Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Writing WORKSHOP 1 Handout and Tasks
Writing WORKSHOP 1 Handout and Tasks
COLLEGE LONDON
A WRITING DEVELOPMENT RESOURCE
Developed by Chris Tribble & Ursula Wingate, 2013
1.
INTRODUCTION
2.
MOVES IN MA ASSIGNMENTS
2.1
3.
INTRODUCTIONS
2
5
3.1
3.2
4.
CITATIONS IN INTRODUCTIONS
10
4.1
10
4.2
12
5.
CONCLUSIONS
14
5.1
14
5.2
16
6.
1.
17
INTRODUCTION
All of the examples in this guide have been taken from assignments in the KCL
Apprentice Writing Corpus. Assignments on the MA typically require students to
demonstrate knowledge of relevant research literature, to reflect on the relevance of
this research on specific teaching and learning contexts, and to come to conclusions
in relation to the particular issues which are raised in the assignment. It is important
to understand how critical reflection fits into this process. All too often students
misunderstand what is meant when they are asked to read and write critically. It
doesn't mean to disagree or to criticise negatively. Rather, it means to assess the
relevance or utility of theories and research in our field from a professional
perspective, and to make recommendations or proposals on the basis of this
understanding. In this way we can make links between the work that is carried out by
a research community and what we do ourselves in specific communities of practice.
We hope that the following sections will encourage students on the MA to review the
ways in which high and low scoring candidates have used written language to
organise their ideas into assignments and dissertations. In writing successful
Wri tin g th e MA- Work sh op #1
Chris Tribble / Ursula Wingate, 2012
Page 1
assignments, students on the MA in ELT and Applied Linguistics will draw on relevant
evidence and authorities and evaluate this evidence in relation to the assignment
topic/question and their own professional practice. Ideally, they will do this in order
to reach conclusions which will have value for their own future professional
engagement, and, in the best cases, which will inform the activities of other
members of our profession.
2.
MOVES IN MA ASSIGNMENTS
Examples are given below of the different major moves found in three high scoring
assignments.
One thing that all the assignments shared was a simple system of headings to
introduce each section. This is a practice that all students might want to consider. It
has the advantage of guiding the reader and ensuring also that the writer has a
clearer sense of where they're going and how each section of the assignment needs
to be linked to the next. If you do use headings DO remember to use MS Word's
Heading Styles. These can be invoked by using the keystrokes Crtl+Alt+1 /
Crtl+Alt+2 / Crtl+Alt+3. The styles themselves can be edited and adjusted.
Generally, I would recommend using a numbered heading system in dissertations
and assignments (1, 1.1, 1.1.1 etc.) as this makes it easier to refer to different
sections of the piece of work.
In these analyses the original headings have been used and a summary of the
content has been provided to give an indication of the content and the development
of the argument.
Page 2
TASK 1
Review the essay outlines for Examples A, B and C. Identify any structural features that they share.
Assignment topics:
Example A: In the light of recent research, do you consider EAP a pragmatic, non-ideological means of developing students academic communicative competence (Swales 1990) or is such an approach a
means of accommodating students into their disciplines that supports inequities.
Example B: Describe what is meant by a content-based approach to language teaching and learning (CLIL) and discuss the rationale for such an approach. What are the arguments for and against using such an
approach in a context you are familiar with?
Example C: Comment on what you feel to be the relevance of the following critical account of conventional SLA theories and research. To what extent do you agree or disagree with the view expressed here?
Unfortunately, studies of how people learn a second language have been constricted by the narrow purview of mainstream second language acquisition (SLA) work. The issues of language learning have been
cast as questions to do with the acquisition of morphemes syntax, and lexis, with pronunciation or communicative competence, and the learner has been cast as a one-dimensional acquisition device.
(Pennycook 2001:143)
[EXAMPLE A]
[EXAMPLE B]
[EXAMPLE C]
INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
Contextualising comment: reference to relevant literature
Contextualising comment: Historical survey of the development
Contextualisation of SLA studies in earlier theories of language
Clear statement of a position in relation to the topic + indication of
of CLIL has developed.
acquisition.
the structure of the assignment.
