
1. See [Jude and 2 Peter Parallels].
2. The allusion is to the apocryphal T. Mos. or, perhaps, As. Mos. See Steven J.
Kraftchick, Jude, 2 Peter (ANTC; Nashville: Abingdon Press, 2002) 43.
4. Duane F. Watson, Invention, Arrangement, and Style: Rhetorical Criticism of
Jude and 2 Peter (SBLDS; Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1988) 157.
5. Ibid., 180.
6. For further discussion, see ch. 2.
9. It is the case that the Greek text has a future tense verb, esontai (will be), but
Richard J. Bauckham, Jude, 2 Peter (WBC 50; Waco: Word Books, 1983) 239, notes
that the future tense is used, of course, because although the author is referring to a
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reality of his own time, he is writing in the person of Peter, and so, as was appropriate
in a testament, . . . he represents Peter as prophesying the advent of false teachers
after his death.
10. Charles Whaley, Prophetic, Post-apostolic & Postmodern: An Oriental Approach
to Three Bible Studies (Macon GA: Smyth & Helwys, 2009) 43.
15. Could the repetition of licentious (Gk., aselgeiais, in vv. 2 and 18, with aselgeia, in v. 7) be an inclusio that sets off the especially disgusting moral practices of
Peters opponents?
TNTC; Grand Rapids: Wm B. Eerdmans, 1987) 108.
17. Recall Bultmanns quip, ajlhvqeia [altheia] is simply Christianity (TDNT
1:244); see ch. 2, n. 4.
18. Wilhelm Michaelis, o;do~, ktl., TDNT 5:86.
20. Fred B. Craddock, First and Second Peter and Jude (IBC; Louisville:
Westminster John Knox Press, 1995) 112.
22. Craddock, First and Second Peter and Jude, 112, expresses some wonder that
Peter assumes the readers not only knew 1 Enoch but regarded it as an authoritative
account of Gods activity. Green, The Second Epistle of Peter and the Epistle of Jude,
10910, is more cautious; Peter may have been influenced by the embellishment of
the Genesis account in the apocryphal 1 Enoch. . . . But if Peter alludes to this apocryphal book at all, he does so with the utmost discretion.
23. Bauckham, Jude, 2 Peter, 24849, The author of 2 Peter has followed Jude.
He may not himself have known 1 Enoch and probably in any case could not expect his
readers to be familiar with it.
24. Green, The Second Epistle of Peter and the Epistle of Jude, 110, n. 1, notes
that It is probable that Peter is alluding to passages in 1 Enoch on the punishment of
the angels, such as x.4-6, xviii.11, xxi.10.
26. Ibid.
27. Bauckham, Jude, 2 Peter, 250. Although it is not germane to Peters argument, readers familiar with the Noah narratives in Gen 69 will recall Noah was not
immune from the corruption that is in the world (2 Pet 1:4) that Peter mentioned.
Noahs drunkenness and nakedness in Gen 9:20-27 has no bearing on Peters argument
in 2 Pet 2:5, but it is consistent with Peters larger view that the world is tainted by sin.
28. Bauckham, Jude, 2 Peter, 253. The reference is not to Sodom, but to
Jerusalem in the days of Ezekiel. It does, however, create an image of those who groan
and sigh over all of the abominations that are committed. Bauckham also notes (252)
that Genesis does not portray Lot as entirely blameless, and makes a passing refer-
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2 Peter 2:1-22
ence to Gen 19:30-38 where post-destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah the daughters of
Lot ply their father with wine and have sexual intercourse with him in order to preserve
his family line. The aftermath of the destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah is, again, not
germane to Peters argument. It is, nonetheless, consistent with Peters larger view that
the world is tainted by sin.
29. Craddock, First and Second Peter and Jude, 11314. J. N. D. Kelly, The
Epistles of Peter and Jude (HNTC; New York: Harper and Row, 1969) 337, writes that
2 Peter 2:10b-22 is the most violent and colorfully expressed tirade in the NT.
30. Craddock, First and Second Peter and Jude, 114.
32. Ibid., 261.
33. Ibid., 262.
35. Davids, The Letters of 2 Peter and Jude, 239, makes that claim, also noting
that 2 Pet 2:13 is an adaptation of Jude 12 where the feast explicitly is the love
feast.
36. Ibid., 241.
37. The OT designations are of Balaam of Beor, so Balaam of Bosor is either an
error on Peters part (see Kelly, The Epistles of Peter and Jude, 343) or, perhaps, a
reflection of a clever pun on boshor meaning flesh in Jewish tradition that would
emphasize Balaams self-serving goals (see Bauckham, Jude, 2 Peter, 267).
38. Craddock, First and Second Peter and Jude, 114; cf. n 29 above.
39. Cf. Bauckham, Jude, 2 Peter, 261, and the commentary above on vv. 10b-16.
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Reminders,
Encouragements,
and Defenses
2 Peter 3:1-18
COMMENTARY
The last chapter of 2 Peter is mostly a collection of reminders of what
has already been written, additional encouragements to the community, and elaborations upon the prior defenses of apostolic teachings
about Parousia and judgment. The only new material appears in two
sentences about our beloved brother Paul and the value of his writings (vv. 15-16), but even they serve to bolster Peters extended
arguments in the letter.
Second Reminder and Encouragement, 3:1-2
Peters pastoral character, which has infused the letter, appears explicitly with his address of his readers as beloved (agaptoi). Against the
backdrop of the love of God, the term implies election1 and, by
further implication, binds together the community in the love of
God through Jesus Christ and the apostles. Five times agaptos
(singular) or agaptoi (plural) appears in 2 Peter. The singular references are to Jesus at the transfiguration (1:17) and to Paul (3:15); the
plural references are always to Peters readers and only in chapter 3
(vv. 1, 8, 14).
Peters claim that This is now, beloved, the second letter I am
writing to you, raises the question of what the first letter might be.
Canonically 1 Peter seems like a good answer, but the differences
between 1 Peter and 2 Peter are so stark that it is unlikely. The language and style of the two letters dont support the idea of a single
author. The theological emphases of the letters are quite different,
too. First Peter focuses upon the need for his community to prepare
to suffer persecution for their faith in a troubled world; the primary
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2 Peter 3:1-18
focus of the letter is about being

the church in the world, thus it
calls upon Christians to cultivate
a self-conscious identity as aliens
and exiles (1 Pet 2:11) and to
conduct yourselves honorably
among the Gentiles (2:12). With
the possible exception of the
phrase, because of these teachers
the way of truth will be
maligned (2 Pet 2:2), 2 Peter
only focuses upon internal
matters that challenge its readers.
Fra Bartolommeo (Baccio della Porta) (14721517). Saint Peter the Martyr Writing.
Museo di S. Marco, Florence, Italy. (Credit: Finsiel/Alinari/Art Resource, NY)
Second Peter is a defense of
Parousia and judgment, themes
that barely are present, if at all, in 1 Peter. It is unlikely, then, that
the first letter implied in 2 Peter 3:1 is 1 Peter.2
Laphams conclusion that canonical 2 Peter may contain two
letters from the same author with 2 Peter 3:1 being the beginning
of a separate letter, the first two chapters of 2 Peter constituting
substantially the former letter implied in the verse has merit.3
Scholars have found similar evidence of a canonical work compressing two or more letters, as in Pauls correspondence with the
Corinthians.4 Lapham argues that the grammar in 2 Peter 3:1 supports the claim that 2 Peter 3 is a whole letter: [T]he writer uses
the present tense for both gravfw [graph] and diegeivrw [diegeir],
suggest[ing] that the second letter consists only of this final
chapter.5 Further he notes that there is an exact parallel of the
authors intent to remind his readers of the truths they must maintain6 in 2 Peter 1:12 and 2 Peter 3:1-2. Against those who read the
opening of chapter 3 as an allusion to 1 Peter 1:10s the prophets
who prophesied of the grace that was to be yours, Lapham notes
that mere mention of the prophets hardly represents a rousing
reminder of the apostolic warning of the rise of false teachers in the
church. Such, however, is exactly the force of 2 Peter 1:12yet
another indication that two Petrine letters have come together in
what has come to be known as 2 Peter.7 What Laphams thesis
does not address, however, is why Peter would have written two
letters at one sitting.
Saint Peter the Martyr Writing
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349
The reminder in 2 Peter 3:1-2 also serves to underscore the character of 2 Peter as a testament.8 In v. 1 Peter employs three verbs,
which taken together express the urgency of his letter: I am
writing to you; . . . I am trying to arouse your sincere intention by
reminding you. The testament genre is rooted in the assumed
urgency of the author whose impending death demands that he
make a final contact with his audience. The urgency in 2 Peter is
heightened by its subject matterthe Parousia and judgment
and by the presence of false teachers in the community. Peters
predicted death (2 Pet 1:14), his convictions about the power and
coming of our Lord Jesus Christ (1:16), and his warning that
there will be [or are9] false teachers among you (2:1), are ample
reasons to issue a second reminder as the letter draws to a close.
While the reminder generally has to do with Peters testament, it
specifically refers to the words spoken in the past by the holy
prophets, and the commandment of the Lord and Savior spoken
through your apostles (v. 2) The reference to prophets, . . . and
your apostles follows Peters argument that prophets and apostles
are proper counterpoints to
false prophets and false
The Sacra Ruota (Prophets and Apostles)
teachers, the comparisons
developed
in
2
Peter
1:162:3a. Already we have
seen that Peter counts himself
among the apostles and, therefore, the phrase your
prophets should not be an
obstacle. Davids suggests that
the construction of the phrase
is awkward in Greek, but that
is because our author wants to
make it clear that the
command originated with
Jesus and that the apostles were
giving it in a secondary sense as
representatives of Jesus.10 The
commandment of the Lord
and Savior certainly is another
way to describe the whole of
gospel.
Fra Angelico (13871455). The Sacra Ruota. From the doors of the Silver Cabinet. c.
1450. Museo di S. Marco, Florence, Italy. (Credit: Nicolo Orsi Battaglini/Art Resource, NY)
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Second Denial and Defense of the Parousia: The Fourth
Challenge, 3:3-7
First of all you must understand this (v. 3) is a statement of priority, not sequence. The phrase continues the urgency of the
reminders noted in vv. 1-2. For Peter the scoffing scoffers (which
captures the Greek text, empaimon emmaiktai) are an acute threat
that demands immediate attention. Peter cannot resist also heaping
up his persistent claim throughout the letter that the false teachers,
these scoffing scoffers, are driven by their own lusts. Epithymia
(lust) and its close cousin, aselgeiai (license, as in licentious),
appear six times in 2 Peter: epithymia in 1:4; 2:10; 3:3, and aselgeiai in 2:2, 7, 18. In all cases Peter is indicating that the
immorality of the false teachers is their lack of self-control, which is
another way of saying that they have not
Thymos
cultivated the core character of a follower
The verb thy (to well up, to boil up) and the noun
of Jesus (cf. 1:5-7, the chain of virtues,
thymos (vital force or wrath) lie behind
epithymia (lust or desire). According to Bchsel,
which includes self-control). [Thymos]
Verse 4 repeats the challenge of the
qumov~ originally denote[ed] a violent movement of air,
scoffing scoffers, perhaps in their own
water, the ground, animals, or men. . . . The basic meaning
of qumov~ is thus similar to that of pnema [pneuma =
words:11 Where is the promise of his
spirit], namely, that which is moved and which moves, [or]
coming? For ever since our ancestors died,
vital force. In Homer qumov~ is the vital force of animals and
all things continue as they were from the
men.
By the New Testament times thymos came to mean
beginning of creation! The scoffing has
wrath, both human and divine, but in Revelation it is always
three parts: (1) a taunting denial of the
divine except for the wrath of the dragon at 12:12.
Although epithymia (lust) is not found in Homer, it is
Parousia, (2) an odd statement about the
common later [and] denotes the direct impulse toward
death of ancestors, and (3) a sweeping
food, sexual satisfaction . . . and desire in general. The
assertion about a static creation. The
Stoics regarded epithymia as one of the four chief passions,
along with hedon (pleasure), phobos (fear), and lyp (pain);
scoffers question, Where is the promise
these arise out of a wrong attitude to possessions, with
of his coming? is a taunt, as the foldesire and anxiety when these are present and with
lowing exclamation shows. To paraphrase
cupidity and fear when they are future.
In the New Testament epithymia and epithymein may be
both the question and exclamation, the
used for natural desires of hunger . . . or longing, but mostly
scoffers say, Oh, yeah? Nothing has
[the terms] indicate evil desire. The desires deemed lustful
changed! To question the teaching of the
reflect disobedience to the command of God.
Friedrich Bchsel, qumov~, piqumiva, ktl., TDNT 3:16771.
Parousia is one thing. To reject with a
taunt is quite another.
The second part of the quotation from the scoffing opponents,
For ever since our ancestors died, is odd for two reasons. First is
the confusion about who the ancestors might be. Some, like
Green,12 see the ancestors to be a reference to the Old Testament
prophets. Others, such as Kraftchick,13 see the ancestors to be a
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reference to the first generation of followers of Jesus. While we recognize the dilemma and its implications, we wonder how much
stock should be put into a taunt from scoffing opponents. Who
they meant by ancestors would neither soften nor harden their
taunt.14
The sweeping assertion about a static creation is an intriguing
opportunity to further identify the scoffing false teachers with
some form of popular Epicureanism.15 As Neyrey points out,
Epicureanism argued against any school of thought or religion that
relied upon sophisticated understandings of cosmology,
freedom, unfulfilled prophecy, or injustice.16 The scoffers
claim that all things continue as they were from the beginning of
creation! is a cosmological assertion with implications for
freedom, unfulfilled prophecy, and justice/injustice. It betrays their
opinion that creation is a stable
Six More Teachings of Epicurus
entity. It further opens the idea
2. Death is nothing to us; for the body, when it has been
which is consistent with the
resolved into its elements, has no feeling, and that which
has
no
feeling
is nothing to us.
teaching of Epicurusthat creation
came about randomly and that there
11. If we had never been molested by alarms at celestial and
is no presence of divine influence in
atmospheric phenomena, nor by the misgiving that death
creation. [Six More Teachings of Epicurus]
somehow affects us, nor by neglect of the proper limits of pains
and desires, we should have had no need to study natural science.
Verses 5-6 contain Peters retort to
the taunt of the scoffing false
12. It would be impossible to banish fear on matters of the highest
teachers.17 He responds with the
importance, if a person did not know the nature of the whole uniclaim that his opponents deliberverse, but lived in dread of what the legends tell us. Hence
without the study of nature there was no enjoyment of unmixed
ately ignore this fact, that by the
pleasures.
word of God heavens existed long
ago and an earth was formed out of
15. Natures wealth at once has its bounds and is easy to procure;
water and by means of water,
but the wealth of vain fancies recedes to an infinite distance.
through which the world of that
19. Unlimited time and limited time afford an equal amount of
time was deluged with water and
pleasure, if we measure the limits of that pleasure by reason.
perished. It is unlikely that Peter
here is addressing his opponents. It
21. He who understands the limits of life knows how easy it is to
procure enough to remove the pain of want and make the whole
is more likely that he is addressing
of life complete and perfect. Hence he has no longer any need of
members of the community who are
things which are not to be won save by labor and conflict.
wavering between the influence of
Excerpted from Epicurus, Principal Doctrines, trans. Robert Drew Hicks, http://clasPeter and the influence of the
sics.mit.edu/Epicurus/princdoc.html.
scoffers, as Peter has branded them.
The scoffersthe false teachersalready have rejected the ideas of
creation and consummation (Parousia). They are lost,18 but Peters
pastoral concern for the vulnerable remains strong.
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The retort is a pedestrian summary of

the prevailing cosmology among Jews and
most Christians that derives from Genesis
1. By the word of God the heavens existed
long ago is consistent with Genesis 1:1.
The idea that an earth was formed out of
water and by means of water also is
consistent with Genesis 1:6-8. Verse 6
continues the interpretation of the power
of water, divinely shaped, with a second
allusion to the flood19 that relies upon
Genesis 69.
With v. 7a the emphasis moves from the
past traditions of Genesis to Peters convictions that the future purging of the earth
will be by fire and not by water. The
move from past to future is part of Peters
conviction that Gods powerful word is
Dividing of the Waters. Mosaic in the nave of the Duomo of Monreale.
both creative and destructive: by the same
Late Byzantine, c. 11821192. Duomo, Monreale, Italy. (Credit:
Vanni/Art Resource, NY)
word the present heavens and earth have
been reserved for fire. Neyrey cites the
Hellenistic philosopher and Jewish apologist, Philo (d. AD 50) as an
example of the teaching about the two powers of God that may
have influenced Peter:
Dividing of the Waters
Mankind Drowns in the Flood
Mankind Drowns in the Flood, while the rain keeps pouring down. Byzantine mosaic.
13th C. S. Marco, Venice, Italy. (Credit: Erich Lessing/Art Resource, NY)
I should myself say that [the

Cherubim {on the Ark of the
Covenant}] are allegorically representative of the two most
august and highest potencies . . .
of Him that is, the creative and
the kingly. His creative potency
is called God, . . . because
through it He placed and made
and ordered this universe, and
the kingly is called Lord, . . .
being that with which He
governs what has come into
being and rules it steadfastly
with justice.20
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Only in 2 Peter in the New Testament do we find the assertion that

the present heavens and earth have been reserved for fire. We
should note, too, that Peter already has documented the destruction by water (2:5) and has anticipated a large-scale conflagration
by fire in the future with his commentary upon the fiery destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah.21
The point for Peter is that the Parousia, and the judgment that
will be included, will be the day of judgment and destruction of
the godless. The verb in v. 7b, have been reserved (tethsaurismenoi) also was found in 2:4, 9, to keep (troumenous, trein),
used with reference to the rebel angels and the unrighteous . . .
until the day of judgment. Now we see more fully Peters understanding of the justice of God that will
The Ancient of Days
disclosed at the Parousia. The theme will
This work by William Blake depicts God measuring
reappear in the following verses.
the universe, presumably both its spatial and temporal dimensions.
Denial and Defense of Judgment: The

Fifth Challenge, 3:8-13
In vv. 8-9 Peter addresses his opponents

claim that The Lord is . . . slow about his
promise. The promise is the promise
claimed in 2:9, the Lord knows how to
rescue the godly from trial, and to keep the
unrighteous under punishment until the
day of judgment. Peter rejects the idea of a
slow God with a distinctly pastoral
response. The Lord is not slow, he writes,
but is patient with you, not wanting any
to perish, but all to come to repentance.
To support his conviction that God is not
slow, . . . but patient, Peter quotes from
Psalm 90:4, with the LORD one day is like
a thousand years, and a thousand years are
William Blake (17571827). The Ancient of Days. 1794. Relief
like one day.
etching with watercolor. British Museum, London, Great Britain.
Divine patience, however, is not a reason
for anyone to presume that judgment will
never come. Bauckham draws attention to the tension between
divine patience and the promise of the Parousia and judgment,
noting that the coming of the End is not only certain, but also
unpredictable.22 The unpredictability of the Parousia and
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judgment should arouse watchfulness in the lives of Peters readers.

