Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Cswip 3.1 Version-2013
Cswip 3.1 Version-2013
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Contents
Copyright TWI Ltd 2013
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2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2 .6
2.7
ha
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6
.7
3.8
~
J 4.2
q)
Subject
Typical Duties of Welding
General
Inspectors~
5.5
Non-destructive Testing /
Introduction
Radiographic methods
Ultrasonic methods
Magnetic particle testing .
Dye penetrant testing ,
6
6.1
6 .2
6 .3
WPS/Welder Qualifications ~
General
Qualified welding procedure specifications
Welder qualification
5.2
5.3
5.4
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7
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
\D
0
8.2
8.3
Materials Inspection
General
Material type and weldability
Alloying elements and their effects
Material traceability
Material condition and dimensions
Summary
Codes and Standards
General
Definitions
Summary
1.1
Welding Symbols
Standards for symbolic representation of welded joints on drawings
Elementary welding symbols
Combination of elementary symbols
Supplementary symbols
Position of symbol~ on drawings
Relationship between the arrow and joint lines
Position of the reference line and weld symbol
Positi'ons of the continuous arid dashed lines
Dimensioning of welds
Complimentary indications
Indication of the welding process
Weld symbols in accordance with AWS 2.4
Introduction to Welding Processes /
General
Productivity
Heat Input
Welding parameters
Power source characteristics
Manual Metal Arc/Shielded Metal Arc Welding (MMA/SMAW)
MMA basic equipment requirements
Power requirements
Welding variables
Summary of MMNSMAW
TIG Welding V
Process characteristics
Process variables
Filler wires
Tungsten inclusions
Crater cracking
Common applications
Advantages
Disadvantages
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~3
13.1
13.2
13.3
13.4
13.5
x6
l
14.1
14.2
14.3
14.4
14.5
15
15.1
15.2
15.3
~
Il
16.2
16.3
16.4
16.5
~
1
17.2
17.3
17.4
17.5
17.6
18
18.1
19
19.1
19.2
19.3
19.4
19.5
19.6
19. 7
19.8
~"R
MIG/MAG Welding
Process
Variables
MIG basic equipment requirements
Inspection when MIG/MAG welding
Flux-cored arc welding (FCAW)
Summary of solid wire MIG/MAG
Submerged Arc Welding /
Process
Fluxes
Process variables
Storage and care of consumables
Power sources
Thermal Cutting Processes
Oxy-fuel cutting
Plasma arc cutting
Arc air gouging
Manual metal arc gouging
Welding Consumables V
Consumables for' MMA welding
AWS A 5.1- and AWS 5.5Inspection points for MMA consumables
Consumables for TIG/GTW
Consumables for MIG/MAG
Consumables for SAW welding
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if.1
20.2
20.3
20.4
20.5
21
21.1
21.2
21.3
21.4
21.5
21.6
22
22.1
22.2
22.3
22.4
22.5
Heat Treatment
Introduction
Heat treatment of steel
Postweld heat treatment (PWHT}
PWHT thermal cycle
Heat treatment furnaces
Arc Welding Safety
General
Electric shock
Heat and light
Fumes and gases
Noise
Summary
23.5
24
Gauges
23.1
23.2
23.3
23.4
Appendix
Appendix
Appendix
Appendix
Appendix
1J
Calibration
Introduction
Terminology
Calibration frequency
Instruments for calibration
Calibration methods
Application and Control of Preheat
General
Definitions
Application of preheat
Control of preheat and interpass te111perature
Summary
23
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Examination Contents
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20 Macroscopic questions
45 Min
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Plate Butt questions
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Section 1
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1.1
General
Welding inspectors are employed to assist with the quality control (QC)
activities necessary to ensure that welded items meet specified
requirements and are fit for their application._..
For employers to have confidence in their work, welding inspectors need to
to understand/interpret the various QC procedures and also have a sound
knowledge of welding technology . ./
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1.1.1
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1.1.2
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1.1.3
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ISO 17637 dees not give or make any recommendation about a formal
guartlcation for visu s ection of welds . owever, if nas become industrYpractice for ins ectors to have rac 1ca experience of welding inspection
og.eth er with a recognis.ed qualification in weTcll rig 1nspec Ion - sue as a
CSWIP qualification. .