Summary of European applications of CLIL in bilingual
Summary of "mainstream" arguments
Summary of main argument.
education.
Summary of mainstream SLA research issues.
Justification for the focus of the study.
Outline of the structure of the assignment.
Problematisation of mainstream position
Outline of the assignment:
BODY
BODY
Critical Pragmatism
Whats in a name?
BODY
Introduction of the concept of Critical Pragmatism + demonstration
Survey of terms used in bilingual education (diagram to
SLA research methods
of its relevance to the assignment topic
illustrate)
Summary of current approaches to SLA research + critique (Pennycook)
Background
Core Principles: CLIL in Theory
Argument for SC approach
Summary of key literature in relation to Critical Pragmatism, genre
Summary of CLIL theory
Language use vs. language acquisition
and recent attempts to bring critical approaches and genre
Core Principles: CLIL in Practice
Summary of argument against the dismissal of language use as
together.
Review of recent experience in the development of CLIL based
evidence in understanding SLA
Why pragmatic EAP is dominant
methodologies and curricula and consideration of main preMetaphors of learning and acquisition
Account of the development of EAP in the UK and internationally
requisites for successful CLIL implementation
Summary of arguments against input-output metaphor of leaning and
and a description of why approaches taken over the last 20 years Curriculum | Pedagogy | Ethos
cognition.
or so have not had a "critical" dimension.
Call for a consideration of a "bi-directional process' of L2 learning."
A Framework for the Implementation of CLIL
Critical pragmatic approaches
Sociocultural Theory (SCT); an alternative perspective
Summary of the necessary conditions for the implementation of
Summary of how recent attempts have been made to introduce
Summary of SCT (SCT is a theory of mind)
CLIL
critical pragmatic approaches and potential applications in EAP.
SCT summary (Summarises main argument.)
Applying the Framework
Principles for critical pragmatism
Uniting the two perspectives
Review of the potential for the introduction of CLIL in the school
Survey of how critical pragmatic approaches can be applied in EAP
Re-connection with the Pennycook + call for a combination of both
where the writer currently teaches.
settings with a particular emphasis on plagiarism.
approaches
Curriculum | Pedagogy | Ethos
CONCLUSION
CONCLUSION
CONCLUSION
Summary of main stance.
Summarisation of findings
Recapitulation of the argument in favour of implementing CLIL in
Exhortation to apply critical pragmatic approaches more widely in
Call for a fuller consideration to be given to social aspects of learning in
a specific location.
EAP.
future SLA studies
Recommendation for future research.
Page 3
Wri tin g th e MA- Work sh op #1
Chris Tribble / Ursula Wingate, 2012
NOTES
Desirable features:
REFLECTION
- Consider an example of your own writing. To what extent does this reflect the good practice exemplified here?
- What RECOMMENDATIONS would you make to a student writing their first assignment at King's?
NOTES
The following sections illustrate in more detail how each of these stages of an assignment can be developed, and demonstrate some of the
areas where things can go wrong.
Page 4
3.
INTRODUCTIONS
Four example Introductions from high scoring assignments and two examples from
low scoring assignments are given below. While none of these are either entirely
perfect or entirely dreadful, they do appear to indicate some things to do and things
to avoid when it comes to writing Introductory sections in MA assignments and
dissertations.
3.1
TASK 1
-
Review the analyses for the first three introductions in high scoring
assignments.
Complete your own analysis of Example 4.
Summarise what would appear to be the desirable features of assignment
Introductions
Introduction
Introduction
The role of assessment in language teaching and learning is complex and often
politically-charged. In recent years, many researchers have promoted a more socially
and democratically equitable conception of assessment (i.e. Shohamy 2001, Lynch
2001), that is non-psychometric and non-standardised. This has led to the promotion,
endorsement and implementation of various classroom-based alternatives, many of
which have shared characteristics and concerns (cf. Leung 2005, p. 870 for a brief
overview). [1] Despite this change in tide, however, a number of old questions rightly
persist. In particular the issues of validity and reliability, which Leung (2005) refers to as
the quality and soundness of the assessment approach, are still prevalent (p. 869).