Verse 10a echoes Jesus brief parable, But understand this: if the
owner of the house had known in what part of the night the thief
was coming, he would have stayed awake and would not have let
his house be broken into (Matt 24:43). Davids raises the probability that Peters source is not the Gospel but 1 Thessalonians 5:2,
4 because Peter is using the metaphor more as Paul does than as
Jesus does.23 Pauline influence upon Peter is not surprising. Peter
claims to know Pauls work (2 Pet 3:15-16).
The rest of v. 10 offers a description of cosmic conflagration, the
only such image in the New Testament: and then the heavens will
pass away with a loud noise, and the elements will be dissolved
with fire, and the earth and everything that
Heraclitus (c.540c.480 BC)
is done on it will be disclosed. The preSocratic philosopher Heraclitus usually is
credited with the idea that fire was the
chief element of the cosmos, taking precedence over the remaining elements of
water, air, and earth. He taught that the
volatility of fire would result in periodic
destruction of the universe, allowing it to
be cyclically reborn.24 A similar idea was
also characteristic of the Stoic teachers.
Peters description of the conflagration is a
modification of the classic Greek philosophical teaching. His understanding of
the elements seems to relate to the
heavens (the sky and the heavenly
bodies25) that temporally [stand]
between the eye of God and the earth.
When the sky and the heavenly bodies are
Heraclitus. Greek philosopher. Hellenistic marble bust. Musei
Capitolini, Rome, Italy. (Credit: Alinari/Art Resource, NY)
gone the earth and everything that is done
on it will be disclosed.26 [Heraclitus and the
Stoics] [Stoicheia]
The idea of the conflagration as a revelatory event that comes at

the Parousia is, in Peters extended argument, the fulfillment of
Gods precious and very great promises so that the faithful may
become participants of the divine nature (2 Pet 1:4). What is
revealed? Everything will be revealed: the wickedness and righteousness of humanity. At the final disclosure, Peters conviction
that the Lord knows how to rescue the godly from trial, and to
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keep the unrighteous under punish- Heraclitus and the Stoics

Heraclitus and the Stoics on Conflagration
ment until the day of judgment
(2 Pet 2:9).
All things being material, what is the original kind of matter, or
We take v. 11, [W]hat sort of stuff, out of which the world is made? The Stoics turned to
persons ought you to be in leading Heraclitus for an answer. Fire (logos) is the primordial kind of
lives of holiness and godliness [in being, and all things are composed of fire. With this materialism
light of the Parousia]? to be a rhetor- the Stoics combined pantheism. The primal fire is God. God is
related to the world exactly as the soul to the body. The human
ical question tempered with high soul is likewise fire, and comes from the divine fire. It permeates
expectations. Kelly writes, The late and penetrates the entire body, and, in order that its interpeneGreek potapos (what sort of ) has a tration might be regarded as complete, the Stoics denied the
much more positive flavour (cf. its impenetrability of matter. Just as the soul-fire permeates the
whole body, so God, the primal fire, pervades the entire
use in Mat. viii. 27; 1 Jn. iii. 1) than world. . . .
the English conveys; in the context it
The world-process is circular. God changes the fiery subhints that great things are expected of stance of himself first into air, then water, then earth. So the
the readers.27 Peter already has made world arises. But it will be ended by a conflagration in which all
things will return into the primal fire. Thereafter, at a preclear what is possible with the chain ordained time, God will again transmute himself into a world. It
of virtues (2 Pet 1:5-7) and his per- follows from the law of necessity that the course taken by this
sistent plea that his readers cultivate a second, and every subsequent, world, will be identical in every
righteous life as evidence of their con- way with the course taken by the first world. The process goes
on for ever, and nothing new ever happens. The history of each
versional knowledge of God in successive world is the same as that of all the others down to
Christ. Now it seems that he is the minutest details.
The human soul is part of the divine fire, and proceeds into
expressing what is probable for his
humans
from God. Hence it is a rational soul, and this is a point
readers. Verse 12 has the phrase,
of cardinal importance in connection with the Stoic ethics. But
waiting for and hastening the the soul of each individual does not come direct from God. The
coming of the day of God. The divine fire was breathed into the first man, and thereafter
waiting is understood, but what of passed from parent to child in the act of procreation. After
the hastening? Bauckham sees the death, all souls (according to some scholars) or only the souls of
the good (according to other scholars) continue in individual
verb as a corollary of the explanation existence until the general conflagration in which they, and all
(v 9) that God defers the parousia else, return to God.
because he desires Christians to
Stoicism, Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy,
repent. Their repentance and holy Anonymous,
http://www.iep.utm.edu/stoicism/.
living may therefore, from the human
standpoint, hasten its coming.28 The
rest of v. 12 is a rewording of the description of the conflagration
found in v. 10.
The section concludes with another reminder of Gods promises:
But, in accordance with his promise, we wait for new heavens and
a new earth, where righteousness is at home (v. 13). How
refreshing verse 13 is! Craddock exclaims. After lengthy arguments with the heretics and vivid warnings of the fire next time,
the writer turns in pastoral care toward those still clutching the
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Stoicheia
The basic meaning of the term is what
belongs to a series, which, in turn, comes
to mean letters that constitute a word, and
then sounds, as in Plato and Aristotle. The term
becomes even more restricted to denote an
element in the sense of a substance that is irreducible, or original matter.
The term specifically comes to mean the four
cosmic elements (water, earth, air, and
fire), but also is used to describe the star or
constellation.
In 2 Pet 3:10, 12 the only possible meaning is
obviously elements . . . or stars . . . . It is supported by the adoption of the Stoic idea of a
cosmic conflagration in which the other elements
will dissolve into the primal element of fire.
promise of something better and asks that they

match Gods patience (v. 9) with their own.29
Final Reminder and Encouragement, 3:14-18
The closing paragraph of 2 Peter is standard

fare for epistles, except for the insertion in
praise of Paul (vv. 15b-16). In v. 14 the readers
once again are beloved (cf. 3:1, 17); Peter is
either expressing his genuine affection for the
readers, which is likely, or he is using his final
words as a subtle appeal. [W]hile you are
waiting for these things, strive to be found by
him at peace, without spot or blemish; and
Gerhard Delling, stoicevw, ktl. TDNT 7:67073, 68186.
regard the patience of our Lord as salvation
(vv. 14-15a) hits, again, some themes in the
letter. [W]aiting for these things refers to the just-discussed
coming of the day of God (v. 12). [S]trive to be found by him at
peace harks back to the salutation where Peter greets his readers
with grace and peace be yours in abundance in the knowledge of
God and of Jesus our Lord (1:2). It is not too far of a stretch to
suggest, too, that the readersespecially if they read or heard read
the letter several timeswould connect Peters salutation with the
hopefulness of what sort of persons ought you to be (3:11).
[W]ithout spot or blemish is an obvious turnaround on the claim
in 2:13 that the false teachers are blots and blemishes in the
church. [R]egard the patience of our Lord as salvation reinforces
3:8-9s rejoinder to the opponents that what appears to be divine
slowness is really divine patience, with the hope that all will repent.
The praise of Paul in vv. 15b-16 is curious because of its (intentional?) ambiguity. Peter does not give the slightest hint as to where
Paul has linked divine patience with salvation. He does not give the
slightest hint as to what Paul has written to the same audience Peter
now addresses. The incomplete salutationwhich fails to mention
a specific audienceonly exacerbates the ambiguity of v. 15b.
Verse 16 is even more exasperating in its ambiguity. Speaking of
this as he does in all his letters has no point of reference and is
therefore impossible to pin down. Likewise, There are some things
in them hard to understand, which the ignorant and unstable twist
to their own destruction, as they do the other scriptures, is impossible to locate in the Pauline corpus.
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Critical response to these parts of

Saint Paul Writing
2 Peter has been understandably varied.
Neyrey identifies sixteen terms shared by
2 Peter and the letters of Paul, and also
suggests four themes (inheriting the
divine nature, chain of virtues, false
prophets who deny judgment, and
freedom). Neyrey finally concludes,
however, that since Paul and 2 Peter no
doubt had a number of common sources,
the only sure knowledge 2 Peter has of
Paul is restricted to Romans 2:4-6 and
1 Thessalonians 5:4.30 Kelly is not very
generous. He writes, Here again [the
writer of 2 Peter] is seeking to bolster his
own authority by identifying himself
with Peter and claiming Paul as his dear
brother. . . . But his manner of doing this
betrays, almost more than any other
Jacob Adriaensz Backer (16081651). Saint Paul Writing. Musee des
Beaux-Arts, Rouen, France. (Credit: Scala/White Images/Art Resource, NY)
passage in the letter, that the apostolic
age, with its tensions between Peter and
Paul (e.g., Gal ii.11-16) on the one hand
and Paul and the original apostolic group on the other, lies in the
misty past.31 Witherington concedes that Peter the apostle did not
write 2 Peter and sees in these verses evidence that the anonymous
author does not try to hide that he is writing, not as Peter or as
Pauls fellow apostle, but as himself, compiling apostolic authoritative testimony to back up his argument.32
The best we can say about vv. 15b-16 is that Paul did seem to
overshadow Peter in the early church, and therefore we can understand why 2 Peter would like to be associated with Paul and his
influence. We also can say, with Neyrey and Davids, that it would
be foolish to try to isolate Pauline and Petrine sources; there certainly is broad evidence that both authorsand others in the New
Testament and beyondrelied upon common sources that can at
best only be reconstructed. We also can agree that Paul often is
hard to understand and easily manipulated by interpreters who
have an agenda instead of seeking to understand the texts and contexts of the canonical letters.
What we cannot say about these verses is that they establish the
letters of Paul as Scripture, as in canonical writings. Even if we
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assign to 2 Peter a date in the as late as AD 150 or as early as AD 90,

which is the window I suggested in the introduction,33 that
window is much too early to raise the questions of canon.
The letter moves gently to an end with another reminder and a
hopeful challenge to the readers: You therefore, beloved, since you
are forewarned, beware that you are not carried away with the error
of the lawless and lose your own stability (v. 17). There is no new
information, only the reminders that the readers have been forewarned, and challenges to beware that you are not carried away
and to guard your own stability.
The proper benediction is one of the most beautiful among all
the letters in the New Testament: But grow in the grace and
knowledge of our Lord and Savior Jesus Christ. To him be the
glory both now and to the day of eternity. Amen. The benediction
is encouraging and hopeful. It needs no commentary.
CONNECTIONS
Reminders are good. Encouragements are better. Second Peter 3
has an abundance of both. Each time I leave the dentists office, I
address a reminder card to myself and the office staff mails it to me
a week or so before my next appointment. I usually get a phone
call, too, the day before. My phone beeps with yet another
reminder an hour before I am to arrive at the dentists office. A
dentist appointment is not the most important thing in my life; if I
missed one, it would not be the end of the world, as a popular
colloquialism notes.
If something as insignificant as a dental appointment warrants
multiple reminders, what about genuinely significant issues? How
do people, and specifically people of faith, remind themselves who
they are and why they invest their lives in communities of worship
and service? Some churches build reminders into every worship
service, such as reciting the Apostles Creed or singing the Gloria
Patria, or both. Many churches create logos and slogans to serve as
reminders of identity and to brand the local church in the community. A growing number of churches adopt the liturgical
calendar as a perpetual reminder of the way the church came to be
and continues in the world.
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The Apostles Creed, which since the formative years of the

church has been used as a summary of orthodox teaching, includes
the phrases, the third day he rose again from the dead; he
ascended into heaven, and sitteth on the right hand of God the
Father Almighty; from thence he shall come to judge the quick and
the dead. The from thence he shall come to judge the quick and
the dead is what drives 2 Peter. The last chapter of the letter
includes at least a half-dozen reminders that Parousia and judgment
are foundational apostolic teachings. So what about the end of the
world and how the church connects to that teaching in the
twenty-first century?
In April 2009 the Pew Research Center released the analysis of a
2006 survey in which nearly 1700 self-identified Christians
responded to questions about the second coming.34 Almost 80
percent of the respondents affirmed their belief in the teaching of
Christs return. Twenty percent said they expected Christs return in
their lifetime. In a less scientific study, Pheme Perkins reports on a
sampling of parishioners that elicited almost universal agreement
that they never thought about the second coming.35 Somewhere
between the formal and informal surveys is an accurate picture of
contemporary thinking about Parousia and judgment (and we
know that the content and contexts of surveys always skews the
results somewhat).
Pew Results
(Credit: The Pew Forum on Religion & Public Life. www.pewforum.org)
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Perkinss musing about the result of her survey challenges church

teachers and preachers to be more attentive to the form and
content of the apostolic teaching about the Parousia. [T]he more
interesting question for Christians who do not find the question of
Christian eschatology of pressing interest is the argument itself,36
she writes. To many contemporary readers of 2 Peter, the arguments for Parousia and judgment are weighed down by the
trappings of first-century culture. Peters need to defend the
teaching of the Parousia against detractors who regarded it as
myth doesnt get much traction in contemporary culture. But
Perkins also notes that the writer of 2 Peter combines two cultures,
Jewish and Greek, . . . [and that] Second Peter does seek to make a
persuasive case for Christian belief in terms that would be intelligible to an educated audience.37
I agree with Perkins that one task of Christian teaching and
preaching is to respect and defend traditional teachings without
becoming bound too tightly to the cultures out of which the traditions emerged. Peters teaching about the Parousia as a cosmic
conflagration where the heavens will pass away with a loud noise,
and the elements will be dissolved with fire, and the earth and
everything that is done on it will be disclosed perhaps makes more
sense to contemporary readers than it did to Peters generation.
Since 1945 we have lived under the shadows of the threat of
nuclear war that scientists tell us would end the world as we know
it. More recently other scientists have reminded us that our solar
system is not eternal. The sun someday will simply burn out in a
final poof that will engulf all of the planets.38
Reminders are good. Encouragements are better. After the punishing arguments in 2 Peter 2, the reader is soothed with the
repeated use of the affectionate and communal term, beloved. In
the end of the letter, beloved also embraces Paul and his writings
as part of the community of apostles and followers of Jesus. Second
Peter, perhaps, attempts to bind up the wounds of factionalism in
the early church between the Jewish and Gentile converts. The
simple gesture of embracing Paul, even if doing so was designed to
strengthen Peters arguments, could be a model lesson for the contemporary church as it confronts authentic diversity in its midst.
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Notes
1. Ethelbert Stauffer, ajgapavw, ajgavph, ajgaphto~, TDNT 1:49.
2. For further discussion on the relationships between 1 and 2 Peter and Jude, see
the introduction.
3. F. Lapham, Peter: The Myth, the Man and the Writings: A Study of Early Petrine
Text and Tradition (JSNTS 239; London: Shefflield Academic Press, 2003) 155.
4. Richard F. Wilson, Corinthian Correspondence, Mercer Dictionary of the Bible
(ed. Watson E. Mills et al.; Macon GA: Mercer University Press, 1990) 17174.
5. Lapham, Peter: The Myth, the Man and the Writings, 156.
6. Ibid.
7. Ibid.
8. For further discussion, see the introduction and ch. 2.
11. Jerome H. Neyrey, Form and Background of the Polemic in 2 Peter, JBL 99/3
(1980): 414, speculates that 2 Peter cites the opponents only twice (3:3-4, 9) while the
remainder of their polemic must be extracted from the authors reaction.
TNTC; Grand Rapids: Wm B. Eerdmans, 1987) 140, notes that since every other reference to the fathers in the New Testament . . . means the Old Testament fathers, such
I take the probable meaning here.
152, notes that in the present context [of 2 Pet], the expression [our fathers] refers
more generally to the first generation of believers. By the time 2 Peter was written,
these believers likely had died. Since Jesus had promised to return during that generations lifetime, their death called into question the validity of his promises.
14. Having attempted modestly to refocus the question of who the ancestors
might be, I favor the position taken by Kraftchick and others who see it as a reference
to the first generation of followers of Jesus. Parousia has little, if any, bearing upon the
claims of the OT prophets, but it matters immensely to the integrity of the apostles and
followers of Jesus in the first generation.
15. For further discussion of the treatment of the opponents, see the introduction.
16. Neyrey, Form and Background, 409.
17. But we must wonder if Peter fully appreciated the fact that he was being
taunted. His reply does not take seriously any of the particulars of the arguments of his
opponentsif they were, indeed, adherents to the popular ethos of Epicureanism. He
answers the taunt with a rehearsal of a creation doctrine that his opponents no doubt
already have rejected. On the other hand, perhaps Peter is well aware that he is being
taunted and he is further aware that the false teachers are having some sway with
members in the community who are wavering. If that is the caseand it seems so to
methen Peter is bypassing his opponents altogether and making his appeal directly to
those in the community who are vulnerable.
18. In 2 Peter 2:1 Peter said of the false teachers, They will even deny the Master
who bought them. In 2:15 Peter claimed, They have left the straight road and have
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gone astray. In 2:21 he noted, For it would have been better for them never to have
known the way of righteousness than, after knowing it, to turn back from the holy commandment that was passed on to them.
19. See 2 Pet 2:5.
20. Philo, Moses 2.99, cited in Jerome H. Neyrey, 2 Peter, Jude (AB 37C; New
York: Doubleday, 1993) 233.
21. See 2 Pet 2:5-7.
22. Richard J. Bauckham, Jude, 2 Peter (WBC 50; Waco: Word Books, 1983) 314.
24. G. S. Kirk, Ecpyrosis in Heraclitus: Some Comments, Phronesis 4/2 (1959):
7376, http://www.jstor.org/stable/4181651.
26. Ibid. Davids uses the NIV, the earth and everything in it will be laid bare, but
we have inserted the NRSV translation.
Row, 1969) 366.
29. Craddock, First and Second Peter and Jude, 121.
30. Neyrey, 2 Peter, Jude, 12234. Curiously, Davids, The Letters of 2 Peter and
Jude, 303, takes Neyrey to task for having too broad a set of parallels between Paul and
2 Peter and concludes that the only really plausible parallels are Rom 2:4 and 1 Thess
5:2. Davidss conclusion is virtually the same as Neyreys! One has to wonder if
Davids forgot to read Neyreys analysis of the possible parallels between Paul and 2
Peter.
32. Ben Witherington III, A Socio-Rhetorical Commentary on 12 Peter: Letters and
386.
34. Christians Views on the Return of Christ, 2006 Survey, Pew Research
Center, 9 April 2009, http://pewforum.org/Christians-Views-on-the-Return-ofChrist.aspx.
35. Pheme Perkins, First and Second Peter, James, and Jude (Interpretation;
Louisville: John Knox Press, 1995) 162.
36. Ibid., 163.
37. Ibid.
38. Poof is onomatopoeic, as is roizdon (roar or loud noise) in 2 Pet 3:10.
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Bibliography
The Apocalypse of Peter, http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/text/apocalypsepeterroberts.html.
Bauckham, Richard J. Jude, 2 Peter. Word Biblical Commentary 50. Waco: Word Books,
1983.
Bray, Gerald, editor. James, 12 Peter, 13 John, Jude. Ancient Christian Commentary on
Scripture, New Testament, XI. Downers Grove: InterVarsity Press, 2000.
Charlesworth, James H. The Old Testament Pseudepigrapha, Vol. 1: Apocalyptic Literature
and Testaments. New York: Doubleday, 1983.
. The Old Testament Pseudepigrapha, Vol. 2: Expansions of the Old Testament and
Legends, Wisdom and Philosophical Literature, Prayers, Psalms, and Odes, Fragments of
Lost JudeoHellenistic Works. New York: Doubleday, 1985.
Cone, James H. Black Consciousness and the Black Church. Christianity and Crisis 30
(1970): 24450.
. The Gospel and the Liberation of the Poor: How My Mind Has Changed.
The Christian Century 98 (1981): 16266.
Craddock, Fred B. First and Second Peter and Jude. Westminster Bible Companion.
Louisville: Westminster John Knox Press, 1995.
Davids, Peter H. The Letters of 2 Peter and Jude. The Pillars New Testament
Commentary. Grand Rapids: Wm B. Eerdmans, 2006.
Elliott, John H. I-II Peter/Jude, in James, 1-2 Peter, Jude. Augsburg Commentary on
the New Testament. Minneapolis: Augsburg Publishing House, 1982.
Eusebius, Ecclesiastical History.
Green, Michael. The Second Epistle of Peter and the Epistle of Jude. Second edition. The
Tyndale New Testament Commentaries. Grand Rapids: Wm B. Eerdmans, 1987.
Gutirrez, Gustavo, and Richard Shaull. Liberation and Change. Atlanta: John Knox,
1977.
Harrington, Daniel J., S. J. Jude and 2 Peter. Sacra Pagina. Collegeville MN: Liturgical
Press, 2003.
Hillyer, Norman. 1 and 2 Peter, Jude. New International Biblical Commentary. Peabody
MA: Hendrickson Publishers, Inc., 1992
Ksemann, Ernst. An Apologia for Primitive Christian Eschatology. In Essays on New
Testament Themes. W. J. Montague, translator. Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1982.
Kelly, J. N. D. The Epistles of Peter and Jude. Harpers New Testament Commentary. New
York: Harper and Row, 1969.
Kirk, G. S. Ecpyrosis in Heraclitus: Some Comments. Phronesis 4/2 (1959): 7376.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/4181651.
Koptak, Paul E. Rhetorical Criticism of the Bible: A Resource for Preaching.
http://www.religiononline.org/showarticle.asp?title=20. Accessed 15 May 2010.
364
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Bibliography
Kraftchick, Steven J. Jude, 2 Peter. Abingdon New Testament Commentaries.
Nashville: Abingdon Press, 2002.
McClendon, James Wm., Jr. Doctrine: Systematic Theology, Volume II. Nashville:
Abingdon Press, 1994.
McLaren. Brian. A New Kind of Christian: A Tale of Two Friends on a Spirited Journey.
SanFrancisco: Jossey-Bass, 2001.
. A Generous Orthodoxy: Why I Am a Missional, Evangelical, Post/Protestant,
Liberal/Conservative, Mystical/Poetic, Biblical, Charismatic/Contemplative,
Fundamentalist/Calvinist, Anabaptist/Anglican, Methodist, Catholic, Green,
Incarnational, DepressedyetHopeful, Emergent, Unfinished CHRISTIAN. Grand
Rapids: Zondervan, 2004.
. The Last Word and the Word After That: A Tale of Faith, Doubt, and a New
Kind of Christianity. SanFrancisco: Jossey-Bass, 2008.
. A New Kind of Christianity: Ten Questions That Are Transforming the Faith.
SanFrancisco: HarperOne, 2010.
Metzger, Bruce M. The Canon of the New Testament. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1997.
Mills, Watson E. Jude. In Mercer Commentary on the Bible. Watson E. Mills and
Richard F. Wilson, editors. Macon GA: Mercer University Press, 1995. 131923.
Neyrey, Jerome H. 2 Peter, Jude. The Anchor Bible 37C. New York: Doubleday, 1993.
. The Apologetic Use of the Transfiguration in 2 Peter 1:16-21. Catholic
Biblical Quarterly 42 (1980): 50419.
. Epicureans and the Areopagus Speech: Stereotypes and Theodicy.
http://www.nd.edu/~jneyrey1/epicureans.html. Originally in Greeks, Romans, and
Christians: Essays Honor of Abraham J. Malherbe, edited by D. L. Balch and W. A.
Meeks. Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1990. 11834.
. Form and Background of the Polemic in 2 Peter. Journal of Biblical
Literature 99/3 (1980): 40731.
Perkins, Pheme. First and Second Peter, James, and Jude. Interpretation. Louisville:
John Know Press, 1995.
Reese, Ruth Anne. 2 Peter and Jude. The Two Horizons New Testament Commentary.
Grand Rapids: Wm B. Eerdmans, 2007.
Reicke, Bo. The Epistles of James, Peter, and Jude. The Anchor Bible 37. New York:
Doubleday, 1964.
Sidebottom, E. M. James, Jude, 2 Peter. The New Century Bible Commentary. Grand
Rapids: Wm B. Eerdamns, 1967.
Talbert, Charles. II Peter and the Delay of the Parousia. Vigiliae christianae 20/3
(Sep 1966): 13745.
Watson, Duane Frederick. Invention, Arrangement, and Style: Rhetorical Criticism of
Jude and 2 Peter. Society of Biblical Literature Dissertation Series. Atlanta: Scholars
Press, 1988.
Whaley, Charles. Prophetic, Post-apostolic & Postmodern: An Oriental Approach to Three
Bible Studies. Macon GA: Smyth & Helwys, 2009.
Wilson, Richard F. Corinthian Correspondence. In Mercer Dictionary of the Bible.
Watson E. Mills, et al., editors. Macon GA: Mercer University Press, 1990.
17174.
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Bibliography
Witherington III, Ben. A Socio-Rhetorical Commentary on 12 Peter. Letters and
Homilies for Hellenized Christians. Volume 2. Downers Grove IL: InterVarsity
Press, 2007.
365
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jude
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introduction to jude
Situated near the end of the collection of writings that constitutes the
New Testament, Jude is among eight books sandwiched between the
thirteen letters traditionally ascribed to St. Paul and the Revelation of
St. John. These eight books are not nearly as well known as the
Gospels and Pauline epistles. And among these eight, Jude is much
less known than 1 John or 1 Peter. These eight books are of two distinct, though somewhat similar, literary types: the theological treatise
(1 John and Hebrews) and the general letter (2 and 3 John, 1 and
2 Peter, James, and Jude). This latter grouping of six is often referred
to as the catholic epistles (here the term catholic means universal) since the audience for each letter is generally rather than
specifically identified. Among these six letters, 2 Peter and Jude
betray some literary interdependence (see discussion below).
Among the catholic epistles, this twenty-five-verse letter (there are
no chapter divisions) ranks among the shortest in the New Testament
collection (even shorter are 2 and 3 John). Few allusions to Jude are
found in within the literature of Christian history. Similarly, the book
is rarely quoted within the modern Christian community and is
seldom the text for a sermon. While many Christians might readily
recognize the expression the faith which was once for all delivered to
the saints (v. 3), they might not know that it comes from Jude.
There are compelling reasons for this general lack of interest in Jude.
First, it is filled with a strange language that contains many obscure
references. Second, the letter appears to be largely condemnatory
and polemical in nature. Further, the author demonizes those who
disagree with his teachings and makes no effort to engage them or
their teachings.1 Finally, many contemporary readers are confused
by Judes several references to two noncanonical books that belong to
a collection of Jewish writings known collectively as the
Pseudepigrapha: The Assumption of Moses and The Book of Enoch.
[Pseudepigrapha] It appears to modern readers that the writer of Jude
does not realize that these books are not a part of the Christian
canon. Of course, he could not have known the final shape of the
canon during his lifetime. [The Assumption of Moses]
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Introduction to Jude
Pseudepigrapha
The English word pseudepigrapha is
transliterated from the Greek words:
pseudo (false) and epigraphy (inscription). Thus
at least etymologically, the term refers to books
that are written under a pseudonym. In practical
usage, the term refers to a loosely defined collection of early Jewish and some
Jewish-Christian writings composed between c.
200 BC and c. AD 200 that are not found in the
Bible. These writings have at times been popular
among some groups within Christianity though
they have never been regarded as an official part
of scripture by any group. Yet these writings are
useful in that they illuminate various concepts
and beliefs held by ancient peoples in the Middle
East during the earliest years of the Christian
faith. There are various literary types represented
in the collection: legends about biblical characters, hymns, psalms, and apocalypses. Writings
relating to Enoch, Moses, and Isaiah are prominent. Some of these writings originated in
Palestine and were written in Hebrew or
Aramaic; others originated in North Africa and
were written in Coptic, Greek, and Ethiopic. In
many cases the manuscript evidence is sketchy
at best.
The Assumption of Moses