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Illumination
1, ISO 176-37 states that thi:_.!l:i' imum illumination shall be 350 lux bu
recom ends ~ minimum o 500 l u~ (normal shofi> or 0ffice lighti!1lg
Acc~$S
Access to the surface for direct inspection should enable the eye to be:
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1.1.4
Welding gauges (for checking bevel angles and weld profile, fillet sizing,
measuring undercut depth).
(3 Dedicated weld gap gauges and linear misalignment (hi-lo) gauges.,
~ Straight edges and measuring tapes.
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b
MagMifying lens 0f a magnification lens is used it should be X2 to X5)
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ISO 17637 shows. aqange of welding gauges together with details of what
they can be used for and the precision of the measurements . .
1.1.5
ISO 17637 states tha examinatlc:m is normally performed on Wel<l:ls itn the
as-welded conditio . Tt:lis means that vislllal inspection of the mished wel
is a minimwm requirement.
However, ISO 17637 says that the extent of examination and the stages
whe.n inspection activity is required should be specified by the Application
Standard or by agreement between client and fabricator.
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W~r fabricated items that must have high integrity, such as pressure vessels
~d piping or large structures inspection , activity will usually be requi r~
th rougl1out the fabrication process: r-
Before welding
During welding.
~~
Inspection activities at each of these stages of fabrication can be considered,
the duties of the welding inspector and typical inspection checks that may
be required are described in the following section.
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1.1.6
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In good condition.
Calibrated as appropriate/as specified by QC procedures.
1-4
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I
1
' Safety cQ;;'"sciousnessi;";duty of all emploiees and a welding insp! ctor __;
should :
--- - - Qi
Duties before
welding~
Check
Action
Material
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Welding equipment
Weld preparations
Welder qualifications
Welding consumables
Joint fit-ups
Weld.faces 1
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Action
Welding process
Prehe~t
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(if required)
lnterpass temperature I
Welding consumables
Welding parameters ;
Root run'
Gouging/grinding
Inter-run cleaning 1
Welder
'
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Action
Weld identification
Weld appearance
Ensure welds are suitable for all NDT (profile, cleanness, etc).
Visually inspect welds and sentence in accordance with Code.
Dimensional survey
Drawings
NDT
Ensure all NDT is complete and reports are available for records .
Repairs
Pressure/load test
(if required)
Documentation records
1.1. 7
.I
Examination records
The requirement for examination records/inspection reports varies according
to the contract and type of fabrication and there is frequently no requirement
for a formal record.
When an inspection record is required it may be necessary to show that
items have been checked at the specified stage~ and have satisfied the
acceptance criteria.
The form of this record will vary, possibly a signature against an activity on
an inspection checl<list or quality plan, or it may be an individual inspection
report for each item.
For individual inspection reports, ISO 17637 lists typical details for inclusion
such as:
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Name of manufacturer/fabricator.
Identification of item examined.
Material type and thickness.
Type of joint.
Welding process.
Acceptance standard/criteria . ,
Locations and types of all imperfections not acceptable (when specified,
it may be necessary to include an accurate sketch or phbtograph).
Name of examiner/inspector and date of examination.
1-6
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'1
Section 2
Terms and Definitions
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Welding
An operation in which two or more parts are united by means of heat,
pressure or both, in such a way that there is continuity in the nature of the
metal between these parts.
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Type of
joint
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Definition
Sketch
Butt
Corner
Edge
Cruciform
Lap
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2.1
Types of weld
2.1.1
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Butt weld
Fillet weld
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In a butt joint
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Butt weld
In a T joint
In a corner joint
Autogenous weld
.
A fusion weld made without filler metal by TIG, plasma, electron beam, laser
or oxy-fuel gas welding.
Slot weld
A joint between two overlapping components made by depositing a fillet
weld round the periphery of a hole in one component so as to join it to the
surface of the other component exposed through the hole.
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Plug weld
A weld made by filling a hole in one component of a workpiece with filler
metal so as to join it to the surface of an overlapping component exposed
through the hole (the hole can be circular or oval).