Interestingly, these questions are posed by those spearheading this new movement in
an attempt to ensure theoretical, empirical and epistemological robustness (i.e. Leung
2004). [2] In this discussion I shall address the issue of validity in regard to Formative
Assessment (FA). In the first section, I shall define, examine and then problematise the
central tenets of FA; this problematisation will raise three key questions in regard to
validity in FA. In the second section, I will begin by briefly delineating some of the
underlying assumptions of validity in conventional assessment practice. Following this, I
shall return to the three crucial and interrelated questions previously identified, through
which I argue for a reconceptualised understanding of validity in FA that acknowledges
its complex and contingent nature. In my conclusion I shall argue that subscription to
this viewpoint will enable FA to attain a more prominent position in educational
assessment. [3]
EXAMPLE B. Assignment title: 'The three Ss (Swan, Sheen and Seedhouse) have put forward
some fundamental criticism of TBLT: from a conversation analytic perspective (Seedhouse,
2005)), a pedagogical perspective (Swan, 2005) and from a learning culture perspective
(Sheen, 2003). In a publication entitled TBLT: Sorting out the Misunderstandings, Ellis
(forthcoming) attempts to show that all three have got it wrong, and that TBLT has got it right.
Discuss, relate and weight the arguments of all four players against each other, and formulate a
conclusion based on a) your personal evaluation of the debate, b) your personal teaching
experience.
Page 5
methodology used by many EAP academics (Hyland & Hamp Lyons, 2002, Harwood,
2005) transfers easily into TBLT, thus making for an apparently straightforward route
from research to methodology. Given the handicap that L2 speakers may have since
academic proficiency may take 5-10 years longer than conversational proficiency to
develop (Collier 1987, 1989, 1995 & Cummins, 1996 cited in Davison, C. & A. Williams,
2000), EAP tutors are tasked with developing L2 speakers academic proficiency as
quickly as possible in order to create an equitable situation for them to learn in
(Cummins, 2000). It could be argued that tasks are an effective means of developing
linguistic and discourse proficiency simultaneously while developing student skills and
autonomy (see materials such as Swales & Feak, 2004, www.uefap.com.) [1]
However, in my experience, though TBLT principles appear relatively straightforward
and sound, some of their specifics may be less so for both teachers and students. [2]
This essay will briefly outline the teaching context at Kingston University before
discussing the debate around the adequacy of input in TBLT; its methodology; the role
of the teacher. It will then proceed to explore whether variations in the way tasks are
defined and issues around how it is researched make it possible to make
generalisations across contexts. Finally, issues of teacher understanding, assessment
and culture will be briefly discussed in relation to their role in problematising TBLT in the
context of Kingston. [3]
In recent years bilingual education across Europe has become much more
commonplace. For many, this may suggest a radical shift in educational policy and
provision, but in fact content-based approaches to language learning and teaching have
been thriving in various pockets of the world for some time. Notably, the Canadian
education system has embraced immersion programmes for English-speaking
Canadians since the mid-1960s, but a broad taxonomy would include Hispanic students
in the U.S., immigrant students in many European and North American countries,
secondary school students in Nigeria and other nations in Africa, among many others
(Mohan 1986). Take-up of bilingual approaches across Europe has been more recent,
but current recognition among governments as well as the EU (cf. Grosser 1999) that
bi- or multilingualism benefits both the individual and society now means these
approaches have a more tenable foothold in education systems. This increasing
prominence is mirrored by the rise in interest among applied linguists, many of whom
advocate a bilingual approach (e.g. Mohan 1986, Ullman 1999, Wode 1999, Coffey
2005). [1] In this essay we seek first to give an holistic account of what an integrated
content and language approach to language teaching and learning actually is. [2] This
shall entail a discussion of the theoretical foundations and core principles involved in
such practice. This understanding will enable the construction of a conceptual
framework of optimum conditions which we will apply to help us navigate the possible
arguments for and against a content-based approach being introduced in a context I am
personally familiar with, viz. a mainstream secondary school in Norfolk. In addition to
this framework, I shall draw on some case studies as a secondary instrument (Dornyei
2007) in order to help broaden the discussion by relating the experiences of other
institutions. Lastly, I shall conclude by setting forth my own position as regards my
context and make tentative suggestions for further research. [3]
Page 6
EXAMPLE D. Assignment Title: With reference to the literature on process syllabuses and
learners needs discuss the extent to which it is useful and feasible to involve learners in the
negotiation of a syllabus and/or take the learners needs into account in the syllabus for a
teaching context you are familiar with.