The Assumption of Moses (sometimes also known as
The Testament of Moses) is a Jewish pseudepigraphical
work that describes the events near the end of the life of
Moses. It is known from a single sixth-century incomplete manuscript in Latin that was discovered in Milan around 1860. There
are two titles for this work because this manuscript is sometimes identified with two different lost texts. Indeed, some
ancient lists refer to both The Testament of Moses and to The
Assumption of Moses, suggesting separate, but similar texts.
In any event, certain early church fathers were convinced that
the author of Jude was quoting from this ancient writing in v. 9
where there is a reference to the dispute over the body of
Moses between the archangel Michael and Satan.
This dispute does not appear in the nineteenth-century manuscripta fact that could be accounted because 3035 percent
of the text is missing. On the other hand, it could be that our
author had The Testament of Moses before him. Others have
argued the author of Jude conflated material from at least
three sources: (1) general Jewish traditions about Michael
as gravedigger for the just (Apocalypse of Moses); (2) the
accusation by Michael of Azazel (The Book of Enoch); (3) the
angel of the Lords rebuking Satan over the body of Joshua
(Zechariah 3).
The text numbers twelve chapters in length (although some
text is missing) and deals with the secret prophecies of Moses
revealed late in his life to Joshua.
Joseph L. Trafton, Apocryphal Literature, Mercer Dictionary of

the Bible (ed. Watson E. Mills; Macon GA: Mercer University
Press, 1990) 4146.
J. Priest, Testament of Moses, in Apocalyptic Literature and Testaments (vol. 1 of

The Old Testament Pseudepigrapha; ed. James H. Charlesworth; Garden City NY:
Doubleday & Company, 1983) 91934.
Testament and Death of Moses

The pathos surrounding Moses death on Mount Nebo, in
sight of but outside the promised land, contributed to the
inspiration not only of ancient extracanonical texts such as
the Testament (Assumption) of Moses but also to Medieval
and modern works of art such as that of Signorelli.
Luca Signorelli (14411523). Testament and Death of Moses (central part).

Sistine Chapel, Vatican Palace, Vatican State. (Credit: Scala/Art Resource,
NY)
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Introduction to Jude
On the other hand, there are solid reasons to give Jude a fair
hearing. Jude is a crucial document from a period of Christian
history when rigid lines were being drawn between orthodoxy
and heresy. The book suggests a definite relationship between
belief and practice. Jude constitutes a stern warning against selfdelusion, reminding its readers that their chosen status is a
privilege that also entails a specific responsibility. The book calls
its readers to a life of self-scrutiny because of the thin line
between faithfulness and infidelity. Jude demonstrates that a
life of fidelity requires both a dogged pursuit of truth and
obedience.
Note
1. John H. Elliott, James, 1-2 Peter/Jude (Minneapolis: Augsburg, 1982) 161.
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Outline of Jude
Opening
1-2
Identification of sender and recipients
Greeting
Statement of problem and purpose
3-4
Description of the false teachers as sinners
5-13
Warning by examples of Gods previous

judgment on sinners
5-7
The unbelieving wilderness generation
The rebellious angels
Sodom and Gomorrah
Comparisons of the opponents with

notorious examples
8-13
1. Michael and the devil
9-10
2. Cain, Balaam, and Korah
11
3. Empty examples from nature
12-13
Supporting evidence from prophecy
14-19
The prophecy of Enoch
14-16
The predictions of the Apostles
17-19
Exhortation to faithfulness
20-23
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The Epistle Jude

Jude 1-25
Literary Type
Jude is cast in the form of a letter. Although it does not contain all of
the characteristics of a typical first-century letter, it has more than
Hebrews or 1 John. It is classed as a general letter because it does not
specifically identify its recipients. [Letter Form in the New Testament]
Origin and Destination
The letter does not indicate its place of origin. Some have thought it
could be connected with Egypt because it is referred to in the
Muratorian Canon [Muratorian Canon] and because the Carpocratian
heresy (which has similarities with the heresy attacked in the epistle)
originated there. Others commentators suggest the epistle may have
arisen in Syria where there was much gnostic activity [Gnosticism],
including the concern with angels that is specifically mentioned
(Jude 8f.). Others have theorized affinity with Asia Minor and
Corinth because of the similarity to the difficulties mentioned in
Pauls Corinthian correspondence.
The place of origin and the destination must be closely connected
if it is assumed that the writer was familiar with conditions in a particular church or community. But, on the other hand, if the letter is a
general epistle intended for the church at large, the position becomes
even more difficult. Researchers often point to the use of extracanonical Jewish apocalyptic writings as an indication of a Jewish Christian
Letter Form in the New Testament
Of the 27 writings contained in the NT canon, 21
take the form of letters or epistles. They are
found in sequence following the Book of Acts all the way
to Revelation. Nineteen of these are actual letters, while
two of them (1 John and Hebrews) are more like treatises
disguised as letters. In these latter instances, the more
obvious elements of the letter form [identity of the sender
and recipient(s)] are absent.
The standard form found in these letters, though obviously with some slight variations to suit the purposes of
Christian writers, is consistent with and common to letter
writing in the ancient world. The NT letter form almost

always begins with a greeting including an identification
of the sender or senders and of the recipients. Next
comes a prayer, often expressed in the form of a thanksgiving. The body of the letter provides an exposition of
Christian teaching, sometimes in direct response to concrete circumstances. Many times, as in Jude, conclusions
are drawn that relate specifically to ethical behavior.
Hans-Josef Klauck, Ancient Letters and the New Testament: A Guide to
Context and Exegesis (Waco TX: Baylor University Press, 2006).
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Jude 1-25
address. Gnosticism could have infected a

Jewish Christian community and prompted
such a response. Judaism has a close connection with Gnosticism in that they both
share a similar view concerning the world
and the flesh, not to mention parallels
between later Jewish apocalyptic and the
apocalyptic of later Gnosticism, as evidenced in the Nag Hammadi discovery.
The pastoral epistles, 1 Peter, and James,
for example, identify their addressees specifically, while Jude does not refer to particular
individuals or even specific geographical
areas. Perhaps the author understands that
Howard Clark Kee, Muratorian Canon, Mercer Dictionary of the Bible
the responsibility for preserving and
(ed. Watson E. Mills; Macon GA: Mercer University Press, 1990) 588.
building up the faith falls to all who read his
letterwhoever and wherever they may be.
Only they can win back those who have been led astray by false
teachers (vv. 22-23). In this sense the letter is truly a general
epistle.
The Muratorian Canon
The 27 writings that make up our New
Testament today were accepted as authoritative by a majority of Christians over time. One indication
of how that process was evolving is the so-called
Muratorian Fragment that was discovered in the 18th
century by the Italian L. A. Muratori. The document
was written in the second half of the 2d century though
no original copy of it is extant. The oldest copy dates
from the 7th century. The fragment lists all of the
present writings found in the NT except for Hebrews,
James, and one of the epistles of John. It also refers to
two writings that have since disappeared from the NT
collection: Wisdom of Solomon and the Apocalypse of
Peter. The fragment, sometimes referred to as a
canon, contains this phrase: Of the Catholic Epistles,
the author accepts the Epistle of Jude. . . .
Gnosticism
Gnosticism [from Greek gnsis, knowledge] is
a general term that describes a diverse religious
movement sometimes associated with the rise of
Christianity (although some scholars have theorized that
Gnosticism has its roots in pre-Christian religions,
instead of being merely an offshoot of Christianity). Its
adherents are usually called gnostics. Apparently
Gnosticism drew its own theology from many different
and varying sources. Thus certain, select aspects of both
Judaism and Christianity may be found within its various
expressions. Since, as their name implies, gnostics
believed that they were privy to a secret knowledge
about the divine, specific information about these sects
is difficult to come by. In fact, the term Gnosticism is a
very general, rather inclusive term used by scholars to
refer to a number of groups that share certain similar
beliefs in general but whose particular doctrinal
emphases vary in specifics ways from group to group. In
general, the term refers to those religious groups who
differentiate the evil (material order) of this world (often
identified with the God of the OT) from the good (spiritual order) of a higher, more abstract God revealed by
Jesus Christ. Gnostics regard this world and all of its

material order as evil and irredeemable. But they also
believe in a hidden wisdom or knowledge available only
to a select group as necessary for salvation or escape
from this world. Certain sayings of Jesus were very
appealing to the gnostics, and they apparently incorporated some of these into their belief systems, but only
those that fit their suppositions.
The gnostics are alluded to in the Bible, for example,
in 1 Timothy 1:4 and 1 Timothy 6:20, and possibly the
entirety of Jude. These and other texts are sometimes
lumped together and labeled anti-gnostic references.
Apparently some gnostics held that Christ was pure
spirit and only appeared to have a physical body. Such
a heretical view, from the orthodox point of view, might
have been a contributing factor when the early
Christians finally came to understand Jesus nature as
fully God and fully man. Generally, the attitude among
the early Christians was that Gnosticism was heretical
and its adherents posed a grave danger to orthodoxy
and should be disavowed and avoided.
Charles W. Hedrick, Gnosticism, Mercer Dictionary of the Bible (ed.
Watson E. Mills; Macon GA: Mercer University Press, 1990) 33335.
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377
The Nag Hammadi Library

Nag Hammadi is a town in Upper Egypt located
on the Nile River, about 50 miles northwest of
Luxor. It was here that in 1945 farmers discovered an earthenware jar containing 13
leather-bound papyrus scrolls. These 13 scrolls
contained all or parts of 52 tractates, most of
which were gnostic in content. These writings
date to the second century of the Christian era.
The scrolls were written in Coptic though they
most certainly had been translated from Greek,
quite possibly at the nearby monastery of St.
Pachomius where possession of such heretical
writings was not permitted. Many have theorized
that this explains why the scrolls had been
buried in a jar in the first place. The most famous
writing among the 52 is the Gospel of Thomas.
The scroll from Nag Hammadi is the only complete copy of this work that has ever been found.
Bentley Layton, ed., The Gnostic Scriptures (Garden City NY:
Doubleday & Company, 1987).
Relationship to 2 Peter
Except for a few opening and closing words, virtually all of Jude is
included in 2 Peter. [Jude and 2 Peter] The correspondence between
the two is such that one of three conclusions may be drawn: (1) the
author of 2 Peter used Jude; (2) the author of
Jude and 2 Peter
Jude used 2 Peter; (3) the authors of 2 Peter
The vast majority of verses in Jude can be
found in a similar form in 2 Peter. Only the
and Jude used an unknown common source.
opening verse identifying the sender and recipients,
Of these, (3) must almost certainly be ruled
the statement of the problem to be addressed (v. 4),
out for the following reasons: (i) the parallels
a set of instructions (vv.20-23), and the closing
are too close to have derived from a common
benediction (v. 25) have no counterparts in 2 Peter.
oral source; (ii) a common written source is
2 Peter
Jude
also unlikely; and (iii) since there is so little of
1:2
2
1:5
3
Jude that is not common to 2 Peter, it is diffi1:12
5a
cult to imagine why anyone should have
2:13:3
5b-19
written Jude in preference to the source from
3:14
24
which it would have been taken on this theory.
Against (2), in addition to the improbability of
anyone making such full use of one stretch of 2 Peter while
ignoring the substance of the rest of the epistle, there is the serious
objection that several passages of 2 Peter seem to be clearly secondary when compared with the parallel passages of Jude (e.g.,
2 Pet 2:11//Jude 9; 2 Pet 2:12-10, 2 Pet 2:17//Jude 13). We may
378
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Martin Luther on the Relationship of Jude and

2 Peter
This relationship has been troubling for many
generations. Martin Luther wrote these
words in the 16th century (preface to Jude from his
translation):
Concerning the epistle of St. Jude, no one can deny
that it is an extract or copy of St. Peters second
epistle, so very like it are all the words. He also speaks
of the apostles like a disciple who comes long after
them [Jude 17] and cites sayings and incidents that are
found nowhere
else in the Scriptures [Jude 9, 14]. This moved the

ancient Fathers to exclude this epistle from the main
body of the Scriptures. Moreover the Apostle Jude did
not go to Greek-speaking lands, but to Persia, as it is
said, so that he did not write Greek. Therefore, although
I value this book, it is an epistle that need not be
counted among the chief books which are supposed to
lay the foundations of faith.
Luthers Works, Preface to Jude (55 vols.; ed. Jaroslav Pelikan; St.
Louis: Concordia, 1963) 35:398.
with confidence, then, conclude that (1) is

correct, i.e., that the author of 2 Peter borrowed from Jude and that, therefore, Jude is
earlier than 2 Peter. [Martin Luther on the
Relationship of Jude and 2 Peter]
Not only is the material common to the

two letters, but each reflects a similar organizational approach. Both letters (1) warn
against false teachers; (2) use three illustrations of Gods judgment, two of which are
identical (angels and Sodom and Gomorrah;
(3) use Balaam as an example of false
teachers; (4) characterize the false teachers as
those who are defiant toward divine
authority; (5) use materials from apocryphal
writings; and (6) use the same strong
metaphors to characterize the false teachers
(i.e., irrational animals doomed to eternal
darkness; spots and blemishes; arrogant
boasters, etc.).
COMMENTARY
Greeting, 1-2
Many letters from the Hellenistic period began with a threefold

formula: (1) the name of the sender; (2) the name of the recipient;
and (3) an opening salutation. Jewish letters were introduced in
virtually the same manner, although the greeting tended to be more
of a blessing invoked upon the reader.
What Is a Blessing in the Biblical Tradition?
The three elements of (a) author, (b)
In the Bible, a blessing is depicted as a mark of Gods
addressee, (c) greeting/blessing are
relationship with a person or even a nation. When a
person or group is blessed, it is a sign of Gods grace resting
clearly seen at the beginning of most of
upon them and sometimes even Gods presence among them.
the New Testament letters just as they
To be blessed means that a person or people take part in
are here: (a) Jude; (b) to those who
Gods plans for the world and humanity. Although its common
have been called; (c) mercy, peace, and
to think about Gods blessing humans, sometimes it is we
who offer blessings to God. This is not done in order to wish
love be yours in abundance (Jude 1-2).
God well but rather as a part of prayers in praise and adoration
of God. As with Gods blessing of humans, this activity also
serves to help reconnect people with their heavenly Father.
[What Is a Blessing in the Biblical Tradition?]
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Jude 1-25
Sender
The writer introduces himself by name
(Jude), by status (a servant of Jesus Christ),
and by relationship (a brother of James).1
Name. The name Jude is an English variant
of Judas. In English we distinguish Jude,
the writer of the epistle, from Judas Iscariot,
who betrayed Jesus. But regardless of the negative connotations associated with the names,
Judas was a common name. It was first borne
by Judah, the son of Jacob and head of the
tribe of Judah. The tribal head Judah is listed
in Jesus genealogy (Matt 1:2-3; Luke 3:33);
references to the name and the land of his
tribe occur frequently in the New Testament
(Matt 2:6; Luke 2:4; Heb 7:14; Rev 5:5;
7:5). Other persons mentioned in the New
Testament who have the name Judas are
379
Jude
Johann Christoph Weigel. Woodcut. Published 1695. From Biblia
ectypa: Bildnussen auss Heiliger Schrifft Alt und Neuen