2.1.2
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2.3
Parent metal
Metal to be joined or surfaced by welding, braze welding or brazing.
Filler metal
Metal added during welding, braze welding, brazing or surfacing.
Weld metal
All metal melted during the making of a weld and retained in the weld.
Heataffected zone (HAZ)
The part of the parent metal metallurgically affected by the heat of welding or
thermal cutting but not melted.
Fusion line
Boundary between the weld metal and the HAZ in a fusion weld.
I
Weld zone
Zone containing the weld metal and the HAZ.
Weld face
The surface of a fusion weld exposed on the side from which the weld has been
made.
Root
Zone on the side of th~ first run furthest from the welder.
Toe
Boundary between weld face and the parent metal or between runs. This is a
_ nts of high stress concentration
very important feature of a weld sin
1eg
and often are int 1
points o.u:ilffe.r:.ent types of crac
a rgue .fil22_ cold
cracks
o re uce the stress concentration, toes must blenCI smoothly into f e
pa~~m~
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Weld
face
Weld
zone
Parent
metal
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Penetration
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Parent metal
HAZ
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2.4
Weld preparation
A preparation for making a connection where the individual components,
suitably prepared and assembled, are joined by welding or brazing. The
dimensions below can vary depending on WPS.
2.4.1
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lnch.~ded
angle
T~e angfe between the planes of the fusion faces of parts to be welded. For
singl~ and double V or U this angle is twice the bevel angle .. In the case of
single or double bevel, single or double J bevel, the included angle is equal
the bevebangl~.
to
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Root face
The portion of a fusion face at the root that is not bevelled or grooved. Its
value depends on the welding process used, parent material to be welded
and application; for a full penetration weld on carbon steel plates, it has a
value, of 1':2mm (for the common welding processes).
Gap
The minimum distance at any cross-section between edges, ends or
surfaces to be joined. Its value depends on the welding process used and
application; for a full penetration weld on carbon steel plates, it has a value
of 1-4mm.
Root radius
The radius of the curved portion of the fusion face in a component prepared
for a single or double J or U, weld.
Land
Straight portion of a fusion face between the root face and the radius part of
a J or U preparation can be 0. Usually present in weld preparations for MIG
welding of aluminium alloys.
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2.4.2
Types of preparation
Open square butt preparation
Used for welding thin components from one or both sides. If the root gap is
zero (ie if components. are in contact), this preparation becomes a closed
' square butt preparation (not recommended due to problems caused by lack
of penetration)!
Single V preparation .
Included angle
Gap~I
1--
The depth of preparation can be the same on both sides (symmetric double
V preparation) or deeper on one side (asymmetric double V preparation).
Usually, in this situation the depth of preparation is distributed as 2/3 of the
thickness of the plate on the first side with the remaining 1/3 on the
backside. This asymmetric preparation allows for a balanced welding
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sequence with root back gouging, giving lower angular distortions. Whilst a
single V preparation allows welding from one side, double V preparation
requires .access to both sides (the same applies for all double sided
preparations).
SingleU preparation
Included angle
~
Angle of
bevel
~Land
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Doub.l'e U prepara~iori
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Single J preparation.
II
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Oouh/e J preparation.
2.5
Design throat
thickness
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Actual throat
thickness
Design throat
thickness
As a general rule:
Actual throat thickness
.\
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Actual throat
thickness =design
throat thickness
,.
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Design throat
thickness = thickness
of the thinner plate
Run (pass)
The metal melted or deposited during one pass of an electrode, torch or
blowpipe.
Multi-run weld.
Layer
A stratum of weld metal consisting of one or more runs .
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2.6
Fillet weld
A fusion weld, other than a butt, edge or_ fusion spot weld, which is
approximately triangular in transverse ctoss'-sectipn.
'
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2.6~1
Size of fillet
wel.~s
'
Unlike butt welds, fillet welds can be defined using several dimensions.
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Leg.' l~ng_th
Qistancefrqm the actual or projected intersection of the fusion faces and the
t()e.of a fill.et weld, measured across the fus_ion fa.ce (z on drawings).