COMMENTARY
Introduction
The development of a more learner-centred curriculum based upon an evolving
syllabus negotiated between learners and teachers is an innovative development in
syllabus design. However, such a radical re-interpretation of the syllabus brings with it
problems that make it a considerable challenge to design, implement and evaluate.
While there have been successful examples in ESP at tertiary level and among primary
and secondary schools in the state sector, it is less commonly associated with adults
students of general English classes in the private sector. [1] In this paper I examine
whether this syllabus type is a valid alternative to conventional syllabuses and if such a
model in its pure form is feasible in this context. [2] I begin with a brief definition of what
a process syllabus is and outline a rationale for introducing it. With learnercenteredness an integral feature of this type of syllabus, I argue for a greater role for
needs analysis within the general English class. Such innovation is also seen as
dependent on the quality of the teacher and I outline the challenges it presents for the
teacher as course designer. Finally, I suggest some ways in which a strong version
might be implemented and evaluated within a general English class for adults. [3]
[1]
[2]
[3]
NOTES
Desirable Features of Assignment Introductions
Page 7
3.2
TASK 2
-
+Review the analyses for the introductions in low scoring assignments given
below.
Summarise the ways in which these introductions differ from the four previous
introductions.
EXAMPLE A.Assignment title: To what extent do you believe that the goal of ELT in the outer
circle should be native-like use of English? Discuss the issues in relation to sociolinguistic
factors and ensuing pedagogical implications.
This essay will first define the outer circle of English using Kachrus model and contrast
this with other models of the spread and use of English. I am going to investigate the
different goals of English users and learners in the outer circle and try to draw some
conclusions as to why these goals may deviate from standard English, which entails
quality of clear communication and standards of intelligibility (Widdowson 1994: 379).
[1] An important issue when dealing with the term native-like is an appropriate
definition of native and the connotations associated with norms and standardisation.
Strevens (1992) provides one definition of native speaker as someone who uses it as a
mother tongue and McArthur (1994) suggests that there are problems with defining it
due to the variation inherent just in the UK, never mind the rest of the world, adding that
people are quick to judge and categorise someone on the basis of accent alone. [2]
The English Today debate between Kachru and Quirk will be highlighted to show the
opposing views in relation to this. [3] Due to the wide ranging scope of the question, I
am going to mainly focus on the post-colonial situation in India, with a few examples
from African English, and look at the function of English in these societies from both the
Native and Non-Native speaker perspective.[4]
[5]
[2]Introduces a discussion of
the term "native-like" without
explaining why it might be a
problem..
[3]Comments on "The
English Today Debate"
without explaining why this
has been introduced.
[4]Narrows the focus of the
study.
[5]Gives no forward map to
guide the reader in relation to
the rest of the assignment.
[1]Makes a series of
generalisations about the
topic without any citations to
warrant the statements being
made.
Page 8
Page 9
NOTE contrasts
REFLECTION
Go to the KEY for this section and see if you need to extend or refine your
thinking in the light of the analysis and commentary that you find there.
- Consider one or more examples from your own writing.
- How can you improve the introduction section to ensure that it contextualises
your study and provides the reader with clear guidance?
NOTES
-
Page 10
4.
CITATIONS IN INTRODUCTIONS
Review the citations that are used in the following high scoring assignment
introductions.
Complete your own analysis of Example C.
[1]NON-integral citation
indicating examples of studies
which support the preceding
generalisation.
[2] NON-INTEGRAL citation
introduced by cf' to provide an
example from the literature
[3] INTEGRALcitationwhich
clearly states the authors
position.