Judas, the son of James (Luke 6:16; Acts
Testaments. Image courtesy of the Pitts Theology Library,
1:13), who was one of the twelve disciples
Candler School of Theology, Emory University.
and is also known as Thaddeus (cf. Matt
10:3; Mark 3:18; also see John 14:22);
Judas the Galilean (Acts 5:37), a revolutionary who was killed
because of his subversive activities;
Judas Barsabbas, who was present at the Jerusalem Council and
served as letter carrier to the Gentile churches (Acts 15:22, 27,
32);
A man at Damascus with whom Paul lodged in the street called
Straight after his conversion experience (Acts 9:11);
Judas, an ancestor of Jesus (Luke 3:33; see also v. 30); and
Judas, the brother of James and the brother of Jesus (Matt
13:55; Mark 6:8).
Status. The sender identifies himself as a servant. The Greek

word translated servant denotes a bond servant who is the
property of his master and thus not free to change masters. All
Christians are slaves of God (Rom 6:22; 1 Pet 2:16), of Christ (Eph
6:6; cf. 1 Cor 7:22). They are not their own, but Christs (Rom
14:8; 1 Cor 6:19); for they have been bought with a price (1 Cor
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Jude 1-25
6:20; 7:23). But when servant of Jesus Christ is used as a self-designation (cf. Rom 1:1; Phil 1:1; Jas 1:1; 2 Pet 1:1), it is possible
that, while the idea of belonging to Christ is fundamental, a reference to the writers special office (as apostle, teacher, etc.) may be
intended.
Relationship. The author further identifies himself as brother of
James.2 The James referred to in v. 1 is almost certainly James the
Just, a leader of the Jerusalem church who himself is universally
believed to have been the brother of Jesus. Of course, this reference
narrows down the list of potential authors listed above. The fact is
that there are several men by each name, but there is only one combination of brothers by those namesthe James and Jude listed as
two of the four brothers of Jesus (Matt 13:55; Mark 6:3).
Indeed, most modern commentators agree upon the identity of
the individual who claims to be the author; they disagree as to
whether the claim is genuine, i.e., whether the author was in fact
(1) the Jude referred to or (2) someone who used the name of Jude
as a pseudonym. The problem of identifying the author has never
been the lack of textual clarity; rather, it is whether or not the
author used the name because it was his own or employed the
name (of a more widely known individual) so that his writing
would get a larger hearing. The latter hypothesis has prevailed in
many of the more recent commentaries, if only because these commentators agree that the letter was written too late for Jude (the
brother of James) to have been alive.
So who wrote this letter? Since the epistle makes an internal
claim of authorship, some interpreters insist that there must be sufficient evidence present to reject this claim. What would constitute
such evidence? Some commentators argue that the authors
command of literary Greek is a trait more often found among
Hellenistic Jews than among those of Palestine origin. Others point
to the date of the letter as being too late to fit into the lifetime of
any of Jesus brothers.
One thing is certain: the authority of the letter rests upon the
term servant (doulos), not upon identification of the writer with
Jesus blood line. Thus, while it cannot be ruled out entirely, it is
unlikely that Jude, the brother of James and Jesus, authored this
letter. But at the end of the day, it is the message of the book that
deserves our careful study regardless of the identity of its author.
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The letter itself provides no evidence that the author functions as

a spiritual father to a specific group of Christians. Yet the author
apparently thinks that those to whom he writes need counsel and
encouragement to oppose the doctrines of the false teachers.
What should we conclude? We are left with two possibilities.
Either the author of the epistle is a Jude nowhere else mentioned in
the New Testament, in which case nothing more can be known
about the name, or the author has written in the name of a New
Testament man known as Jude, the brother of James. This can only
be the brother of Jesus, although the author is modest enough not
to identify himself in that way. Jude has authority enough through
his relationship to James, the well-known leader of the Jerusalem
church. In all likelihood a personal disciple of the Lords brother
may well have written the epistle of Jude essentially in the spirit of
his mentor.
Recipients
The epistles specific recipients, if any, are not mentioned; rather
the author uses the generic to those who have been called.
Perhaps the writer intends to identify his readers theologically
rather than geographically (as Paul often did), i.e., theological
location in relation to Gods activity toward them. That activity is
expressed in three words that imply at least what God has done, is
doing, and will do: (1) God has called them. The called has
become a technical term within the Christian community, indicating those who have responded to the gospel. They have been
called by God to be his people. That is, those who have been called
are Christians. They have left the world of sin and have entered the
light of life. (2) Who are loved by God the Father. Jude uses language that is similar to Pauls letter to the Romans: You . . . who
are called to belong to Jesus Christ. To all in Rome who are loved
by God (1:6-7). When God calls sinners to himself through Jesus
Christ, he as their Father expresses his love toward them. Those
who are in the household of God through Christ experience the
continual love of God the Father. (3) And kept for Jesus Christ.
These words echo the prayer of Jesus concerning his disciples:
While I was with them, I protected them and kept them safe by
that name you gave me (John 17:12). Jesus protects his followers
from the evil one. The believers are being kept by God for the day
of Jesus Christ. The Father protects the followers of Jesus from the
attacks of Satan (John 11:15) and keeps them whole and complete
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at the coming of Jesus Christ (1 Thess 5:23). Thus the authors

argument runs like this: believers (the called ones) are divinely protected (loved by God) in the present in view of Jesus victorious
return (kept for Jesus Christ) to restore Gods dominion.
Opening Salutation
The tripartite formula called, beloved, and kept could possibly
reflect an understanding of the servant songs of Isaiah (41:9; 42:1;
42:6). Jude omits grace (charis) in the salutation. The mercy,
peace, and love included here may also be found in 1 and
2 Timothy.
The usual form for the greeting in a Christian letter often
included the phrase grace and peace. Jude expands the formula to
produce the first of the triads that dominate the letter: mercy,
peace, and love. This combination recurs in the
Beloved
The KJV reads sanctified, but modern
concluding exhortation. The addressees,
translations have beloved. Since
beloved, are to build up their faith by keeping
believers are both sanctified by God and beloved
themselves in the love of God and awaiting the
by God, either reading would suffice. To sanctify
mercy of Jesus (vv. 20-21). Thus, the greeting
means to make holy, i.e., separate. Paul wrote
about the Corinthian Christians, some of whom
telegraphs the wish the author has for his
had been egregious sinners, But you were
readers. If the letter succeeds, then mercy, peace,
washed, but you were sanctified, but you were
and love will be multiplied in the community.
justified in the name of the Lord Jesus and in the
Spirit of our God (1 Cor 6:11). Christians abide in
Gods love that is multiplied (Jude 2). They are
told, Keep yourselves in the love of God (Jude
21). Beloved carries the meaning of people
loved by God and also by the writer. It is a term of
special endearment used to refer to those who
are close to and have a special relationship with
God. The word carries the meaning of someone
who cares deeply for another. Using the title
beloved underscores the importance of what
the writer is about to say in his letter. The word
says, The message that follows comes from my
heart and shows my concern for you. It is a
message of great importance.
[Beloved]
Many translators give the reader a paraphrase

of the text because the literal translation is a bit
difficult to grasp. The exact translation is, May
mercy and peace and love be multiplied to you
(NASB). Since the idea of multiplying abstract
qualities is not easily comprehended, many
translators simply express Judes statement by
calling for an increase in mercy, love, and
peace. In his two epistles, Peter has an apostolic
greeting that features the same ending: Grace
and peace be yours in abundance (1 Pet 1:2;
2 Pet 1:21). Peter, however, follows the conventional norm of
greeting someone with the words grace and peace. (See Rom 1:7;
1 Cor 1:3; 2 Cor 1:2; Gal 1:3; Eph 1:2; Phil 1:2; Col 1:2; 1 Thess
1:1; 2 Thess 1:2; Titus 1:4; Phlm 3.) The greeting grace, mercy,
and peace was customary also (1 Tim 1:2; 2 Tim 1:2; 2 John 3).
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Purpose, 3-4
These two verses may be among the most important statements for
interpreting the letter. Here the author expresses the goal of his
letter as well as the strategy he will use to make the argument. The
author has a twofold purpose: (1) to warn the community of the
false teachers whose presence threatens its existence, and (2) to
strengthen the community so that it can resist these intruders and
retain their divinely ordained calling. These dual tracts (intruders
and dear friends) are linked linguistically and conceptually in these
verses and in the remainder of the letter. The readers are addressed
as beloved in v. 3 and in vv. 17, 20. The terms faith (v. 20),
salvation/save (v. 23), and holiness (v. 20) all echo the concern
that the community of saints are the beloved. Then Jude v. 4
connects to vv. 5-19 by the repetition of the terms judgment (vv.
6, 9, 15) and ungodly (vv. 15, 18). References to immorality (vv.
6, 7, 8, 12, 16, 18) and to the denial of proper authority (vv. 5, 6,
8, 9, 16-18, 19) also underscore the connection. Thus, from the
outset, Jude displays two goals: to expose the false teachers and to
challenge the beloved to a life of faith.
Dear friends. Jude refers to his readers by employing a common
greeting of that day (cf. vv. 17, 20). The term literally means
beloved. He puts this greeting in the context of the address (to
those . . . who are loved by God, v. 1) and the blessing (mercy,
peace, and love be yours in abundance, v. 2).
I was very eager. Apparently the author never intended to write
this letter! Proposing to write about the salvation we share, he was
forced to write this short letter instead when he learned of a dangerous heresy. So instead of the pastoral letter he had envisioned, he
found himself writing a scathing repudiation of the heresy and
those who perpetuated it. The grammar suggests the task was
somewhat unwelcome but nonetheless necessary. The language
conveys the impression that the author was already engaged in the
writing.
Salvation we share. This common salvation may have actually
been the title of the proposed treatise that Jude was in the process
of writing when he had to turn to the present letter. This common
salvation could be understood as a reference to Gentile Christians,
whereas Jude was a Jewish Christian, hence the salvation we all
have in common. While such may be the case, it cannot be pressed.
At any rate, it would have been a great boon for Christian literature
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if the author had been able to complete the treatise and if it had
been preserved.
To contend. The term means to agonize over. It was the word
for military or athletic hand-to-hand wrestling with an opponent.
They were to fight for the faith that was once and for all delivered
to the saints. In this instance the faith seems to refer to a body of
beliefs, as we might mean when we use the
Delivered
expression the Christian faith. Such may be
The term here translated delivered is
the meaning in Titus 1:4, though this specific
actually a Greek word that means to
usage is rare in the New Testament. The word
hand over. It implies a specific source (the
saints) and destination (the readers of this
delivered was the word for the passing from
epistle). This faith that is being handed on
one to another of the teaching that began with
must be proclaimed, or contended for. Today, it
Jesus and was continued by the apostles and
appears that some think contending for the
missionaries. [Delivered]
faith means rolling the Bible into a bludgeon with
which to beat people over the head. Somehow
The faith that was once for all entrusted to the
these people have come to think that one must
saints might read the faith that was once for all
be contentious in contending for the faith
traditioned to the saints. For what is at stake is
almost with a biblical negativism that is judgthe central body of beliefs, the tradition itself.
mental at its core. Is this what our writer has in
mind? Certainly not. He is simply talking about the
Some may lament the passing of those lively
need for proclaiming the truth in both word and
first-century Christians whose faith was not
deed. He would say to the defenders of the
the faith but instead a trusting, vital relationScripture, The Scripture needs no defense. Just
ship with God through Jesus Christ, but that
proclaim it through word and deed and it will
defend itself. This is the way the word of God is. If
would be a false dichotomy. Both faith and the
we begin to proclaim it, it will defend itself.
faith were present among believers in these early
days. Paul summarizes the core content of what
we believe in 1 Corinthians 15:1-8. Such formulas as these were
present early in the Christian mission. Faith is not a vague and
general feeling. It has content. In this little letter, contenders for the
faith are also expected to love, pray, grow, hope, and demonstrate
mercy toward others. Their faith is never to be trivialized by being
reduced to a doctrinal dispute.
Once for all has a ring of finality about it. By the time the
epistle Jude was being written, the teachings of Christ and his apostles had reached such a point of crystallization that loyalty to these
expressions of the faith was regarded as orthodox and departure
from them was heresy. The writer is thinking not so much of a
creed but rather an erroneous and unacceptable mode of conduct
that is the result of faulty beliefs. So the present less-finished treatise has been substituted for the one planned because of the danger
of the present situation; that is, there are those who refuse to follow
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the teachings of the faith and are ready to lead others in this
heretical vein.
The author suggests that there is in the Christian faith an
unchangeable quality. Of course each age has to rediscover and
rethink the faithto experience the faith for itself; however, this
letter suggests that there is a permanent and unchanging nucleus of
the faith. That center is Jesus Christ, who came into the world and
lived and died to bring salvation to all people.
While written to address issues of false doctrine being raised by
those inside the Christian community, the book of Jude, nonetheless, can also be helpful today when believers are called upon to
speak to the claims made by those outside the faith, i.e., modernday cults. Many of the false doctrines espoused today are addressed
in this tiny letter of Jude. For example, Mormonism insists that the
revelation that God gave us did not stop with the New Testament,
but that we need new books and further revelations in order to
understand it all. But Jude answers this claim when he writes, I
want you to contend for the faith that was once for all delivered to
the saints (Jude 3). It was given to us through the apostles at one
particular time in history, and there are to be no additions.
Admission has been secretly gained. Certain individuals had
wormed their way into the Christian community. They had crept
in unawares. The Greek term (pareisedysan) is a word often used
to describe the specious and seductive words of a clever pleader,
perhaps in a courtroom where these pleadings seep gradually into
the minds of a judge and jury. The term may also describe a fugitive slipping secretly back into the country from which he has been
expelled. Sometimes the term is used to describe the slow and
subtle entry of innovations into a given culture. These innovations finally undermine and break down the traditional laws of that
culture. The word always calls to mind a secret, stealthy, gradual,
and subtle injection of something evil into a given culture or other
group.
Long ago designated for condemnation. If the author is thinking
of a specific Scripture text, he does not cite it.3 Perhaps the reference is not to any single Scripture in particular but to the thrust of
prophetic Scripture in general. This idea would clarify why the
author proceeds to substantiate their sins (vv. 5-19), citing various
prophetic examples. Thus the condemnation refers forward to
verses 5-19 where Jude will both describe the individuals and their
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specific sins utilizing various prophetic examples. He also identifies

the judgment to be imposed upon them.
Ungodly persons. There is a contemptuous ring in the phrase
ungodly persons; these individuals have stolen their way into the
community. The threat is real. The author calls his readership to
their responsibility to face up to this threat.
Description of the False Teachers as Sinners, 5-7
Next, the author describes the certainty of the judgment upon any
who fail to live out the faith. Examples from the Hebrew Bible
make it abundantly clear that status alone is no guarantee of a
saving relationship with God. These false teachers, and any who
follow them, are sinners and must face the consequences of their
actions.
Now I desire to remind you, though you are fully informed is
much more than a way of complimenting his readers on their
knowledge (such as may be seen in Rom 15:14, 15; 1 Thess 4:9;
1 John 2:21, 27), Rather, this phase has theological significance by
calling to mind how the authors readers were thoroughly
instructed at the time of their conversion. What they learned then
was definitive and complete and therefore does not require any
supplementing. Therefore the author does not provide fresh information, as perhaps the false teachers would do, but only reminds
his readers of their past. The author follows with three examples
from Jewish history:
1. [The] Lord,4 who once for all saved a people out of the land
of Egypt, afterward destroyed those who did not believe. The
story presupposes that God considered Israel his chosen people.
Thus a highly privileged nation witnessed many astounding
mighty acts by God that effected their deliverance from slavery.
Yet some of these same people refused to trust Gods visible leadership. The Old Testament narrative describes how God later
destroyed the unbelievers in the desert (Num 14:29-37; Heb
3:17-19). The author of Jude reminds his readers that all the people
who were twenty years of age and older, but who did not believe,
died in the desert. By rejecting the guidance God offered, they
came to experience Gods wrath. That anger was expressed through
severe punishment: many Israelites were forsaken by God and per-
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387
ished in the desert. This reminder constiFallen Angels

tutes a pointed and stern warning to take
Gods judgment seriously!
2. Even angels (the most spiritual of
beings) were punished when they disobeyed God. Genesis 6 reflects the legend
of the fallen angels who married the
daughters of men and begot children by
them. This story is alluded to in the
pseudepigraphical books of 1 Enoch and
Jubilees and in the apocryphal book of
Baruch. Our author likely draws upon the
version of the story found in 1 Enoch
where there is an account of 200 angels
who conspire to leave heaven, descend to
the earth, and enter into sexual unions
with women there. These sexual encounGustave Dor (18321883). The Fall of the Rebel Angels, from Book 1
ters gave rise to a hybrid race of giants
of Paradise Lost by John Milton, 1886. (Credit: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/ File:Paradise_Lost_1.jpg)
known as the Nephilim. Due to the evil
they brought into the world, God sent the
archangels Raphael and Gabriel to the earth to bind the rebellious
angels for 70 generations and keep them in eternal chains in
deepest darkness (Jude 6) until the day of judgment. The author
uses the story of the wicked angels to illustrate Gods judgment
upon wicked people of his day. Thus the fallen angels constitute an
example to those who forsake their proper role and commit fornication with earthly beings. According to our author, certain
Christians among them have forsaken their evangelical fellowship
and now conform to a heathen way of life. It is clear from the fate
of the fallen angels who are in eternal bonds in horrible darkness
until the end of time that Gods punishment for such transgression
will last until the final judgment. (See The Parousia and Datesetters in the connections section below.)
3. The third example of rebellion is perhaps the most vivid
because throughout the Old Testament and the New Testament the
cities of Sodom and Gomorrah are used as symbols of immorality
and are known because of their lasting destruction by fire. This
illustration, too, parallels 2 Peters use of Gods judgment on
Sodom and Gomorrah in the days of Lot. The disbelieving people
of Israel were swallowed up by the wilderness; the fallen and
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immoral angels were swallowed up by darkness; the people of

Sodom and Gomorrah were swallowed up by fire. The total is a
warning of judgment. [Sodom and Gomorrah]
Application and Examples, 8-13
In the second part of the reply to the scoffers, the faithful are challenged to remember Gods eternity and not try to calculate his
times by human measurements. Psalm 90:4 is quoted, but it is
expanded in such a way as to rule out the possibility of taking the
meaning to be merely that Gods time is measured on a bigger scale
than ours.
The three examples recited above provide ample evidence of the
consequences of rebellion against the will of God. Now the author
offers additional detail of these godless individuals who pervert the
grace of our God into licentiousness and deny our only Master and
Sodom and Gomorrah
Sodom and Gomorrah were two of a group of five
towns, the Pentapolis: Sodom, Gomorrah,
Admah, Zeboim, and Bela. The Pentapolis region is also
collectively referred to as the Cities of the Plain (Gen
13:12) since they were all sited on the plain of the River
Jordan, in an area that constituted the southern limit of
the lands of the Canaanites (Gen 10:19). Lot, a nephew of
Abram (Abraham). chose to live in Sodom because of the
proximity of good grazing for his flocks (Gen 13:5-11).
In Genesis 18, God sends three angels who appear as
men to Abraham in the plains of Mamre. God reveals to
Abraham that he will investigate Sodom and Gomorrah,
because their cry is great, and because their sin is very
grievous (vv. 20-21). In response, Abraham reverently
inquires of God if he would spare the city if 50 righteous
people were found in it, then 45, then 30, then 20, or
even 10, with God affirming he would not destroy it after
each request, for the sake of the righteous yet dwelling
therein.
The two angels of God proceed to Sodom and are met
by Abrahams righteous nephew Lot, who extends hospitality of his home to them. Genesis 19:4-5 describes what
followed: But before they lay down, the men of the city,
the men of Sodom, both young and old, all the people to
the last man, surrounded the house; and they called to
Lot, Where are the men who came to you tonight? Bring
them out to us, that we may know them (NIV: can have
sex with them; NJB: can have intercourse with them).
In response, Lot refuses to give his guests to the inhabitants of Sodom, and instead offers them his two virgin
daughters to do to them whatever you like (Gen 19:8,
NASB). However, the men of Sodom refuse this offer and
threaten to do worse to Lot than they would have done to
his guests.
Lots angelic guests rescue him and strike the men
with blindness. They then command Lot to gather his
family and leave, revealing their intention to destroy
Sodom and Gomorrah. As they make their escape, the
angels command Lot and his family not to look back under
any circumstance; however, Lots wife ignores their
warning and looks back longingly at the city and becomes
a pillar of salt.
For the sins of their inhabitants, Sodom, Gomorrah,
Admah, and Zeboim were destroyed by brimstone and
fire from the Lord out of heaven (Gen 19:24-25). In
Christianity and Islam, their names have become synonymous with impenitent sin and their fall with a proverbial
manifestation of Gods wrath. The term Sodom has
been used as a metaphor for vice and sexual deviation.
The story has given rise to words in several languages,
including the English word sodomy, a term used today
predominantly in law (derived from traditional Christian
usage) to describe non-vaginal intercourse as well as bestiality.
John Keating Wiles, Sodom/Gommorah/Cities of the Plain, Mercer
Dictionary of the Bible (ed. Watson E. Mills; Macon GA: Mercer University
Press, 1990) 83940.
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Lord, Jesus Christ (v. 4). He concludes that Gods judgment falls
upon those who rebel and demonstrates that, despite the evidence
of divine judgment, his contemporaries are unwilling to listen to
reason and thus invite eternal punishment.
The participial phrase translated these men in their dreamings
governs all the verbs in the remainder of the sentence and suggests
that the intruders claimed insights based upon their dreams. These
revelations produced variations in teaching and behavior, which
the intruders say were deeper understandings of the truth, but
which the author sees as aberrations of the faith. He, therefore,
levels a threefold charge against them: they defile the flesh, reject
authority, and revile the glorious ones. The charges that the
intruders defile the flesh and reject authority echo the defiant
behaviors described in vv. 5-7. The verb defile was sometimes
used to refer to acts of ceremonial pollution, but in conjunction
with the flesh it takes on the meaning of sexual immorality. Our
author likely has this connotation in mind here. Moreover, they
reject authority (i.e., flout authority), thus displaying the arrogance and pride that runs through all three examples cited above.
In view of their denial of the Lordship of Jesus (v. 4), the heretics,
like the Israelites, the fallen angels, and the Sodomites, were essentially rejecting the Lordship of Christ even though the
manifestation of this rejection may have been seen in ecclesiastical
insubordination. The final charge, they revile the glorious ones, is
a somewhat difficult construction since the specific identity of the
glorious ones is not clear; however, the authors central point is
obvious. The intruders have no clue as to the magnitude or source
of the power they oppose, and they will ultimately bear the consequences.
The third and perhaps most important part of the refutation of
the scoffers sets the period between the early church and the consummation of history clearly and firmly under the aegis of Gods
patience (cf. v. 15, where the cognate noun is used). What holds
back the end of history is not any weakness, vacillation, dilatoriness, or slackness on Gods part but rather Gods patience that waits
to give humankind the time to hear the gospel and to believe (cf.
Ezek 33:11; 1 Tim 2:4). Our author points out rather graphically
how, as in the cases of Cain, Balaam, and Korah, these false
teachers are trying to lead others into immorality and away from
their calling. These false teachers are motivated by jealousy and
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pridea pride so great that it cannot

tolerate any knowledge or power
greater than its own.
Note that v. 11 constitutes a woe
oracle, a form of speech found frequently among the Old Testament
prophets. The woe oracle was flexible
in form and was often adapted in
various ways including its use as a
lament: alas! (Matt 24:19). It developed into a prophetic pronouncement
of judgment upon sinners as here.5
Korahs Rebellion
A Prophecy Adapted from Enoch,