Leg
length
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2.6.2
a= 0.707 x z or z = 1.41 x a
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A fillet weld in which the weld face is concave. The relation between leg
length and design throat thickness specified for mitre fillet welds is not valid
for this type of weld. Also, the design throat thickness is equal to the actual
throat thickness. Due to the smooth blending between the weld face and the
surrounding parent material, the stress concentration effect at the toes of
the weld is reduced compared with the previous type. This is why this type
of weld is highly desired in applications subjected to cyclic loads where
fatigue phenomena might be a major cause for failure.
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Vertical leg
size
lI
Throat size
(
II
Deep penetration fillet weld
.
A fillet weld with a deeper than normal penetration. It is produced using high
heat input welding processes (ie SAW or MAG with spray transfer). This
type of weld uses the benefits of greater arc penetration to obtain the
required throat thickness whilst reducing the. amount of deposited metal
needed thus leading to a reduction in . residual, stress level. To produce
consistent and constant penetration, the travel speed m.usrbe kept constant
at a high value. Consequently this type of weld is usually produced using
mechanised or automatic welding processes. Also, the high depth-to-width
ratio increases the probability of solidification centreline cracking. To
differentiate this type of weld from the previous types, the throat thickness is
symbolised with s instead of a.
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2.6.3
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A combination of butt and fillet welds used for T joints with full or partial
penetration or butt joints between two plates with different thickness. Fillet
welds added on top of the groove welds improve the blending of the weld
face towards the parent metal surface and reduce the stress concentration
at the toes of the weld.
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Fillet
weld
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Weld slop~
Angle between root line and the positive X axis of the horizontal reference
plane, measured in mathematically positive direction .,(ie cqunter-clockwise).
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Weld rotation
Angle between the centreline of the weld and the positive Z axis or a line
parallel to the Y axis, measured in the mathematically positive direction (ie
c9unter-clockwise) in the plane of the transverse cross-section of the weld in
question.
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Welding position
Sketch
Flat
Horizontalvertical
Horizontal
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PC.
.Vertical-up
Vertical-down
Overhead
Horizontaloverhead
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r ;., r 4
PE..
Ve~ical-u11
Vertical-down
90
90
10 100
10
10
10
10
Flat
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90''
90~
50
Slope
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Slo110
Overhead
30'' 30
1:
Slope
15
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0
0
180
Rotation
Slope
180
Rotation
both cases
180
Rotation
Horizontal vertical
I
Rotation
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Tolerances for the welding positions.
2.8
Weaving
Transverse oscillation of an electrode or blowpipe nozzle during the
deposition of weld metal, generally used'in vertical-up welds.
Stringer bead
A run of weld metal made with little or no weaving motion.
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Section 3
Welding Imperfections
and Materials Inspection
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- Ao_uo~eptable
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Cla~~ifi9atlqt):
Q.'Nrrf. p~rt~~ttons
according to
.
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s EN ISO 6520a1 :
1
2
3
4
5
Cracks.
Cavities.
Solid inclusions.
Lack of fusion and penetration.
Imperfect shape and dimensions.
6: Miscellaneous imperfections.
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3.2
Cracks
!I
Types of crack:
Longitudinal.
Transverse.
Radiating (cracks radiating from a common point).
Crater.
5 tM ct:l<. ,,,_,. Branching (group of connected cracks originating from a common crack).
These cracks can be situated in the:
Weld metal.
HAZ.
Parent metal.
3-1
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3.2.1
Lam~l,lart~aringf
Hot cracks
Depending on their looa,tion and mode of occurrence, hot cracks can be:
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3.2.2
Solidification cracks
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content.
ead is lar_ge (deep and
narrow).
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can be
'wide and open to the
surface like shrinkage voids or
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.
surface and possibly narrow;
sub~
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thermal shrinkage of the cooling weld bead can cause these to rupture and
form a crack.
ulphu r-enrlched
Solidification
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Root (underbead) crack.