Page 11
EXAMPLE B. Assignment title: 'The three Ss (Swan, Sheen and Seedhouse) have put
forward some fundamental criticism of TBLT: from a conversation analytic perspective
(Seedhouse, 2005)), a pedagogical perspective (Swan, 2005) and from a learning culture
perspective (Sheen, 2003). In a publication entitled TBLT: Sorting out the
Misunderstandings, Ellis (forthcoming) attempts to show that all three have got it wrong,
and that TBLT has got it right. Discuss, relate and weight the arguments of all four players
against each other, and formulate a conclusion based on a) your personal evaluation of the
debate, b) your personal teaching experience.
COMMENTARY
language teaching and learning and discuss the rationale for such an approach. What are
the arguments for and against using such an approach in a context you are familiar with?
In recent years bilingual education across Europe has become much more
commonplace. For many, this may suggest a radical shift in educational policy and
provision, but in fact content-based approaches to language learning and teaching
have been thriving in various pockets of the world for some time. Notably, the
Canadian education system has embraced immersion programmes for EnglishWri tin g th e MA- Work sh op #1
Chris Tribble / Ursula Wingate, 2012
Page 12
speaking Canadians since the mid-1960s, but a broad taxonomy would include
Hispanic students in the U.S., immigrant students in many European and North
American countries, secondary school students in Nigeria and other nations in
Africa, among many others (Mohan 1986)[1]. Take-up of bilingual approaches
across Europe has been more recent, but current recognition among governments
as well as the EU (cf. Grosser 1999) [2]that bi- or multilingualism benefits both the
individual and society now means these approaches have a more tenable foothold
in education systems. This increasing prominence is mirrored by the rise in interest
among applied linguists, many of whom advocate a bilingual approach (e.g. Mohan
1986, Ullman 1999, Wode 1999, Coffey 2005) [3]. In this essay we seek first to
give an holistic account of what an integrated content and language approach to
language teaching and learning actually is. This shall entail a discussion of the
theoretical foundations and core principles involved in such practice. This
understanding will enable the construction of a conceptual framework of optimum
conditions which we will apply to help us navigate the possible arguments for and
against a content-based approach being introduced in a context I am personally
familiar with, viz. a mainstream secondary school in Norfolk. In addition to this
framework, I shall draw on some case studies as a secondary instrument (Dornyei
2007) [4] in order to help broaden the discussion by relating the experiences of
other institutions. Lastly, I shall conclude by setting forth my own position as regards
my context and make tentative suggestions for further research.
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
4.2
TASK 2
-
Page 13
.
[3] No citation. A URL
would have been sufficient.
[4] NON-integral citation
the reader is not clear if it is
Lee who is developing the
narrative, or the assignment
author.
Example B. Assignment title: Describe some of the principles of Critical Discourse Analysis. Are
these principles useful for the teaching and learning of English as a foreign/second/other
language?
The mediums of mass communication maybe changing from radio, television and
newsprint to the internet and mobile, but the information we receive still attempts to
directly, indirectly or subliminally modify our thinking and behaviour. We are not
independent actors and are influenced by how texts and images are packaged and
presented to us. Likewise teachers and students should be aware that the multimodal
discourse in society is not neutral. Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) is multidisciplinary.
In linguistics CDA tries to study language and its use in a wide social and political
context rather than on the purely linguistic aspects of discourse at the micro-level. Some
principles of CDA are useful in teaching and learning in that they enhance the ability to
look beyond the superficial aspects of text and this enhances critical thinking. More
specifically an English L2 student should have the socio-linguistic knowledge and
competencies to understand how language influences and is influenced by its social and
cultural contexts. CDA tries to highlight the relationships between ideology, power and
language. However, it is up to the individual teacher to decide on their pedagogic role
and to assess whether or not language learning should also include the development of
critical judgement. I believe that the language teacher should be aiming to improve not
only linguistic ability but also communicative and intercultural competencies in a student.
These competencies cannot be honed without developing critical thinking. [1]
[1] No citations.
Page 14
REFLECTION 1
-
Go to the KEY for this section and see if you need to extend or refine your
thinking in the light of the analysis and commentary that you find there.
Consider one or more examples from your own writing.
How can you improve the way in which you cite authorities in the introduction
section.
Page 15
5.