14-16
The enigmatic statement found in

Genesis 5:24 that Enoch walked with
God; and then he was no more,
because God took him has been
Domenico Beccafumi (14861551). The Punishment of Korah, Dathan, and
understood to mean that Enoch did
Abiram. Duomo, Pisa, Italy. (Credit: Scala/Art Resource, NY)
not die but was taken from the earth
by God while still alive. Later Jewish
Book of Enoch
The Book of Enoch (also called 1 Enoch)
interpreters focused upon Enochs assumed,
is a pseudepigraphical work, i.e., not a
privileged status, which they took to be at least
part of Scripture (except within the Ethiopian
implied by Gods having taken him. They
Orthodox Church). The work is ascribed to Enoch,
refined the notion and concluded that Enoch
the great-grandfather of Noah and son of Jared
(Gen 5:18). It was common practice in antiquity
must have been privy to Gods will and wisdom.
for books to be ascribed to the person about
They argued that by divine sanction, Enoch
whom the work was written. Thus the term
could reveal this knowledge to human beings
apseudo (false) is used in the name for the
still on earth. Certain elements from this tradigrouping of books into which Enoch is placed.
Scholars argue that the work was composed
tion showed up in Jewish apocalyptic thought
between 300100 BC. Fragments of the book
that gave rise to pseudepigraphical writings such
were found among the Dead Sea Scrolls. It is
as 1 Enoch, which our author quotes here.6 [Book
generally assumed that the work was widely
known in the first century of the Christian era. It
circulated originally in Aramaic and possibly
Hebrew. Some scholars theorize that its author
consulted an Aramaic copy of 1 Enoch and translated into Greek the verses he needed.
E. Isaac, 1 (Ethiopic Apocalypse of) Enoch, in Apocalyptic
Literature and Testaments (vol. 1 of The Old Testament
Pseudepigrapha; ed. James H. Charlesworth; Garden City NY;
Doubleday & Company, 1983) 590.
of Enoch]
Our author refers to Enoch as the seventh

generation from Adam. He has employed a
Semitic form of counting that begins with the
progenitor, hence Adam, Seth, Enosh, Kenan,
Mahalalel, Jared, Enoch. The author does not
mean to imply that Enochs antiquity alone
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391
imbues him with authority. Rather he is stressing

The Prophet Enoch
the number seven, considered in Hebrew and
Christian tradition to be a perfect number. As the
seventh one, Enoch is uniquely blessed, and his
words have a special authority.
There are two other references in the New
Testament to the Enoch mentioned in Genesis
(Luke 3:37; Heb 11:5), but no other New
Testament writer quotes from the writing that
takes his name. The book of Jude quotes Enochs
prophecy as dramatic evidence of the impending
punishment upon the false teachers. Apparently
the Book of Enoch was well known in the first
century, and Enoch himself was remembered as
one who walked with God (Gen 5:22, 24).
Here the Lord has come to bring judgment upon
Wiligelmo da Modena (c. 1099c.1120). Tablet with
inscription recording the foundation of the cathedral: The
the ungodly, their character, and their behavior
Prophet Enoch. Duomo, Modena, Italy. (Credit: Ghigo
The phrase to execute judgment on all in v.
Roli, 1999. Franco Cosimo Panini Editore Management
Fratelli Alinari; Alinari/Art Resource, NY)
15 clearly indicates the parameters of the final
judgment. The author insists that all Christians
must contend earnestly for the faith because, in the end, all will
be judged. The phrase execute judgment is only used here and in
John 5:27, where Jesus states that he will be a part of this final
judgment.
The term grumblers in v. 16 (see Exod 16:2, 9) calls to mind
the experience of the Israelites as they wandered aimlessly in the
wilderness. These false teachers are chronic faultfinders who, while
incessantly complaining about others, follow their own lustful
desires without regard for others.7
A Prophecy Adapted from the Apostles, 17-19
Other than a brief comment on the divisiveness of the godless

persons, the author has now concluded the major section of the
letter. Here he makes a transition from his indictment of the
heretics (vv. 5-16) to addressing his readers directly (vv. 17-23).
The central section of the letter (vv. 5-16) details his specific condemnation of ungodly men (v. 4). In this concluding section of the
letter, the author writes about the salvation for the believers (v. 3).
While the readers of this epistle may not be familiar with the
Enoch tradition, they certainly know what they were taught by the
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apostles. So here the writer calls them to their more immediate

experiences and challenges them to recall the predictions of the
apostles of our Lord Jesus Christ . . . .
Remember. The admonition to remember closely parallels the
text in Peters second letter: that you should remember the predictions of the holy prophets and the commandment of the Lord and
Savior through your apostles (3:2). Remember is a direct
command. Earlier (v. 5), the writers words had been encouraging
and supportive when he commended his readers for their knowledge of Old Testament teaching. But at this juncture, a direct
command is necessary because their seeming willingness to overlook the factual knowledge of their own history is detrimental to
their salvation. The challenge, then, is for the reader to remember
the message of the gospel. In such memory lies the courage to
defend themselves against the attacks of the false teachers.8
Beloved. The author addresses the original recipients of his
letter. He has already cautioned them regarding those godless
persons whom God has condemned (vv. 4, 7, 13). Now his mood
shifts and he speaks to his readers more tenderly with the expression beloved. He uses this term three times (vv. 3, 17, 20).
Apostles. That the author means the original twelve disciples is
clearly implied by the phrase of our Lord Jesus Christ, though no
specific names are mentioned. Not much is known about the ministries of these men except for the missionary labors of Peter.
Message. The text literally has predictions of the apostles.
Apparently, then, the author has in mind not the entirety of the
gospel but rather certain specific sayings of the apostles. It is possible that the author has recorded one of these sayings in v. 18,
though the specific tradition quoted remains unknown. Yet we can
assume that the apostles were obviously aware of the approaching
last days. In his farewell message at Ephesus, for example, Paul says,
I know that after my departure fierce wolves will come in among
you not sparing the flock (Acts 20:29). In any event, the reference
is expressed as a warning. That such persons as these would appear
among the faithful is itself a sign that the end times are near.9
Scoffers. The expression scoffer is a pejorative word that refers
to those who ignore or twist all the precepts of the Law (Ps 1:1;
Prov 1:22; 9:7-8). In both Jewish and Christian apocalyptic
thought we find the idea that, in the last days, the wicked will
come to the fore and, indeed, gain the upper hand. The idea is so
well known that the author does not need to cite a specific
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prophecy. He has merely created the words attributed to the apostles out of the earlier description of the opponents. These false
teachers cause serious divisions within the community by setting
themselves up as superior to ordinary Christians. Jude maintains
that these ungodly people are devoid of the Spirit.
The Appeal, 20-23
All that has come before has pointed the reader to this final appeal.
Here Jude offers an exhortation to the faithful, a kind of Christian
antidote to countermand the work of the false teachers. This
appeal to action begins But you, beloved to heighten the contrast
between the faithful and the false teachers. The contrast is further
sharpened when he adds praying in the Holy Spirit as a quantifier
for the faithful. This theme calls to mind a similar note found in
the writings of Paul (Rom 8:26; 1 Cor 12:3; Gal 4:6; Eph 6:18).
The referent here is in no way equivocal since the false teachers are
without the Spirit. Jude offers these specific ingredients for his
antidote: (1) build yourselves up on [the] most holy faith; (2)
pray in the Holy Spirit; (3) keep yourselves in the love of God; (4)
look forward to the mercy of our Lord Jesus Christ (hope). The last
few verses of his letter, in contrast with the lengthy discourse about
the wickedness of the apostates, are brief and to the point. In a
series of four commands, his readers are exhorted to cultivate the
familiar Christian virtues of faith, prayer, love, and hope.
Again (cf. v. 17) the author contrasts the false teachers with his
readers. In this verse, with a pastoral tenderness and affection, he
addresses the recipients as beloved, or dear friends, e.g., beloved
by God (v. 1). After describing in detail the totally destructive life
of the false teachers, he challenges his readers with four commands.
1. Build yourselves up on the most holy faith. While the false
teachers cause division within the community, the author challenges his readers to build up each other spiritually and thereby to
strengthen the community and create unity. The readers are to continue to build themselves up on the foundation of the most holy
faith. Note the reference to the building trade. The believers are to
construct the foundation of their spiritual house upon faith. Faith
is the first virtue in the series of four listed in vv. 20-21. The
author, near the end of his brief letter, has returned to the subject
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of faith with which he began his epistle: Beloved, . . . I found it

necessary to write appealing to you to contend for the faith which
was once for all delivered to the saints (v. 3). Thus it can be said
that the letter of Jude begins and ends with the subject of faith.
This faith is the body of Christian doctrines that the apostles
taught (Acts 2:42) and the false teachers sought to undermine.
Verses 3 and 20 complement each other since the beginning of his
letter urges the readers to contend for the faith that was once for
all delivered to the saints (v. 3), and v. 20 exhorts the believers to
build themselves up in the most holy faith. Note the adjective
holy describing the faith his readers are challenged to build. Its
root meaning is separate, i.e., different from all other types of a
similar kind. That which is holy is set apart, by definition, from
other things in its class (e.g., the Sabbath is different from other
days of the week). The Christian faith is different from other faiths
and from philosophies in that it is not a product of the minds of
humans (opinion) but rather a revelation. It is different from other
faiths because of its power to transform those who believe it and to
render them different from their previous selves. This most holy
faith is different because it is derived through a unique revelation
from God and because of its unique transforming power in the
lives of those who believe it. (See Legalism in the connections
section.)
2. Pray in the Holy Spirit. This exhortation creates a second
contrast with the false teachers. They are worldly people who do
not possess the Spirit (v. 19). But the readers are guided by Gods
Spirit, and thus their prayers are sincere and genuine. The language
here may suggest a communal prayer that is under the control of
the Spirit. As such, the call is for a prayer that is faithful to Gods
will (Rom 8:26-27; 1 Cor 12:3). St. Paul admonished his readers,
Pray at all times in the Spirit, with all prayer and supplication
(Eph 6:18). Paul is thus suggesting that prayer is a weapon to
oppose the spiritual attacks of Satan.
3. Keep yourselves in the love of God. Even though our author
prays that divine love, together with Gods mercy and peace, may
fill those who read his letter (v. 2), as the false teachers have shown,
it is possible to turn ones back upon that love. So here the author
admonishes his readers to hold up their side of the equation: to cultivate and nourish that love relationship with God. The emphasis is
placed upon their contribution to this love relationship. The lan-
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guage may mean either Gods love for them or their love for
God. The phrase points to a theological certainty: the love of
which Jude writes is literally a two-way street. God comes to people
and surrounds them with divine love; in response, people come to
God with human love. The command recalls Jesus words, I loved
you; abide in my love. . . . If you keep my commandments, you
will abide in my love (John 15:9-10). The false teachers had not
held up their end, falling out of love with God and, as a consequence, with others as well. So amid the uncertainties, difficulties,
and temptations that surround the believers, Jude admonishes
them to keep themselves within the circle of Gods love and literally
to stay in that sphere. Christians are recipients of this love when
they strive to do Gods will by loving God with heart, soul, and
mind and by loving their neighbors as themselves (see Matt 22:3739).
4. Wait for the mercy of our Lord Jesus Christ unto eternal life.
The last of the four commands concerns hope. It looks forward to
Christs mercy. Although the word itself does not appear in the
text, hope precisely expresses the idea. As human beings and as
Christians, we live by hope. Anticipation is not only the greatest
single pleasure, but anticipation also empowers us to live a quality
life in the present. Hope does not mean we put things off while
singing about the Sweet By and By. We will never say nonchalantly that one of these days the Messiah will come and all these
problems will disappear. Such an ill-founded concept of hope puts
the load upon God. But for thoughtful Christians, hope stirs us to
life and empowers us to commit ourselves to work on important
things as we anticipate that great doxology at the final Advent of
God. It is precisely the anticipation of this kind of mercy that
creates in us the quality that characterizes our relationships with
others.
In vv. 20-21, our author gathers up the three Christian virtues of
faith, (including prayer), hope, and love (see 1 Cor 13:13) and
presents a balanced pattern for Christian living.
Verses 22-23 abruptly shift the focus to the way in which the
readers should respond toward those have been taken in, to greater
and lesser degrees, by the false teachers. The text here is uncertain,
and it is not immediately clear whether the author refers to two or
three groups of individuals. If we are to understand three groups,
Judes advice becomes progressively more drastic: (1) those who
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have not made up their mindsthey must be convinced by argument; (2) those who are already involved with the false
teachersspare no effort in trying to rescue these (save others by
snatching them out of the fire, v. 23); (3) those who have strayed so
far they are only to be pitiedthese must be feared by the faithful
so as to avoid contamination.
Closing Doxology, 24-25
Beyond the responsibilities of the recipients is the sure presence of

Gods support and protection that in effect guarantees that their
efforts to avoid spiritual heresy will not be in vain. These closing
words call to mind an eschatological celebration of worship. The
believers celebrate the final consequences of Gods purposes; that is,
they are found to be a suitable sacrifice before God.
This brief and sometimes caustic epistle ends with a doxology
that reflects a quiet beauty of its own. It is a kind of benediction
that offers a tribute to the one who is able to keep us from
fallinga most meaningful assurance in light of the heresy that
threatened Judes readers.
To keep you from falling. Our author concludes by stating the
obvious: God is the only one who has the ability to keep his followers from falling. Those who abide in Gods word will never fall.
On the contrary, those who allow themselves to be taken in by the
words of false teachers will find themselves
Falling
fallen. The verb translated keep could
The term translated falling is a word
that means slipping, as used of both of
perhaps better have been translated guard or
a surefooted horse that does not stumble and of a
protect. [Falling]
person who is a good and thus does not fall into
Without blemish before the presence of his glory
error. The psalmist has written of Gods loving
with rejoicing. And so it is that the saints who
care: He will not let your foot slip (Ps 121:3,
NIV). To walk with God is to walk in safety even
endure the destructive heresies of the false
on the most dangerous and the most slippery
teachers are to be presented before God as
path. When mountaineers tackle a daring climb,
redeemed and sanctified in the presence of his
they rope themselves together so that if one
glory (i.e., splendor). The term translated
climber slips, the others take the weight and no
one falls. The author calls us to bind ourselves to
with rejoicing calls to mind the exultation at
God who will keep us from falling.
the heavenly banquet. So when the readers of
this epistle encounter this verse, a great rejoicing will reverberate
within them if they have remained true to the faith and not fallen
prey to the error of the false teachers.
To the only God. The one to whom this benedictory tribute is
made is identified as the only God. This phrase may have a
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special meaning as it stands in stark contrast to the gnostics endless

list of demigods.
God, our Savior through Jesus Christ our Lord. The phrase God
our Savior may strike the reader as unusual because, typically,
Christians associate the word Savior with Jesus Christ. Yet in this
instance our author relates the term Savior to God. Actually, he is
not alone in doing so (see Luke 1:47; 1 Tim 1:1; 2:3; 4:10; Titus
1:3; 2:10; 3:4). Thus, in the final analysis, the Christian is provided
with a great and comforting certainty: there is a God whose name
is Savior. The epistle of Jude makes it clear to both the Christian
and the false teacher that only through the acceptance of Jesus as
Lord can there be a meaningful relationship with God.
Be glory, majesty, dominion, and authority. The author sets over
against every political authority on earth the only God from eternity to eternity who has all glory, majesty, power, and authority.
This conclusion of the epistle of Jude is masterfully crafted. It catapults the readers thoughts from the earthly to highest heavenly
realms, where God is enthroned amid eternal majesty and honor.
Our conflicts with the temporal forces of evil on earth must always
be seen through the prism of Gods glory (splendor), majesty
(grandeur), dominion (sovereignty), and authority (will). With
these powerful words, Jude shows the absolute greatness of the only
God whom all Christians must serve.10
Jude has demonstrated in this short epistle the central requirement that all Christians are to contend for the faith. He has
shown the punishment in store for those who go beyond the faith
and the reward given to those who maintain the proper relationship with God. He has shown the vileness of the false teachers,
while also urging the Christians of his day to remain true to the
word. Finally, Jude has shown that the true source of salvation is
obedient faith in Jesus Christ.
CONNECTIONS
The small book of Jude continues to offer the church today important guidance in several matters. Perhaps two chronic problems
faced by the church receive the most relevant direction from Jude,
namely: (1) the ongoing tendency of some Christians either to dis-
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count the idea of Christs return (parousia) or to become fixated on

predicting it, and (2) the lingering appeal of legalism.
The Parousia and the Date-Setters
The New Testament concept of the imminence of the Parousia