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!Hypr6gE?h :inCl\ilced of'.acking occurs prima,rily:in the grain coarsened regiorii ot'f
t11~ HAiJ and is also l<nown as cold 1 delayed or nderbead/toe cracking It
pa'rallel to the fusion boundary and 'Its path is usually a combi nation of
inter and transgranular cracking. The direction of the principal residual
tensile stress can in toe cracks cause the crack path to grow progressively
away from the fusion boundary towards a region of lower sensitivity to
hydrogen cracking. When this happens, the crack growth rate decreases
and eventually arrests.
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deposite~
1 < 300c
> 400HV. hardness
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"If any one factor is not satisfied, cracking .is prevented, so can be avoided
. through control of one oir more factors:
Ap>ply p eheat slow down the cooling rate and tt.lus avoid the formation o
susceptible r.nlcrostructures.
Maintain a s~eoific interpass temperature (same effect as prehea ).
~ Postheat on c0rnpletion of welding to r;educe the hydrogen content b
allowing hydrogen to diffuse from the weld area. .
Apply PWHT to reduce residual stress alild elimihate swsceptible
micrnstructures.
Reduce weld metal hydrogen by proper selection of welding
process/consumable (eg use TIG welding instead of MMA, basic
covered electrodes instead of cellulose).
Use a multi.-run instead of a single run technique and eliminate
\,,/\._/ susceptible r:nicrostructures by the self-tempering effect, reduce
hydrogen content by allowing hydrogen to diffuse from the weld area.
Use a temper bead or hot pass technique (same effect as above) .
~
Use austenitie or niGkel filler to avoid susceptible microstructu r~
V
formation and allow hydrogen to diffuse out of critical areas).
Use dry shielding gases to reduce hydrogen content.
Clean rust from joint to avoid hydrogen contamination from moisture
present in the rust.
Reduce residual stress.
Blend the weld profile to reduce stress concentration at the toes of the
weld.
V
.
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Lamellar tearing
I
Cracking occurs in joints where:
I.
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Two main options are available to control the problem in welded joints liable
to lamellar tearing:
~ ~
Shrinkage cavity:
Caused by shrinkage
during solidification
Gas pore
lnterdendritic
shrinkage
Uniformly .
distributed porosity
Crater pipe
Microshrinkage
Clustered
(localised) porosity
Linear porosity
lnterdendritic
microshrinkage
Elongated cavity
Transgranular
microshrinkage
Worm hole
Surface pore
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3.3
Cavities
3.3.1
Gas pore
~-l
A gas cavity of essentially spherical shape trapped within the weld metal.
'
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Isolated.
Uniformly distributed porosity.
Clustered (localised) porosity.
Linear porosity.
Elongat~d cavity.
Surface pore.
Causes
Prevention
Grease/hydrocarbon/water
contamination of prepared surface
Incorrect/insufficient deoxidant in
electrode, filler or parent metal
!
l
I
.
Comment
Porosity can be localised or finely dispersed voids throughout the weld
metal.
/
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3.3.2
Worm holes
.I
I)
Elongated or tubu.lar c~viti~s Jorm~d, by trapped gas during the solidification
of the weld metal which can occur singly or in groups.
Causes
Prevention
3.3.3
I]
Comments
Worm holes are caus~d by the erogressive entrapment of gas between the
solidifying m:etal lr stals ~- dr" es. producing characteristic. elongated
pores of circular cross-section. These can app~ar as a herringbone array on
a radiograph and some may break the surface of the weld.
'
'
'
Surface porosity
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Causes
Prevention
The origins of surface porosity are similar to those for uniform porosity.
~ J'!A'f c 'f4'/<ttMJ-
Prevention
Retrain welder
Crater filling is a particular problem in TIG welding due to its low heat input.
To fill the crater for this process it is necessary to reduce the weld current
(slope out) in a series of descending steps until the arc is extinguished.
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3.4
Solid inclusions
Definition
Solid foreign substances trapped in the weld metal.
Solid
inclusions
Slag
inclusion
Flux
inclusion
Oxide
inclusion
Metallic
inclusion
Tungsten
Copper
jother metal
Isolated
3.4.1
Slag
I
I
inclusion~ .