CONCLUSIONS
In the Conclusion you typically reconnect with the original topic of the assignment,
and summarise your argument and/or any findings you have made before providing
a conclusion which can be, for example, an evaluation, a recommendation, or a
statement of preference. It is sometimes also useful to comment on any limitations
to the study or to suggest areas where further research is required.
TASK 1
-
On the basis of this evidence, summarise what would appear to be some desirable
features of assignment conclusions
5.1
EXAMPLE A.
Comment on what you feel to be the relevance of the following critical account of conventional
SLA theories and research. To what extent do you agree or disagree with the view expressed
here?
Unfortunately, studies of how people learn a second language have been constricted by the
narrow purview of mainstream second language acquisition (SLA) work. The issues of language
learning have been cast as questions to do with the acquisition of morphemes, syntax and lexis,
with pronunciation or communicative competence, and the learner has been cast as a onedimensional acquisition device.
(Pennycook 2001:143)
[]Concluding Comments
This paper tentatively seeks to explore some of the big issues in SLA research.
Pennycooks comment is, I feel, undoubtedly relevant, especially in light of all the work
now being done that gives social or sociocultural perspectives on SLA their due
measure, or at least a more equitable stake. [1] It may well be myopic to assume,
however, that those who have worked in the mainstream are not concerned with the
social dimension of SLA. What I advocate here though is a sociocultural orientation to
SLA that recognizes the inner and outer domains of learning and their
interconnectedness. [2] The discussion above indicates how the theory can be drawn on
in order to better understand the place of identity in SLA. It is my belief that future
research in SLA should seek to test and/or apply the concepts and methodology
developed in Sociocultural Theory and related disciplines (i.e. ethnography) and that this
direction will evolve fruitfully for those seeking to understand SLA, as well as those
teaching or learning a second language. [3]
EXAMPLE B. [] Conclusion
It seems that the desire in mainstream SLA to find one uniting theory has led the field to
neglect the social aspect of language learning. Using scientific research methods has
meant overlooking the importance of human variables and disregarding important
research about acquisition in use. Thus, Pennycooks criticisms of mainstream SLA still
hold nearly twenty years later but, as alternative social theories gain credence, this
narrow purview is being challenged with increasing acknowledgement of the
importance of factors outside individual psychology. [1]
Uniting social and cognitive theories should give a more integrated perspective on
language learning. However, whether this leads to one unified homogeneous theory of
learning (Sfard, 1998:11) is less important than ensuring that context, learner identity
and other social aspects to acquisition are as fully considered as individual cognition. [2]
Wri tin g th e MA- Work sh op #1
Chris Tribble / Ursula Wingate, 2012
EXAMPLE C:
Assignment Title: Describe what is meant by a content-based approach to language
teaching and learning and discuss the rationale for such an approach. What are the
arguments for and against using such an approach in a context you are familiar with?
[]Conclusion
The discussion above illustrates (at least impressionistically) that CLIL would be a viable
option at Northcott Dene. [1] In many ways the school is ideally placed and although
atomized pedagogic practice is an important issue and needs redressing at some level,
the real impetus for change can come from the SMT and/or other practitioners who are
willing to experimentally and innovatively take the school to new places, either
incrementally or radically. In addition, I believe that further research in this area could
adopt an Action Research paradigm and that this would allow the practitioners to speak
for themselves, as well as to each other. [2] It is, after all, only through understanding the
experience of others that we can learn something new for ourselves. [3]
EXAMPLE D:
COMMENTARY
[1]
[2]
Page 17
5.2
TASK 2
-
Review the analyses for the conclusions from low scoring assignments given
below.
Summarise and ways in which these conclusions differ from the four previous
introductions.
Page 18
REFLECTION
-
Go to the KEY for this section and see if you need to extend or refine your
thinking in the light of the analysis and commentary that you find there.
Consider one or more examples from your own writing.
How can you improve the effectiveness of the conclusions you write in MA
assignments?
REFLECTION
-
Go to the KEY for this section and see if you need to extend or refine your
thinking in the light of the analysis and commentary that you find there.
Consider one or more examples from your own writing.
Page 19