(Christs Second Coming) is different from the concept we often
encounter in modern theology. We see clearly in 2 Peter 3 that the
false teachers have assumed a radical and unbiblical interpretation
of imminence holding that the notion requires Christ to return
shortly after his resurrection. Since he did not, they proceeded to
reject the idea of the Parousia altogether! The author responds by
reasserting the biblical perspective against the misunderstanding of
the false teachers. He reminds his readers that Gods timetable is
not ours and that what we might regard as an intolerable delay is a
mere moment from Gods perspective.
In reality, this nearly two-thousand-year-old text exposes the
obvious error in the contemporary practice of date-setting. Datesetters have arisen throughout the history of the Christian church
from time to time. These individuals claim to have received a vision
from God or to have solved the Parousia puzzle on their own. They
proceed to identify an exact date for the Parousia, or, more generally, the end of the world. Throughout Christian history, some
interpreters, for example, understood Psalm 90:4 and 2 Peter 3:8 to
refer to a thousand-year messianic age. Thus they became certain
that Christ would return in AD 1000.
A notable case in more recent times was Edgar Whisenants 88
Reasons Why the Rapture Could Be in 1988 (more than 42 million
copies sold!). Whisenant, a little-known Bible student at the time,
predicted that the end would occur sometime between September
11 and September 13, 1988. As the great day approached, regular
programming on the Christian Trinity Broadcast Network (TBN)
was interrupted to provide special instructions on preparation to
the faithful! Of course, the end did not occur. Following this 1988
debacle, Whisenant published further books listing the real date
in 1989, 1993, and 1994. These books did not sell in quantity.
Many observers point out that those who calculate the end time
all select a date in the near term. How many copies of a book
would sell if it predicted the end time to come during the year
5000?
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We may be thankful that such self-appointed date-setters do

serve to remind Christians that the Parousia could occur at any
time. But we must deplore and reject their assumption to know the
exact date, which even Jesus himself did not know. Tragically, many
sincere Christians have been led astray by these date-setters.
Convinced that the end of history is just around the corner,
Christians have sold property and houses, quit jobs, and generally
dropped out of society. The failure of the predicted worlds end has
meant for them not only spiritual uncertainty but economic disaster.
The Christian church has continued on through one after the
other of these date-setting episodes. The dates are set, they come,
and they are gone. History has proven all of them wrong. The
tragedy is that other dates will certainly be offered in the years to
come.
Legalism
Legalism may be defined as the social or self-acceptance of the

observance of law and conformity to its requirements as the sole
basis for the theological determination of an individuals spiritual
condition or destiny. In the New Testament, the antonym for
legalism is the gospel of grace (the good news) whereby the presence of the Spirit of God indwells an individual, allowing for the
character of God to be expressed in the behavior of that person
through the dynamic empowering and enabling of the Spirit of the
risen Lord Jesus.
Even though the term legalism does not occur in the Bible, the
concept is found there fairly frequently (see for example, Isa 29:13
[quoted in Matt 15:8, 9; Mark 7:6, 7]; Matt 5:20-28; 23:1-28; Gal
2:11-21; 3:1-3; Col 2:16-23). Ultimately, legalism derives value
from the obedient act itself, rather than from loyalty to or love for
God. Thus the legalist is perfectly content to devote total attention
to intricacies of the law with seldom a thought about the Lawgiver.
To speak about the empowerment of Gods Spirit as an enabler for
living the Christian life is to speak a foreign language to the legalist.
Their talk is always about which specific action is permitted and
which is forbidden. A legalists central concern is that people do
what the Scriptures say while being unconcerned about seeking the
pleasure of and fellowship with the Lord. One need only do what
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God says and all will be well. Whether or not a specific act
expresses love for God is irrelevant in legalism. Legalism exalts law
above all other considerations. Mercy, justice, and goodness take a
back seat to the rigid obedience to endless sets of rules.
In terms of human behavior and specific courses of action, the
legalists greatest fears are those pesky gray areas. Moses Law
required that the Sabbath be kept holy (i.e., different from all
the other days), and thus through centuries of interpretation the
consensus emerged that keeping this day different from the other
six meant there was to be no work performed on the Sabbath.
Further quantification was required, however, to define work.
Does this or that specific activity constitute work, and is it thus
forbidden on the Sabbath?
Legalists have a passion for specific definition, and so many types
of activities were classified as work and thus forbidden on the
Sabbath. For instance, to carry a burden on the Sabbath Day was to
work. But what was a burden? The law defined a burden as food
equal in weight to a dried fig, enough wine for mixing in a goblet,
milk enough for one swallow, honey enough to put upon a wound,
oil enough to anoint a small member, paper enough on which to
write a customs notice, ink enough to
The Disciples Plucking Corn on the Sabbath
write two letters of the alphabet, reed
enough to make a pen, and on and on.
These and countless other interpretations clearly expose the fatal flaw
inherent in legalism. There is literally
no end to the specifics!
Jesus spoke clearly to the issue when
his disciples were accused of working
on the Sabbath (Matt 12:1-12). There
in the grain field when the disciples
satisfied their hunger by harvesting the
food they needed, Jesus taught that
any use of the Sabbath law that
bypassed human need was an illegitimate use. In Marks rendition of the
account, Jesus words strike at the
heart of legalism: The Sabbath was
made for man, not man for the
Gustave Dor (18321883). The Disciples Plucking Corn on the Sabbath.
Sabbath (Mark 2:27). Jesus personal
19th C. Engraving. (Credit: Dover Pictorial Archives Series)
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conflict with the Scribes and Pharisees over this central issue certainly contributed to his death. Pauls relentless battle against
legalism in the church ultimately resulted in his death also. We
must make no mistake about this fundamental fact: legalism always
results in death.
Unfortunately, the spiritual war against legalism continues today.
Indeed, legalism exists in virtually every Christians life, although
certainly in varying degrees. Our peaceful coexistence with it
betrays the heart of the gospel and counts the sacrifice paid by Jesus
Christ to eradicate it from the life of every Christian as nothing.
Jesus died to set us free from the law and its impossible demands.
The apostle Paul challenges us to cherish the freedom Christ purchased for us and never return to the bondage of legalism (Gal
5:1). Jesus and Paul stand forever as our examples for fighting the
deadly spiritual virus of legalism.
When Paul wrote the letter kills but the Spirit gives life (2 Cor
3:6), he was referring to the tendency of legalism to kill faith, hope,
joy, love, and spiritual life in general. In some cases legalism actually murders those who reject it. History records many events in
which human life was sacrificed at the altar of the law of God. The
Crusades and the Salem witch trials are two horrific examples of
the death dealing inherent in legalism. Jesus looked legalists in the
eye and called them hypocrites, brood of vipers, blind guides, etc.
(Matt 23). In a literal sense, he died to set us free from the choking
hold of legalism.
Unfortunately, legalists have often appealed to the book of Jude
to buttress their assaults on other Christians. Judes admonition to
contend for the faith that was once for all delivered to the saints
(v. 3) has been used to justify vicious attacks on perceived instances
of insufficient orthodoxy. Typically, in recent times, those who have
been on the receiving end of such attacks have more or less agreed
with their attackers on the basic doctrines of Christian theology,
but they have been branded as dangerous heretics because they differed in their beliefs about minor matters, most of which were not
even in the picture when Jude wrote about our common salvation
(v. 3). Jude does assert strongly that the truth does matter, but it
also powerfully argues that the life of fidelity to the faith involves
more than assenting to correct belief. Obedience to the faith
involves living in conformity to the example of Jesus Christ by
keeping ourselves in the love of God (v. 21). Because the line
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between faithfulness and infidelity is so thin, Jude calls readers to a

life of self-scrutiny in regard to both belief and behavior.
Notes
1. The KJV has the reading brother of James (cf. Luke 6: 16). But this reading
has no support from Greek manuscripts. In the New Testament era, when persons listed
their genealogy, men identified themselves as the son of someone, not the brother of
someone. See further, Donald Guthrie, New Testament Introduction (rev. ed.; Downers
Grove IL: Inter-Varsity, 1971) 927; and Ben Witherington, Jude, Brother of Jesus,
BibRev 21/4 (2005): 1516.
2. Steven J. Kraftchick, Jude, 2 Peter (Nashville: Abingdon Press, 2002) 2526.
3. A few interpreters have attempted to link the statement to a prophecy found in
the book of Enoch (1 En. 1:9). Enoch points to the future coming of the Lord and the
accompanying condemnation of the ungodly. Most scholars, however, regard the connection to Enoch as hypothetical at best.
4. The Greek text has some variant readings, but translators seem to favor the
reading Lord, over the variants of Jesus, God, and even God Christ. But does
Lord refer to God or to the preexistent Christ? Support may be found in Scripture for
both readings. For instance, Paul says the spiritual rock that accompanied the Israelites
in the desert was Christ (1 Cor 10:4). Yet in the Old Testament we are told how God
destroyed the unbelievers in the desert (Num 14:29-37; Heb 3:17-19). If the subject of
v. 5 in Jude is uncertain, v. 6 definitely refers to Godnot to Jesus but to God, who
consigned fallen angels to dark prisons (cf. 2 Pet 2:4). Thus Lord in v. 5 likely refers to
God. See the excellent discussion in Richard J. Bauckham, Jude, 2 Peter (WBC 50;
Waco TX: Word Books, 1983) 49ff.
5. Richard J. Bauckham, Jude, 2 Peter (WBC 50;Waco TX: Word Books, 1983)
11213. On the woe oracles, see David E. Garland, The Intention of Matthew 23
(NovTSup 52; Leiden: Brill, 1979) 7280.
6. C. E. B. Cranfield, 1 and 2 Peter and Jude (TBC; London: SCM, 1960) 165.
7. Norman Hillyer, 1 and 2 Peter, Jude (Peabody MA: Hendrickson Publishers,
1992) 26768.
8. Michael Green, The Second Epistle General of Peter, and the General Epistle of
Jude: An Introduction and Commentary (2d ed.; Grand Rapids MI: Eerdmans, 1987)
19394.
9. Simon J. Kistemaker, Expositions of the Epistles of Peter and the Epistle of Jude
(Grand Rapids: Baker, 1987) 111.
10. See the excellent discussion of the doxology in Earl Richard, Reading 1 Peter,
Jude, and 2 Peter: A Literary and Theological Commentary (Macon GA: Smyth &
Helwys, 2000) 300 passim.
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Bibliography
Dictionary of the Bible. Edited by Watson E. Mills. Macon GA: Mercer University
Press, 1990.
Witherington III, Ben. Jude, Brother of Jesus, BRev 21/4 (2005): 15-16.
8/6/10
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index of modern authors

for 1 peter
A
Adamson, Gil 190
G
Garnsey, Peter 50
Green, Joel 177
Greenleaf, Robert K. 247
Beare, F. W. 209
Bell, Daniel M. Jr. 172
Bray, Gerald 238
Heinemann, Joseph 48
Bridges, Linda McKinnish 157
Helprin, Mark 50, 56, 69
Buechner, Frederick 201
Hopkins, Gerard Manley 239
Cao, Lan 98, 104
James, P. D. 43, 171
Crossan, J. D. 26
Jobes, Karen 4, 162, 246
D
Desau, Hermann 148
Jones, Lloyd 72
Dickens, Charles 238
Keillor, Garrison 168, 235
Dillard, Annie 89, 118, 177
Kelly, J. N. D. 235
Donne, John 8182, 211

Douglas, Lloyd 7, 48
Douglass, Frederick 13334
L
Lamb, Wally 33
Lewis, Naphtali 74
E
Eliot, George 104105, 139, 145, 147
Elliott, J. K. 55, 99, 240, 246
Luther, Martin 131, 219, 223
Elliott, John H. 168
Malherbe, A. J. 68, 113, 149, 231
Enright, Anne 204
McCabe, Herbert 79, 102, 103, 108, 131, 167

McCarthy, Cormac 57, 101, 110
F
Fanestil, John 161
Fielding, Henry 174
Forster, E. M. 180
Frost, Robert 87
McCullough, Colleen 156

Moulton, J. H. 64
N
Naipaul, V. S. 98, 159
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Index of Modern Authors for 1 Peter
Norris, Kathleen 207

Noy, David 36
O
OConnor, Flannery 104
Offley, G. W. 182
P
Percy, Walker 52, 6162, 102
R
Reddish, Mitchell 16
Reicke, Bo 200
Reinhold, Meyer 74, 102, 103, 108
Rushdie, Salman 34
S
Saller, Richard 50
Selwyn, E. G. 12
Shields, Carol 66, 8788, 105, 157, 164
Stringfellow, William 246
T
Trollope, Anthony 216
V
Volf, Miroslav 13233
W
Waddell, Helen 235, 240
Warrior, Valerie 61, 98
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for 2 PETER
Bauckham, Richard J. 26567, 27375, 290, 294, 298,

313, 322, 333, 334, 337, 355
McClendon, James Wm. Jr. 315
Bray, Gerald 262
Metzger, Bruce M. 265
Bultmann, Rudolph 293
Mills, Watson E. 271
C
Cone, James 303
Craddock, Fred B. 262, 269, 319, 333, 336, 343, 355
D
Davids, Peter H. 26768, 295, 297, 321, 329, 339,
349, 354, 357
McLaren, Brian 305
N
Neyrey, Jerome H. 26567, 27879, 312, 319, 321,
330, 333, 334, 351, 352, 357
P
Perkins, Pheme 360
R
Reicke, Bo 26970, 273, 294
Elliott, John H. 270
W
Watson, Duane 27577, 328
Gardner, Erle Stanley 281
Whaley, Charles 329
Green, Michael 295, 333
Witherington, Ben III 261, 273, 278, 294, 320, 357
Gutirrez, Gustavo 303
H
Hillyer, Norman 298
K
Ksemann, Ernst 295, 296
Kelly, J. N. D. 26768, 294, 296, 355, 357
Kraftchick, Steven 269, 271, 27778, 293, 295, 310,
317, 327, 338, 350
L
Lapham, F. 26567, 26869, 270
Lapham, Fred 262, 348
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FOR JUDE
H
Hedrick, Charles W. 376
I
Isaac, E. 390
K
Kee, Howard Clark 376
Klauck, Hans-Josef 375
W
Whisenant, Edgar 398
Wiles, John Keating 388
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index of sidebars AND ILLUSTRATIONS

FOR 1 PETER
Text Sidebars
Cross as a Prayer of Faith, The 131
Hermas on the Vices
110

Multitude of Sins
204
Cynic on Emotion, A
Hierocles, On Duties
113

Multitude of Sins
205
2 Peters Claims to Authenticity 32
Abused for Being Christian
214
Angels and Powers
173
Approaching a Sanctuary
166
Aristotle on the Relationship

between Household and
State
68
Descent into Hell Elaborated, The

201
Holiness
Destiny and Free Will
Honor the Emperor
118
Honoring Rulers
117
Hope
167
Devout Reason Conquers

Emotion
42
67
Didache and Limits on

Hospitality
206
Donne on Affliction
211
Dont Be Surprised by Testing 209

119
Draw Near to God
241
Augustine on Preaching to the

Dead
199
Duties to Ancestors
98
Babylon
246
Being Alien
104
Early Christian Opinions on

Christian Relations to
Government
116
Honor Everybody
Hope
69
118
66
Hopkins on Patience
239
Humility
238
Hypocrisy
89
I Am Getting Along
177
I am the Paterfamilias
156
Identity
102
If Its This Hard for the

Righteous
219
162
Early Christian Use of

Crown Images
Blessings and Suffering
215
Emigrant
Caring for a Wife
157
End is Near, the
203
Imperial Priesthoods
102
239
Enduring Pain
190
Influential Freedman, An
108
Blessed Be God
Blessing an Adversary
Cast All Your Cares on God

Celsus on Christians
Celsus on the Failure of the
Apostles
Chosen
48
215
229
101
Christians and Sacrifices
97
Christians as a New Race
101
Christians as Temple
94
Christs Descent into Hades

among Early Believers
200
Christs Exemplary Death
172
Cicero on Crucifixion
Clement of Alexandria on
Preaching to the Dead
77
198
Eusebius on Mark and Peter
235
72
Ignatius on the Prophets
60
Im Simon Peter
33
Is Not This the Land of Beulah? 234
Exile
34
It Aint My Country
Fathers Rights, A
50
Joy
110
57
99
Foreknowledge
41
Judgment Scenes in
Apocalypse of Peter
Gird Up
65
Justin, Apology 1.67
66
Leave Me Alone!
207
Love Is the End
203
Fear as a Motivator for Slaves 123
Grace and Holiness

Greek, Roman, and Jewish
Writers on Womens
Extravagance
149
Hatred of the Name of

Christian
213
Malice
141
Meekness and Quiet for

Women
Head of Household Offers

Sacrifice, A
Love One Another
58
79
Love
118
LXX
2
89
151
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Index of Sidebars and Illustrations for 1 Peter
Mercy
50
Silence
147
Cornerstone (Marble)
Milk
89
Slanders against Christians
111
Milk (2)
90
Slanders
168
Crucifixion of Saint Peter,

Caravaggio
127
Denial of Saint Peter, The,

Caravaggio
214
Guests at a Wine Party
192
Minucius Felix on Suffering

Now, Suffering Then
Slaves Life, A
125
169
Stoic Advice on the Desires
191
Most People Are OK
164
Suffering for the Cross
171
Suffering to Prevent Sin
189
161
Mysteries, The
143
No Depth to which He Will

Not Sink
201
Sympathy and Mutual

Affection
No Logic to Love
204
Taste that the Lord Is Good
91
52
Tertullian, On the Apparel of

Women
148
Testimony of a Lar, The
141
194
No Need for Future Hope?

On Digressing
174
On Treating Women
with Care
156
They Are Surprised
Parade Honoring Isis, A
144
Patience in Suffering
126
Those Who Endured Are

Praised/Praise God
Peter Prays
Polycarp Refuses to Give an
Account
48
167
Trimalchio the Vulgar

Freedman
Variations in Early Christian
Greetings
55
114
44
Praying to God with an

Undivided Heart
203
Vessel
157
Priesthoods and Associations
103
Pseudonymity
245
Virtue Matters more than

Adornment
148
Purified by Fire
56
Warden, The
216
126
When Humility Is Not

a Virtue
162
Redemption of Slaves
74
Where Are You Going?
210
Rejoicing in Suffering
212
Wifely Courage
153
Wifely Submission
145
Rag Dealers Honor Their

Patron, The
Resident Alien in 1 Clement
37
Resist Lions
240
Rule of St. Benedict on

Hospitality, The
206
You Wont Accompany Them 193

Youths Need Humility
235
Youths
236
Liberty Coin from AD 69

Livia Praying
Map of Pontus, Galatia,
Cappadocia, Asia, and
Bithynia
Marital Concord
(Marble relief )
Mother Nursing Her Child
(Terracotta statuette)
Noah and the Ark
98
75
150
39
158
90
178
Panel from Third-century

Christian Sarcophagus
205
Peter and Paul
244
Peter Dictating to St. Mark

Peters Denial
Sacrificial Scene
4
165
96
Saint Peter Consecrating Saint

Asprenus as First Bishop of
Naples, Morelli
232
Seeking Whom He May

Devour
240
Shrine of Lares
142
Silver Denarius
195
St. Peter Opens Paradise
53
St. Peter Receiving the Keys

from Christ
92
Ruling
233
Tears of Saint Peter, The,

El Greco (Canvas)
Scars Prove the Slave
121
Illustrations
Temptations of a Banquet
193
Selection of Early Christian

vice Lists, A
Actor in a Slave Mask

(terracotta statuette)
Good Shepherd, The
234
191
Self-controlled
Seneca on Abuse of Slaves
Seneca on Crucifixion
Set Apart for God
65
Arrest of Peter
74
Christ Appearing to Saint

Peter on the Appian Way,
Carracci
131
43
Sheep and Shepherds
233
Shepherd Images among

Philosophers
231
Shepherd of Hermas on
Godly Passion
Shepherds Authority, The
Sibylline Oracles
130
33
210
Christ Liberating Adam and

Eve and All of the Righteous
from Limbo, De Predis
196
Christ Militant
241
68
Christ with Prophets (Mosaic)
60
228
Comic Actors in Slave Masks

and Costumes
(Terracotta statuettes)
122
61
Transfiguration, Angelico
170
70
Triumph of Septimius Severus 115
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FOR 2 PETER
Six Teachings of Epicurus
Text Sidebars
331
Abridged Rhetorical Outline
277
Sknoma
311
Apollymi and Apleia
330
Stoicheia
356
Aselgeia
330
Thymos
350
Balaam and His Oracles
340
Bebaios
319
Illustrations
Chiasm
313
Ancient of Days, The, Blake
353
Aret
299
Balaams Talking Ass
Saint Michael Defeating Satan,

Guenther
(limewood sculpture)
328
Oil Lamp
320
Papyrus 72, the Bodmer VII

Papyrus
273
Pew Results
359
Pigsty, A (green terracotta)
341
341
Rebellious Slave, The,

Michelangelo
322
Baptism of Christ
318
Sacra Ruota, The, Angelico
349
Cultural Icons
323
Denial of St. Peter, de La Tour 312
Saint Augustine altar,

van Scorel
292
Dividing of the Waters (Mosaic) 352
Saint Paul Writing, Backer
357
Elijah on Mount Carmel
332
317
Epicurus (bust)
279
289
Hairesis
329
Farewell of the Apostles, Duccio 310
Saint Peter the Apostle with

two keys in his hands,
Rubens
Harrelson on Testaments
274
God Locks the Ark
334
Saint Peter the Martyr Writing,

Bartolommeo
348
Hdon (pleasure)
339
Heraclitus and the Stoics
355
Gutirrez and Cone: Two

Theologians of Praxis
303
Saints Peter and Paul,

da Candia
272
Inclusio
313
Head of an Apostle, Rubens
294
Isotimon
291
Heraclitus (c. 540-C. 480 BC)
354
Satan in his Original Glory:

Thou wast Perfect till
Iniquity was found in
Thee, Blake
337
Sermon on the Mount, von

Carolsfeld
332
Transfiguration, The, Raphael
316
Development of the Trinity

in the Early Church
292
Epichorgein
298
Epignsis
293
Eusebiuss Lists
263
Excerpt of Epicuruss Letter to

Herodotus
315
Gospel Parallels of
Transfiguration
James Wm. McClendon, Jr.,

on Myth in Christian
Theology
315
Jude and 2 Peter Parallels
271
Muratorian Fragment
265
Mythos (myth)
314
Parousia
316
Postmodernism
304
Pseudo-Petrine Texts
262
Rhetorical Criticism
276
Six More Teachings of