.I
. I
Prevention
Improve
int~r-run
slag removal
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3.4.2
Flux inclusions
Prevention
/'6Tj
3.4.3
Oxide inclusions aR
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1\11
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Prevention
Tungsten inclusions
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Causes
Prevention
3.5.1
Lack of fusion
Lack of union between the weld metal and the . parent metal or between the
successive layers of weld metal. .
Lack of
fusion
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Lack of sidewall
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Lack of root
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3.5
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Lack of union between the weld and parent metal at one or__both sides of the
weld.
/
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Causes
Prevention
During welding sufficient heat must be available at the edge of the weld pool
to produce fusion with the parent metal.
'
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Lack of union along the fusion line between the weld beads.
Causes
Prevention
Increase current
Retrain welder
Lack of inter-run fusion produces crevices between the weld beads and
causes local entrapment of slag.
Lack of root fusion
Lack of fusion between the weld and parent metal at the root of a weld.
Causes
Low heat input
Excessil..:e induGtance in M~G dip
transfer "Yeldlng,
~SWlteh
Ellsure
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3.5.2
Lack of penetration
Lack of
penetration
I
~~
Incomplete
penetration
Incomplete root
penetration
Incomplete penetration
Prevention
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If the weld joint is not of a critical nature, ie the required strength is low and
the area is not prone to fatigue cracking, it is possible to produce a partial
penetration weld. In this case incomplete root penetration is considered part
of this structure and not an imperfection This would normally be determined
by the design or code requirement.
f.
Bot~ fusion fc;:ices of the root ar~ not melted. VVhen examined from the root
side, you -can clearly see both -of the root edges unmelted.
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3.6
3.6.1
Undercut
I Undercut I
,
Continuous
undercut
,.
..
Inter-run
undercut
Intermittent
undercut
Causes
Prevention
technlqu~s
E.xcessiv~/incorrecf weavingi
'
'
.. -
, .
_: -~ >}.
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..
Care must be taken during weld repairs of undercut to control the heat input.
If the bead of a repair weld is too small, the cooling rate following welding
will be excessive and the parent metal may have an increased hardness
and the weld susceptible to hydrogen cracking.
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3.6.2
Excess weld metal is the extra metal that produces excessive convexity in
fillet welds and a weld thickness greater than the parent metal plate in butt
Welds. It is regarded as an' imperfection only when the . height of the excess
weld metal is greater than a specified limit.
r
Causes
Prevention-
Deepen edgepreparation
ReduCe-eleetro\:ie '.Size
be
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3.6.3
Excess penetration
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II
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Prevention
Retrain welder
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3.6.4
Overlap
I.
l .'
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Causes
Prevention
Retrain welder
Jricorr~,ct positi9r,iji:ig
of ~E31d '
"
II
For a fillet weld,overlap is 6ften associated with undercut, as 'if the weld pool
is too fluid the top of the weld will flow away to produce undercut at the top
and overlap at the base. If the volume of the weld pool is too large in a fillet
weld in horizontal~vertical (PB) ppsiUo,n, . weld metal will collapse due to
gravity, . prod~cing .both def~ots (undercut at:the top and overlap at the
base), this defect is cal.led sagging.
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3.6.5
Linear misalignment
,~
n
,-- ....
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j
Misalignment between two welded pieces such that while their surface
planes are parallel, they are not in the required same plane.
Causes
Prevention
3;6.6
Angular distortion
Misalignment between two welded pieces such that their surface planes are
not parallel or at the intended angle.
Causes and prevention are the same as for linear misalignment.
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-.
Prevention
Retrain welder
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Irregular width
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Prevention
Retrain welder
Although this imperfection may not affect the integrity of the completed weld,
it can affect the width of HAZ and reduce the load-carrying capacity of the
joint (in fine-grained structural steels) or impair corrosion resistance (in
duplex stainless steels).
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3.6.9
Root concavity
A shallow groove that occurs due to shrinkage at the root of a butt weld .
'
Causes
Prevention
Incorrect preparation/fit-up
Work to WPS
Red~ce gas;pressure
Retrain welder
; Tilt wor~ to preve,nt ~lag flooding
A backing strip can be used to control the e)Ctent of the root bead .