Epicurus
351
Les Heures dEtienne Chavalier:

The Martyrdom of Saint
Peter, Fouquet
275
Lot and his Daughters Leaving
Sodom, Reni
335
Mankind Drowns in the Flood,
while the rain keeps pouring
down
352
Map of Rome, Asian Minor,
and Egypt
268
Master of the Rebel Angels

(oil on wood)
333
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FOR Jude
Text Sidebars
Illustrations
Assumption of Moses, The
370
Beloved
382
Delivered
384
Falling
396
Gnosticism
376
Jude and 2 Peter
377
Letter Form in the

New Testament
Disciples Plucking Corn on the

Sabbath, The, Dor
400
Fall of the Rebel Angels, The,
Dor
379
Nag Hammadi Library, The
377
Prophet Enoch, The
391
390
370
375
Martin Luther on the

Relationship of Jude
and 2 Peter
Punishment of Korah,
Dathan, and Abiram,
The, Beccafumi
378
Muratorian Canon, The
376
Testament and Death of

Moses, Signorelli
Pseudepigrapha
370
Sodom and Gomorrah
388
What Is a Blessing in
the biblical Tradition?
378
387
Jude (woodcut)
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index of topics for 1 Peter
1 Clement 1, 1214, 37, 44, 116,

145, 204, 230, 23638
2 Clement 41, 204205
A
Acts of Peter 26, 189, 210, 245
Alien(s) 23, 29, 34, 3337, 40, 42,
79, 81, 8384, 98, 104105,
107109, 114, 132, 144, 151,
159, 203, 246
20, 23, 25, 2728, 31, 32, 37,

38, 40, 53, 57, 79, 82, 87, 97,
110, 114, 124, 134, 136137,
145147, 158, 161, 169, 181,
190, 199200, 204, 206, 208,
216, 220222, 22728, 230,
232, 23538, 240, 24347
Apocalypse of Peter 2526, 99, 168
Community(-ies) 10, 17, 23, 32,

34, 78, 81, 87, 89, 94, 96, 108,
125, 133, 136, 154, 155, 157,
162, 168, 181, 204, 206, 222,
24142, 24546, 248
Asia 2, 56, 9, 16, 31, 33, 36,

3840, 75, 83, 96, 124, 194,
212, 230, 245
Date 1314, 90, 194,
Audience 3, 56, 8, 1013, 3233,

3740, 49, 55, 61, 64, 73, 75,
8183, 9091, 9398, 100103,
105, 107, 114, 117, 119,
12324, 128, 13031, 13940,
148, 150, 152, 15758, 16061,
16566, 173, 183, 199, 209,
21314, 21718, 221, 231, 236
Authorship 12, 4, 6, 13, 27, 245
B
Baptism 104, 106, 152, 160,
17172, 174, 17779, 185, 194,
200, 233
Baptize 245
Barnabas 1, 3, 9, 24, 27, 59, 89,
191, 230, 243, 245
Bithynia 2, 5, 17, 19, 31, 33,
3839, 75, 96, 159
C
Cappadocia 2, 5, 31, 33, 3840,
75, 96
Church(es) 2, 56, 910, 12, 16,
D
Descent into hell 201
Diaspora 31, 33, 37, 40, 80
Didache 3, 2425, 122123, 162,
191, 206, 229, 233
E
Elder(s) 2, 8, 20, 29, 103, 132,
204, 208, 218219, 227,
22938, 244, 24849
Emperor 15, 17, 19, 50, 75,
9697, 102, 108, 112, 114115,
11718, 122, 126, 133, 139,
141, 150, 168, 192, 19495,
209, 221, 248
Empire 31, 50, 74, 114, 142143,
148, 150, 190, 195, 207, 211,
24546, 248
Eusebius 12, 9, 12, 14, 2528,
168
F
Father 3133, 41, 4445, 4750,
6364, 70, 72, 7677, 8081,
84, 89, 94, 114, 119, 131, 141,
151152, 156, 173, 199, 201,

203, 214, 216, 230, 240
G
Galatia 2, 5, 3133, 3839, 75, 96
Gentile(s) 24, 5, 6, 13, 22, 24,
3638, 41, 51, 70, 80, 83, 101,
103, 105, 107, 111, 131, 133,
144, 148, 152, 173, 163, 188,
190, 192, 19596, 198,
202203, 221, 224, 243, 246
God 2, 4, 6, 8, 11, 14, 16, 18,
2123, 25, 29, 3134, 3738,
4157, 5961, 6373, 7582,
84, 87107, 109118, 120,
12223, 12534, 139, 14142,
14445, 147, 150, 152, 154,
15658, 160, 16282, 184,
18789, 191, 194212, 21424,
22728, 23047
Gods 17, 1920, 2324, 36, 42,
60, 7071, 82, 9798, 101, 109,
113, 118, 130, 14043, 154,
187, 19293, 195, 203, 207,
209, 214, 221
Gospel of Peter 26, 198, 200
H
Hades 69, 185, 197198,
200201, 221
Hell 25, 99, 133, 196, 199, 201
Holiness 2, 22, 29, 31, 42, 61, 66,
6871, 105, 145, 157, 167, 179,
246
Holy 2, 11, 22, 32, 4243, 4648,
57, 6163, 6566, 6869, 73,
78, 8788, 9091, 9497, 100,
103, 105107, 109, 118, 140,
143, 145146, 16667, 175,
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Index of Topics for 1 Peter
178, 188, 200, 21819, 228,

24546
Holy Spirit 42, 4647, 57, 94, 245
Hope 29, 4550, 52, 61, 6366,
70, 73, 7778, 80, 8485, 90,
93, 104105, 145, 158, 164,
167169, 177, 179, 183, 194,
197, 200, 207, 212, 222, 224
Household codes 158
Household(s) 21, 23, 4952, 74,
94, 98, 106, 113, 118122, 124,
136, 13942, 145, 149, 15559,
180181, 199, 206207, 219
Husband(s) 11, 29, 50, 68, 8182,
94, 106107, 112, 113, 119,
126, 13940, 142, 14447,
15155, 15860, 164, 167, 170,
176, 180, 220, 245
I
Idols 3, 13, 2425, 192, 201
Ignatius 3, 1113, 19, 60, 120,
124, 162, 169, 198200,
23031, 233, 236
J
Jesus 23, 812, 16, 20, 23,
2526, 3133, 3739, 41,
4350, 5256, 5860, 6366,
68, 70, 72, 75, 77, 80, 84,
9095, 97, 99101, 105, 112,
116, 123, 12729, 131, 13334,
137, 147, 15052, 154, 16263,
16569, 17174, 176, 182,
18789, 191, 19697, 199203,
206, 211, 213, 215, 21920,
22425, 22831, 233, 237,
23942, 24445, 248
Jew(s) 2, 35, 3738, 49, 59, 69,
75, 80, 93, 95, 101104, 108,
136, 142, 190191, 198, 200,
214, 245
Jewish 23, 11, 2324, 3738,
4849, 51, 67, 83, 95, 101, 108,
136, 147149, 151152,
175176, 190192, 204, 207,
210, 217, 245246
Justin Martyr 1, 59, 198, 201
L
Lamb 33, 42, 70, 7677, 133, 240
Love 29, 4445, 47, 5456,

6164, 6768, 7779, 82, 84,
87, 91, 110, 112, 11718, 133,
139, 145, 14849, 15863, 185,
201, 203205, 207, 22122,
228, 233, 241, 243, 24547
M
Mark 2, 46, 911, 16, 23, 37, 50,
56, 69, 90, 100, 128, 137, 141,
147, 186, 191, 202, 211, 219,
223, 229, 23839, 241, 24344,
246
Martyr(s) 1, 7, 9, 1113, 16, 20,
28, 40, 53, 55, 59, 67, 127, 144,
147, 198, 201, 212, 21718,
22829, 235
Martyrdom 1012, 26, 44, 117,
167, 173, 214, 241
O
Obedience 2, 31, 33, 4144,
7778, 14546, 148, 152, 154,
17273, 179, 219, 24041
Obedient 40, 43, 63, 66, 78, 81,
89, 105, 116, 118, 120, 123,
127, 154
P
Papias 2, 9
Paterfamilias 84, 15556, 18081
Pliny 15, 1719, 28, 97, 159, 195,
214, 224
Plutarch 140, 14243, 146, 149,
151, 15556, 183
Pontus 2, 5, 31, 33, 3839, 42, 75,
96
Pray 11, 32, 37, 4849, 63, 82,
118, 131, 141, 144, 16162,
202203, 209, 222, 239,
Prayer 34, 37, 46, 4849, 76, 78,
84, 97, 106, 118, 13132, 141,
152, 166, 182, 185, 205, 211,
239
Priest(s) 10, 49, 67, 9596, 102,
108, 111, 13132, 140,
142143, 216, 218, 248
Priesthood 2, 23, 42, 88, 91,
9497, 100, 102104, 106,
13132, 136
Pseudonymous 3, 56, 9, 245
R
Resident Alien(s) 23, 3335, 37,
40, 42, 79, 81, 105, 107109,
114, 151, 159, 203
S
Sacrifice(s) 11, 20, 23, 44, 69,
7677, 82, 88, 91, 9597,
102103, 131133, 14042,
173, 214, 221
Salvation 41, 4548, 5254,
5658, 60, 68, 72, 79, 82, 84,
8891, 105, 134, 167, 183,
189190, 196, 198, 200, 211,
221, 224, 246
Sanctification 31, 33, 4142, 44,
69, 95, 136, 157, 166
Sanctify 22, 43, 69, 92, 163, 166
Save(d) 1, 57, 73, 95, 116, 118,
146, 153, 156, 17172, 174,
17778, 190, 199, 202, 21415,
217, 223, 241, 247
Secretary 34, 249
Shrines 23, 87, 96, 98, 108,
14041
Silvanus 4, 6, 9, 32, 242243, 249
Slave(s) 1, 12, 19, 2122, 29, 31,
36, 40, 40, 48, 4950, 65, 68,
7374, 76, 79, 87, 94, 96,
102103, 106107, 110,
11215, 114, 11728, 13031,
13334, 137, 139, 139, 14446,
149, 15053, 155, 15758, 160,
164, 170, 173, 176, 182, 187,
19293, 205206, 216, 220,
228, 235
Slavery 50, 52, 7275, 77,
12021, 123, 125, 128, 134,
137, 180, 246
Sojourner(s) 23, 29, 31, 33,
3637, 62, 76, 7980, 82, 87,
105, 107, 109, 114, 152, 159
Spirit 1, 3133, 39, 4142, 4647,
5661, 77, 90, 9495, 97, 110,
116, 131, 142, 147, 150, 153,
156, 167, 17172, 17476, 178,
181, 185, 188, 195, 197,
199201, 206, 212, 21415,
221, 233, 23839, 245
Submission 68, 145, 147, 152,
18081, 247
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Submit 114, 126, 133, 136, 180
Subordinate 112, 11415, 120,
12226, 128, 133, 13940,
14446, 15455
Subordination 123, 126, 14546,
155
Suffer 1, 12, 14, 16, 2022,
5455, 58, 77, 82, 100, 119,
124, 127, 134, 144, 153,
16365, 16871, 18082, 189,
19495, 209210, 21213,
21517, 219, 22223, 232, 241,
248
Suffered 1112, 1516, 21, 111,
124, 12730, 159, 17173, 185,
18889, 195, 201, 209, 213,
237, 242
Suffering 1316, 2023, 25, 29,
4547, 50, 5254, 56, 64, 99,
106, 120, 12528, 13031, 134,
160, 162, 165, 16874, 179,
18789, 198, 208209, 21115,
217, 21920, 22224, 236, 242,
24445, 248
Suffering servant 128, 134
T
Tacitus 15, 183, 195, 209, 224
Temple(s) 18, 20, 23, 25, 48, 52,
59, 69, 71, 79, 87, 9498, 103,
108, 115, 121, 126, 135, 140,
142144, 166, 172, 193, 218,
233, 239
Tertullian 1, 6, 12, 118, 143, 148,
154, 168, 194, 197198, 213,
245246
Trajan 17, 19, 83, 97, 214, 224
V
Vice list 24, 89, 190, 221
Virtue list 161
W
Wife(ves) 11, 29, 49, 79, 82, 94,
105, 106107, 112, 11314,
11920, 126, 136, 13942,
14558, 160, 164, 167, 170,
173, 175, 177, 18081, 205,
220
Worship 13, 16, 19, 23, 5859,
70, 9698, 101, 103, 111, 116,
118, 14243, 154, 187, 192,

201, 205, 214, 228, 239
419
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8/6/10
8:46 AM
Page 421
index of topics for 2 Peter
1 Enoch 263, 327, 333, 344
A
Abraham 274, 280, 335
Angels 26, 4547, 5455, 5758,
61, 116, 171, 173, 175177,
18283, 246, 26465, 287, 327,
333, 33637, 344, 353
Antioch 269, 272
Apocalypse 26269, 28384
Apocalypse of Peter 26269, 28384
Authorship 26163, 265, 269,

281, 28384, 305
31316, 329, 331, 339, 342,

360
Baal 33233
Christianity 25960, 264, 271,

279, 295, 303, 305, 307308,
316, 325, 344
Babylon 267
Christological 266
Balaam 3267, 337, 33942, 345
Church 260, 26265, 267,

26970, 27273, 280, 284,
28990, 29293, 301, 303, 307,
316, 318, 3235, 327, 33031,
339, 34243, 348, 35660
Baptism 274, 283, 315, 318

Barnabas 263, 27172, 285, 289
Basil the Great 292
Beloved 262, 268, 270, 272, 290,
297, 311, 314, 317, 347, 356,
358, 360
Cicero 276, 285, 320, 326
Apocalyptic 263, 27475, 319,

325, 327
Apology 281, 301, 309, 336
Benediction 305, 358
Apostasy 27778, 302, 323, 330,

339, 341
Bible 260, 274, 276, 28081, 284,

315, 332, 334, 341, 344, 361
Apostle 261, 263, 28990, 294,

323, 357
Body 280, 293, 311, 327, 331,

337, 343, 351, 355
Coming 270, 274, 27677, 297,

302, 31316, 31820, 324, 326,
32829, 335, 34950, 35356,
359
Apostles Creed 35859

Apostolic 261, 263, 267, 270,
28485, 290, 299, 303, 31415,
318, 321, 324, 329, 331, 337,
339, 342, 34748, 357, 35960
C
Caesarea 269
Cain 327
Circumcision 271
CNN 281
Conversional knowledge 289, 295,

299, 301, 304, 310, 341, 355
Corruption 287, 296, 300, 306,
334, 336, 34041, 344
Cosmic conflagration 354, 356,
360
Apostolic teaching 261, 299, 315,

324, 329, 331, 337, 339, 342,
360
Canon 26165, 267, 272, 28285,

318, 326, 358
Asia Minor 26768, 270, 273,

284, 291
Chain of virtues 29799, 301,

304, 307, 350, 355, 357
Asiatic Greek 294
Character formation 303
Atheism 286
Charlatan 340
Atheists 279, 286
Chiasm 313, 322, 328
David 280, 329
Attic 284
Christ 26063, 26667, 70, 274,

27677, 280, 282, 289303,
305, 31016, 318, 322, 324,
329, 334, 341, 347, 349, 355,
35859, 362
Day of God 316, 31920, 326,

35556
Christian 261, 27477, 280, 283,

285, 293, 295, 297307, 309,
Death 26162, 274, 278, 280,

294, 309, 31112, 315, 325,
Augustine 276, 292

Authority 267, 273, 277, 28283,
290, 292, 303, 318, 326, 336,
357
Authority of Scripture 282, 318
Cephas 272, 290, 305
Cosmos 291, 334, 354

Creation 276, 278, 320, 33435,
35051, 361
Creator 269, 277, 334
Day of judgment 31920, 327,

334, 336, 353, 355
Day of the Lord 296, 31920
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331, 344, 34951, 355, 361

Defense 261, 265, 272, 276, 282,
287, 290, 295, 309, 31314,
316, 318, 322, 336, 348, 350,
353
Desire 301, 350, 386
Devil 327, 337, 343
Divine nature 29496, 302,
306307, 354, 357
318, 32223, 32833, 33644,

34851, 356, 361
Farewell sermon 294, 297, 302
Flood 33435, 338, 352
FOX News 281
Freedom 278, 286, 299300, 304,
322, 340, 342, 351, 357
Hope 260, 262, 270, 277, 281,

29394, 300, 305, 309310,
318, 356
I
Icon 272, 281, 290
Immorality 337, 350
Inclusio 293, 313, 322, 328, 344
Israel 280, 292, 320, 340
Doctrine 272, 275, 279, 285,

29092, 303, 305, 315, 32425,
329, 331, 361
Gehenna 333
Dualism 29596
Glorious ones 337
Jacob 274, 320, 340, 357
Glory 266, 274, 283, 295, 314,

31618, 321, 337, 358
James 263, 272, 276, 28385,

289, 303, 306307, 31415,
317, 325, 362
E
Earth 291, 296, 317, 320, 35156,
360, 362
Gentiles 27072, 348
Gnosticism 278
God 26466, 274, 277, 27980,

286, 291302, 304305,
31112, 31417, 31922, 324,
32629, 33234, 336, 338,
34041, 344, 347, 35056, 359
Jeremiah 280
Godliness 274, 291, 295, 297,

300, 306, 320, 355
Jerusalem Council 27172,

28990
Endurance 263, 300
Gomorrah 287, 327, 330, 33536,

345, 353
Epicureanism 330, 351, 361
Goodness 274, 295, 299, 306
Epicurus 27879, 286, 31415,

33031, 351
Grace 29193, 296, 298,

302303, 305306, 348, 356,
358
Jesus 261, 26667, 271, 274,

27677, 28083, 28995,
29799, 301302, 305, 307,
310319, 321, 32324, 326,
329, 331, 334, 341, 347,
34951, 354, 356, 358, 36061
Ecclesiastical History 263, 283

Egypt 26769, 284
Elements 292, 295, 313, 320, 329,
351, 354, 356, 360
Elijah 314, 317, 33233
Encyclical 273, 285
Eschatology 306, 313, 320, 36

Ethics 272, 290, 324, 331, 342,
355
Greed 277, 330, 33940, 342
Exodus 312, 327
Greek 261, 268, 270, 27880,

29192, 29495, 299301, 310,
31314, 33334, 343, 34950,
35455, 360
Exploitation 277, 330
Gregory of Nyssa 292
Eusebius 263, 267, 283
Eyewitness 283, 31314, 316,

31819, 321, 324, 326, 329
F
Faith 260, 278, 280, 282, 29094,
297305, 307308, 31112,
316, 347, 358
Faithful living 27374, 296, 303,
312
Faithfulness 270, 273, 287, 294,
302
False prophets 310, 31314, 318,
322, 328, 33233, 349, 357
False teachers 263, 270, 27678,
287, 304, 306, 31011, 313,
H
Heavens 274, 291, 296, 320,
35155, 360
Hell 264, 327
Hellenism 316, 329
Heraclitus 35455, 362
Heresy 27778, 281, 32930
Heretic 264
Holy mountain 267, 276, 31415,
317, 319
Holy Spirit 271, 29192, 305,
322, 328
Homer 350
Jerome 267, 269, 276, 283, 286,

306, 325, 344, 36162
Jerusalem 27172, 28990, 292,
317, 344
Jewish 27374, 279, 28990, 292,

295, 314, 33334, 337, 345,
352, 360
John 26364, 272, 28384, 307,
309, 312, 314, 317, 32324,
326, 344, 362
Judah 280
Judaism 264, 295, 309, 334
Jude 26061, 26365, 269, 271,
27677, 28385, 298, 305307,
32528, 333, 337, 34345,
36162
Judge 277, 291, 297, 316, 324,
326, 332, 334, 359
Judgment 265, 270, 27579,
28587, 290, 292, 29697, 314,
31920, 322, 32629, 33236,
338, 340, 342, 34749, 35355,
357, 35960
K
Kingdom 302, 312, 331, 334
8/6/10
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Knowledge 274, 277, 289,
29295, 299, 301302, 304,
306, 310, 333, 341, 35558
Korah 327
L
Lactanitus 27879
Licentious 300, 323, 330, 340,
344, 350
Lifestyle 32425, 33031
Lot 280, 291, 297, 324, 327,
33336, 34445
Lucifer 320
Lust 296, 330, 336, 342, 350
M
Majesty 26667, 274, 276, 314,
31618, 321
Marcion 264, 318
O
Old Testament 264, 276, 313,
317, 319, 32425, 340, 350,
361
Opponents 163, 181, 27579,
28182, 287, 291, 29597,
299302, 305307, 309,
31315, 31821, 325, 32930,
332, 336, 338, 340, 34344,
35051, 353, 356, 361
Origen 267
Orthodoxy 26364, 281, 303, 307
P
Parousia 26566, 270, 27577,
285, 287, 302, 309, 31214,
316, 31821, 32425, 329, 334,
336, 338, 342, 34751, 35355,
35961
322, 326, 328, 33233, 340,