.. ~~
3.6.10
Burn-through
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Causes
Prevention
Increase the
Retrain welder
trav~I
speed
This is a gross imperfection which occurs due to lack of welder skill but can
be repaired by bridging the gap formed into the joint, but requires a great
deal of attention.
3.7
Miscellaneous imperfections
3.7.1
Local damage to the surface of the parent metal adjacent to the weld,
resulting from arcing or striking the arc outside the weld groove. This results
in random areas of fused metal where the electrode, holder .or current return
clamp have aceidentally touched the work.
Causes
Prevention
Retrain welder
An arc strike can produce a hard HAZ Wh ich may comtain cracks possiely,
leading to seriQ.!,ls. c.rackin_gi o e ie I 1s e er to remove an arc strike by
~a1~~~~.~-:~-1~-:,~pair.
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& Exami nation
3.7.2
Spatter
51 "'"..;+)
/
Globules of weld or filler metal expelled during welding adhering to the
surface of parent metal or solidified weld metal.
Causes
Prevention
-
Damp electrodes
W~ong
(100%C02)
3.7.3
Torn surface
(
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3.7.4
Additional imperfections
Grinding mark
Local damage due to grinding.
Chipping mark
Local damage due to the use of a chisel or other tools.
Underflushing
Lack of thickness of the workpiece. due to excessive grinding.
Misalignment of opposite runs
Difference between the centrelines of two runs made from opposite sides of
the joint.
Temper col()ur (visible oxide fihn) .
.
Lightly oxidised surfac.e in the weld zone, usually occurs in stainless steels.
!\
3.8
Acceptance standards
Weld imperfections can seriously reduce the integrity of a welded structure.
l"rior to service of a welded joint, it is necessary to locate them using NDE
techniques, assess their significance and take action to avoid their
reoccurrence.
The acceptance of a certain size and type of defect for a given structure is
normally expressed as the defect acceptance standard, usually incorporated
in application standards or specifications.
All normal weld imperfection acceptance standards totally reject cracks. In
exceptional circumstances and subject to the agreement of all parties,
cracks may remain if it can be demonstrated beyond doubt that they will not
lead to failure. This can be difficult to establish and usually involves fracture
mechanics measurements and calculations.
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If the defect is too deep it must be removed and new weld metal added to
ensure a minimum design throat thickness .
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I
Replacing removed metal or weld repair (as in filling an excavation or remaking a weld joint) has to be done in accordance with an approved
procedure. The rigour with which this procedure is qualified depends on the
application standard for the job. In some cases it will be acceptable to use a
procedure qualified for making new joints whether filling an excavation or
making a complete joint. If the level of reassurance required is higher, the
qualification will have to be made using an exact simulation of a welded
joint, which is excavated then refilled using .specified method. In either
case, qualification inspection and testing will be required in accordance with
the application standard.
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Section 4
Destructive Testing
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Destructive Testing
Introduction
European Welding Standards require test coupons made for welding
procedure qualification testing to be subjected to non-destructive and then
destructive testing.
t! .
The tests are called destructive tests because the welded joint is destroyed
when various types of test piece are taken from 'it.
Ir
Destructive tests can be divided into two groups, those used to:
I.
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Mechanical tests are quantitative because a quantity is measured, a
mechanical property such as tensile strength, hardness or impact
toughness.
Qualitative tests are used to verify that the joint is free from defects, of
sourid quality and examples
these are bend tests, macroscopic
examination and fracture tests (fillet fracture and nick-break).
of
4.1
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4.1.1
Parallel
length
Weld metal
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WA
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1
Test pieces may be machined to represent the full thickness of the joint but
for very thick joints it may be necessary to take several trahsverse tensile
'
''\
Method
Test specimens are accurately measured before testing, then fitted into the
jaws of a tensile testing machine and subjected' to a continually increasing
tensile force until the spedmen fractures.
The tensile strength (Rm) is calculated by dividing tbe maximum load by the
cross-sectional area of the test specimen, measured'
befo're testing.
.