34850, 357, 361
Proverbs 341
Providence 278
Providential 286, 300
Pseudepigraphon 261, 26768,
271, 305, 312
Pseudonymity 26163, 268
R
Redeemer 334
Resurrection 280
Retribution 278, 286
Rhetoric 270, 27576, 285, 294,
319, 336, 338, 343
Righteousness 26465, 291, 294,
29697, 302, 320, 334, 34142,
35455, 362
Rome 263, 26768, 271, 273,
279, 28485, 294, 354
Messiah 271
Pastoral 27273, 275, 285, 293,

305, 311, 347, 351, 353, 355
Messianic 266, 31518, 326, 340
Pastoral Epistles 273
Metaphor 299, 311, 313, 354
Patience 353, 356
Michael 283, 306, 32728, 337,

34344, 361, 363
Paul 26263, 268, 27172, 276,

285, 28991, 29394, 297, 299,
305, 311, 316, 32224, 330,
34748, 354, 35657, 360, 362
Salvation 291, 302, 356
Morning star 31920, 340

Moses 263, 274, 280, 314, 317,
327, 337, 343, 362
S
Scoffers 277, 35051
Scripture 27677, 28283,
31819, 321, 32829, 357
Peace 29293, 339, 356
Second coming 359
MSNBC 281
Pentecost 271
Selfcontrol 299, 350
Mt. Carmel 33233
Perry Mason 281
Servant 261, 28990
Muratorian Canon 263, 265, 284
Petrine 262, 26467, 26971,

273, 28384, 305, 312, 315,
348, 357, 361
Simeon Peter 261, 28990
Muratorian Fragment 26365

Mutual affection 300
Myth 262, 28384, 31415, 319,
327, 36061
Philo 352, 362

Piety 300
Pius I 263
Plutarch 27879
New earth 291, 296, 320, 355
Polemic 286, 301, 309, 336, 361
New heavens 291, 296, 320, 355
Postapostolic 290, 298
New Testament 259, 261, 26365,

267, 271, 27374, 276, 278,
280, 28285, 28993, 295,
29899, 302, 305306, 309,
311, 31319, 324, 326, 334,
344, 350, 35354, 35758, 361
Postmodern 304305, 308, 344
Noah 287, 291, 327, 33336, 338,

344
Postmodernism 304
Praxis 303
423
Sin 29697, 301, 339, 34445

Slander 33738
Slave 322
Sodom 287, 327, 330, 33536,
34445, 353
Stoicism 355
Stoics 350, 35455
Suffering 270, 338
Superstar 324
Synoptic Gospels 266, 275, 283,
31415, 317, 319
Prayer 29293
Promise(s) 261, 274, 276, 281,
287, 294, 29596, 300, 302,
31112, 320, 329, 340,
350,35356, 361
Prophet(s) 270, 274, 277, 280,
290, 310, 31314, 318, 321,
T
Tartarus 333
Tent 31112
Tertullian 292
Testament 259, 261, 26365, 267,
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8:46 AM
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271, 27376, 278, 280, 28285,

287, 28993, 295, 29899, 302,
305306, 309319, 32427,
334, 340, 344, 34950, 35354,
35758, 361
Testament of Moses 263, 327, 370,
403
Theology 259, 266, 270, 282, 291,
303, 306, 31415, 331, 342
Thief 320, 354
Timothy 273, 322
Titus 27273
Tradition 262, 26667, 283, 289,
31112, 318, 321, 325, 334,
345, 361
Transfiguration 26566, 274, 283,
28586, 31319, 32122,
32426, 329, 347
Trial 281, 327, 33436, 35354
Trinitarian 29192, 326
Trinity 29192, 305
U
Unrighteousness 291
V
Values 301
Venus 320
Virtue 299300
W
Way of truth 323, 331, 343, 348
8/6/10
8:46 AM
Page 425
index of topics for Jude
2 Peter 369, 37778, 387, 398,

402
A
Adam 390
Angels 373, 375, 378, 38789,
402
Antidote 370, 37576, 390, 392
Delivered 369, 38485, 394, 401
Kept 38182, 400
Doxology 39596, 402
Korah 373, 38990
Legalism 394, 398401
Enoch 36970, 373, 387, 39091,

402
Letter form 375
Assumption of Moses 36970
Faith 36970, 376, 378, 38286,

389, 391, 39397, 401
Authority 378, 38081, 383, 389,

391, 397
Falling 39596
False teachers 373, 376, 378, 381,

383, 386, 389, 39198
Fidelity 371, 401
Belief 371, 376, 401402
General epistle 37576, 402
Beloved 38283, 39294
Gnostic 375, 377
Blessing 378, 383
Gnosticism 278, 37576
Book of Enoch 36970, 39091,

402
Brother 37981, 402, 404
Carpocratian heresy 375

Catholic epistles 369, 376
Condemnation 385, 391, 402
D
Datesetting 39899
Defile 389
Martin Luther 378

Metaphor(s) 378, 388
Michael 370, 373, 402
Muratorian Canon 37576
N
Nephilim 387
O
Obedience 371, 400401
Orthodoxy 371, 376, 401
H
Heresy 371, 375, 38384, 396
Holy 382, 39294, 400
Parousia 387, 39799
Hope 384, 393, 395, 401
Patience 389
Cain 373, 389

Called 376, 37879, 38182, 385,
388, 390, 401
Nag Hammadi 37677
Balaam 373, 378, 389

Baruch 387
Egypt 375, 377, 386
Apocryphal writings 378

Apostles 373, 378, 38485,
39194
Devil 373
Practice 371, 390, 398
I
Immorality 383, 387, 389
Israel 38687
Israelites 386, 389, 391, 402
Prophetic examples 38586

Pseudepigrapha 36970, 390
R
Relationship to 2 Peter 377
J
Jubilees 387
Judaism 376
Judgment 373, 378, 383, 38691
8/6/10
426
8:46 AM
Index of Topics for Jude
S
Saints 369, 38385, 394, 396, 401
Salvation 376, 383, 385, 39192,
397, 401
Satan 370, 381, 394
Scripture 370, 38485, 390, 402
Selfdelusion 371
Selfscrutiny 371, 402
Servant 37980, 382
Sinners 373, 38182, 386, 390
Sodom and Gomorrah 373, 378,
38788
T
Tradition 378, 384, 39092
Truth 371, 384, 389, 401
U
Ungodly 383, 386, 391, 393, 402
W
Whisenant 398
Page 426
8/6/10
8:46 AM
Page 427
index of scriptures
Old Testament
13:11-16
76
DEUTERONOMY
21
241
16:2, 9
391
5:10; 7:9
49
21:14
241
GENESIS
1:6-8
19:5
103
6:2, 13
71
22
241
352
19:6
95, 103
7:7-8
33
32:12 (33:12) 51
5:18
390
19:24
95
18:22
321
33
164
5:21-24
245
23:22
95, 103
23:4-5
340
33:5 (34:4)
36
5:22, 24
391
24
44
33
274
33(34):8
91
5:24
390
24:8
44
69
352
34:19-20
76
JOSHUA
175, 387
34:20
76
13:22
6:1-4
175, 333
24:9-10
33(34):12-16 163
33:15-16
163
340
33:17, 19
73
340
33:18
73
33:19
73
33:21
73
7:7
177
LEVITICUS
13:5-11
388
11
69
1 KINGS
13:12
388
11:44-45
69
5:21
48
33:22
73
14:20
48
19:2
69
18
332
34
73
15:7
51
19:3
69
34:13-14
163
151
19:9-10
69
NEHEMIAH
38 (39)
37
1819
335
19:14
71
13:2
18
388
20:7, 26
69
18:12
151
25:48-49
76
16:2
340
ESTHER
38:13
109
4:17
49(50):14,
23
96
50(51):17
97
54:23
239
60:7 (61:4)
36
65:20
48
90:4
353, 388
152
335
27
76
19:4-5
388
27:2-3
76
19:8
388
19:24-25
388
NUMBERS
21:11-12
151
14:29-37
386
21:12
181
22:23-30
340
PSALMS
23:4-6
34
2224
340
1:1
392
23:4
36, 109
317, 319
274
23:7-10,
18-24
49
340
2:6
317, 319
24:3-9, 15-19 340
2:7
319
24:15-19
340
14:1 (15:1)
36
24:17
320, 340
15:5 (16:5)
18:22-33
EXODUS
38:13-14
(39:12-13) 34
JOB
28:22
198
109:1 (110:1) 58
117(118):22 92, 100
118:19
(119:19)
36
51
118:54
(119:54)
36
6:6
72
12
76
17:47
48
119:105
319
12:5
76
18(19):1-2
59
121:3
396
8/6/10
428
8:46 AM
Page 428
Index of Scriptures
139:8
201
34:2-23
140(141):2
97
34:11, 13,
16
231
131
PROVERBS
2 MACCABEES
1:30-31
37
2:17
95
1:30
11
6:12-17
217, 219
2:27
400
6:23
69
3:16
10
3:18
379
392
DANIEL
3:15
154
3:23
48
1 ESDRAS
3:25
153
7:13-14
319
4:40
3:34
14, 236
12:1
210
9:7-8
392
10:12
203, 204
JONAH
11:31
219
2:1
240
MATTHEW
26:11
341
3:8
79
1:2-3
379
12:10-11
100
27:21
208
2:6
379
13
319
4:21
242
13:7-8
211
57
331
13:24-27
327
5:10-11
165
13:30
202
239
1:22
New Testament
MICAH
6:5
ISAIAH
48
340
313
6:3
380
6:8
379
7:6, 7
399
7:20-23
191
9:2-8
317
8:13-14
92, 166
8:14
92
ZECHARIAH
5:11-12
212, 213
10:3
112
11:3-17
231
5:20-28
399
13:34, 35,
37
214
13:7
218
158
13:9-13
219, 223
6:25-34
239
14:28
56
10:3
379
14:34
239
10:19-20
215
12:1-12
400
14:34, 37,
38
239
14:37-38
239
14:66-71
56
14:72
56
16:7
56
11:2-3
28:16
92, 97
29:13
399
Apochrypha
6:15
4055
73
40:6-8
80
TOBIT
40:11
231
3:11
49
13:55
379, 380
41:9
33, 382
4:14
69
15:8, 9
399
42:1
382
8:5
16:13-23
92
42:6
382
8:15
49
16:19
158
43:1-4
73, 76
11:14
49
17:1-8
317
43:20-21
101
11:17
49
22:37-39
395
43:21
103
13:1a
48
23
401
5253
73
13:2
23:8-11
230
24:9-14
223
24:14
202
24:19
390
24:42, 43
239
24:43
354
25:13
239
25:31-46
327
52:1353:12 59
13:18
391
4:13
54
6:16
379
6:27-38
161
9:28-36
317
12:11-13
215
49
16:26
242
24:12
51
MARK
19:35
239
24:23
51
1:15
202
21:12-19
223
1:16-17
10
21:12-15
215
147
21:24
202
128, 129,
173
4:9-12
79
WISDOM
6:10
167
JEREMIAH
2:8
231
SIRACH
32:29-30
218
16:11-12
33:11
218
389
49
3:37
JUDITH
9:5-6
397
1:68
379
73
EZEKIEL
56
1:47
379
52:3
231
49
1:14
3:33
73, 76
63:11
49
LUKE
2:4
52:3-4
53
49
26:38, 40,
41
1:29-31
239
8/6/10
8:46 AM
Page 429
Index of Scriptures
429
22:25-26
233
12
9, 48
3:1-2
90
2:11-21
399
22:25
233
14:23
230
3:10-15
217
2:11-16
357
23:49
8, 229
15
9, 289
3:16-17
94
2:11-14
272
24:34
228
15:14
289
5:11
191
3:1-3
399
24:36-39
174
15:22
230, 243
6:9-11
215
4:5
51
15:22, 27,
32
6:9-10
191
4:6
393
JOHN
379
6:11
382
5:1
401
1:35-42
10
16:7
39
6:19
94, 379
5:16
110
1:41-42
10
18:2
39
6:20
380
5:22-26
297
50
20:17-38
309
119, 140
5:23
150
5:24
217
5:27
391
ROMANS
6:68
10
1:1
11:15
13:36-38
14:22
7:9
299
7:12-16
154
EPHESIANS
380
7:16
146
1:2
381
1:6-7
381
7:21-24
119
1:3
48
312
1:7
293, 382
7:22
379
2:21
94
379
1:8-14
32
7:23
380
4:17
111
1517
309
1:8
48, 56
9:5
11, 147
4:22, 25
89
15:9-10
395
1:28-31
191
9:25
299
145
16:20
212
2:4-6
357
12:3
393, 394
5:21-24
145
17:12
381
5:3-5
297
13:13
395
5:22-33
140
6:22
379
14:33b-35
146
5:25-33
139, 158
382
19:15-18,
25-27
56
8:15, 23
51
15:1-8
384
6:18
393, 394
2021
10
8:26-27
394
15:5
10, 228
6:5-9
119
21
8, 11, 56,
231
8:26
393
16:19
38
6:5-6
122
8:33
92
21:15-19
56
6:6
379
9:33
92
21:17
56
2 CORINTHIANS
11:17-24
51
21:18-19
11, 312
1:2
293, 382
PHILIPPIANS
12:12
212
21:18
231
1:3a
48
1:1-2
31
12:13
205
21:23
202
1:3b-4
48
1:1
380
12:14, 17
161
1:19
9, 243
1:2
382
12:19
107
3:6
401
1:3-5
48
ACTS
13:1-7
116
1:13
379
4:16
150
1:12-30
309
13:1-2
115
2:9
39
6:16
94
1:17-18
212
13:12
89
2:31
198
9:25
235
3:20
109
13:13
190
2:34-35
59
11:2
139
4:1
235
1415
2:42
394
12:21
190
4:8
297, 299
14:8
379
4:11
100
14:10-12
217
5:37
379
GALATIANS
15:14-33
32
7:13
101
1:1-3
15:14, 15
386
7:19
101
16:1-2
243
7:43, 46
311
8:26-40
128
9:11
10
COLOSSIANS
32
1:2
382
1:3
293, 382
1:3-8
32
1:18
272
1:13
109
2:1-14
268
2:1
32
1 CORINTHIANS
379
2:1-10
272
2:16-23
399
1:3
293, 382
272
2:7-8
10
3:8
89
1:4-5
48
2:8
3, 10
3:18-19
140
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Index of Scriptures
2:4
175, 176,
177
23
2:11
377
25
3:18
145
3:8-13
229
11:13
109
3:19
158
3:8
232
12:4
15
3:224:1
119
4:3
24
12:23
3:22
122
4:10
397
13:2
24
2:14
4:10
5:1, 17-22
230
13:3
15
2:17
377
3:1
1, 25,
107
3:8-9
202
3:14
377
3:15-16
25
6:1-2
119
13:4
25
6:3-5
191
13:9
24
1 THESSALONIANS
6:12
111
1:1
9, 243,
382
6:20
376
1:2-3
48
2 TIMOTHY
2:19
235
1:2
382
2:5
330
4:4
4:16
245
JAMES
1:1
380
1:5-8
158
1:12
235
314
1:21
89, 150
3:1-5
223
4:8
235
4:1-10
25
4:1-8
157
4:11
4:3
158
4:6-10
238
4:3-4
157
4:13-18
197
TITUS
4:15
202
1:3
4:9
386
5:2
4:6
236, 238
397
4:7
238
1:4
382, 384
4:8-9
111
354
1:5-9
230
4:10
238
5:4
357
1:7
233
5:7-9
217
5:23
381
1:8
206
5:14
23
5:26-27
247
1:14
314
5:20
204
2:1-5
140
2:9-10
119, 122
1 PETER
2:10
397
1:1-2
290
2 THESSALONIANS
1:1
9, 243
1:2
382
3:1-2
116
1:1
268
2:3-10
211
3:4
397
1:2
382
3:5
50
1:10
270, 348
2:11
270, 348
2:12
270
3:12
150
1 TIMOTHY
PHILEMON
1:1
397
382
2:16
379
1:2
382
24
5:13
267
1:4
376
1:4; 4:7
314
HEBREWS
2:1-4
116
1:13
2:2
150
2:3
397
2:4
389
2:8-15
2 PETER
1 JOHN
2:12-14
236
2:21, 27
386
3:17-18
24
5:16-17
240
2 JOHN
2 John 3
382
3 JOHN
3 John 7
111
JUDE
1-2
377
382
271
5-7
25
271, 327
176, 177,
271, 333
271
8-16
163
8-10
337
271
271, 327,
337, 343,
377, 378
59
1:1
380
2:12
23
1:2
377
3:17-19
386
1:5
377
10
271
5:11-14
90
1:12-18
32
11
271
140
6:1-4
240
1:12
377
12
271
2:9-11
148
6:9
107
1:13-15
11
13
271, 377
2:11-12
146
7:14
379
1:16
314
14-15
230
10:32-34
15
1:21
382
175, 245,
328
3:1-7
229
10:34
52
2:13:3
377
14
377
3:2
206
163
16
271
11:5
391
2:1-22
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Index of Scriptures
17
271, 377
18
271
21
382
REVELATION
23
40, 230
2:2
230
2:10
16, 235
2:13
16
2:14, 20
24
2:20
230
3:11
235
3:15-19
16
3:20-21
25
4:4, 10
235
5:5
379
6:2
235
6:9-11
16
7:5
379
9:7
235
12:1
235
12:3
235
13:1
235
13:11
248
13:15
16
14:14
235
1718
163
17:1-6
116
18:1-4
116
18:9, 18
208
20:4-6
16
20:11-15
217
21:2
139
21:8
215
22:15
215
431
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1 & 2 Peter, Jude

Smyth & Helwys Bible Commentary: 1 & 2 Peter, Jude

Smyth & Helwys Publishing, Inc.

The paper used in this publication meets the minimum

SMYTH & HELWYS BIBLE COMMENTARY

1 & 2 Peter, Jude

praise for the

HOW TO USE THIS COMMENTARY

Called by God to Holiness

Stones, Sojourners, and Slaves

Conduct at Home and in the World

The End of Suffering

Closing Advice from Peter the Elder

Conversional Knowledge of Jesus Christ

Peters Testament and a Defense of Parousia,

The Certainty of Judgment

Reminders, Encouragements, and Defenses

The Epistle Jude

INDEX OF MODERN AUTHORS FOR 1 PETER

INDEX OF MODERN AUTHORS FOR 2 PETER

INDEX OF MODERN AUTHORS FOR JUDE

INDEX OF SIDEBARS AND ILLUSTRATIONS FOR 1 PETER

INDEX OF SIDEBARS AND ILLUSTRATIONS FOR 2 PETER

INDEX OF SIDEBARS AND ILLUSTRATIONS FOR JUDE

INDEX OF TOPICS FOR 1 PETER

INDEX OF TOPICS FOR 2 PETER

INDEX OF TOPICS FOR JUDE

The New Testament

Anno Domini (in the year of the Lord)

Selected additional written works cited by abbreviations include the following. A

Hebrew Union College Annual

The Smyth & Helwys Bible Commentary makes serious, credible

focuses on the theological significance of a text while also offering

Each volume features an Introduction to a particular book of the

As each chapter explores a textual unit, the discussion centers around

How to Use This Commentary

of the Commentary section. The primary concern of the

How to Use This Commentary

Each Sidebar is printed in color and is referenced at the

Alpha & Omega Language

This icon identifies the information as a language-based tool that

This icon introduces further comment on contextual or cultural

Sidebars that appear under this icon serve a general interpretive

How to Use This Commentary

Additional Resources Study

Here, the reader finds a convenient list of useful resources for

Each volume also includes a basic Bibliography on the biblical

Eusebius, writing around AD 323, said the following about 1 Peter:

1 Peter and attribute it to the apostle. Eusebiuss judgment is thus a

Karen Jobes argues strongly for the apostles involvement with

b. Someone else wrote it using Peters ideas. Many interpreters

Again, once it was accepted in one place, others would accept it on

Thus does Lloyd Douglas picture Peter, the Big Fisherman.

have read witness of Christs sufferings to mean one who

He was married. According to Paul (1 Cor 9:5) and Mark (1:30),

were apostles; I am a convict. They were at liberty; I am still a slave.

As I indicated above, I find arguments against Peters authorship

If Peter wrote it or dictated it, then it probably comes from the

ences Christians went through at Neros hands, if Peter was directly

First Peter refers often to suffering that Christians might have to

centuries wonder whether 1 Peter refers to any known instance of

below). The evidence of Hebrews is thus equivocal, seeming at one