,
inten~measure
th~
~nd
The test is
the tensile strength of
joint
thereby
show that the basis for design, the base metal properties, remain the valid
criterion.
Acceptance criteria
--
- -- .. - -
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4.1.2
to
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}[
Gauge length
j1
Radius
Diameter of the
reduced section
Gripped end
lI
Round cross-section
l!
Method
- Specimens are subjected to a continually increasing force in the same way
that transverse tensile specimens are tested.
IJ
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Typical load extension curves and their principal characteri~tics are .sho~r
below.
f-1\c;.HesT FoR!.E tt\,1.t .5feci~t1J' CA111 .S~Ttttt-> f L~(1"10..etd-Rm= Ultimate tensile strength
Rm - - - - - - - - - - - " - - -
~ ~
R.
11 ---- ----I
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The figure below illustrates these two ductility measurements.
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Original
.gauge tengfii _ _ _...,,
Plastic
deforrnatfoh I
(a)
Gauge length
at failure
Orlglnal diameter d
!I
__ j__
---l--Diameler at failure
(b)
lI
To calculate elongation :
To calculate UTS:
4-4
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4.1.3
Objective
Charpy V notch test pieces are the internationally accepted method for
ate
J'
assessing (resistance. tb brittle fracture -t)y'-meas-LJring .the .energi'fo' ihit:
an
ropagate a crack from a sharp notch in a standard sized specimen
[ subjected to an imp:ct loa~ )
Design engineers need to ensure that the toughness of the steel used for a
particular item will be sufficient to avoid brittle fracture in service and so
impact specimens are tested at a temperature related to the design
temperature for the fabricated component.
-.
I
I
/.b ~{}'V~
C-Mn and low alloy steels undergo a sharp change in their resistance to
brittle fracture as their temperature is lowered so that a steel that may have
very good toughness at ambient temperature may show extreme brittleness
at sub-zero temperatures, as illustrated below.
47 Joutes.
----- --+---- :
rittle fracture
-50
.. 40
-30
- 20 -10 0
Testing.temperature - Degrees Centigrade
Three specimens are normally tested at each temperature
10rnrn '
(0.394"
0.26mm
(0.010"}
rad.
Bmm
(O.S15j
45"
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Specimens are machined from welded test plates with the notch position
located in different positions according to the testing requirements but
typically in the centre of the weld metal and at positions across the HAZ, as
shown below.
Fusloo llne + 2mm
Fuslonllne
!1
>-40mm
Ij
--VIMld metal
Fus~
llne + 2nm
Fusion line
Typical notch positions fqr Charpy V notch test specimens from double
welds.
V butt
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Seale
Specimen
Impact specimen on
the anvil showing the
hammer position at
point of impact.
.I
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The energy absorbed by the hammer when it strikes each test specimen is
pointer. rU:b
le of the machine .
shown by the position of the ha
... Energy values are given m Joules (or ft-lbs in US specifications).
Three Impact test specimens are taken for each notch position as there is
always some degree of scatter in the results, particularly for weldi'nents.
$'~(~
Acceptance crite ia
------ac est result is recorded and an average value calculated for each ~eLof .J
three tests These values arecompared with t hose - specified by the
app ication standard or client to establish whether specified requirements
have been met.
After impact testing, examination of the test specimens provides additional
information about their toughness characteristics and may be added to the
test report:
. - ,, -
~ -~~P~~cent crystallinity: % of the fracture face that has crystalline
appearance which indicates brittle fracture; 100% indicates completely
brittle fracture.
Lateral expansion: Increase in width of the back of the specimen
behind the notch, as indicated below, ~fie arger
the specimen. i-
,/
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Lateral--:t-~.;..__
1
contraction I
1omm
~1
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a + b lateral expansion
ductile fracture .
l. '
'
A specimen that exhibits extreme brittleness will show a clean break, both
halves of the specimen having a completely[!!hllractu! e fa~ with little or no
lateral expansion.
A specimen that exhibits; very good toughness will show only a:small degree
of crack extension, without fracture and a high value of lateral expansion.
4.1.4
Hardness testing
Objective
~-- - - . - - - - - - - - - - - - - - h"Er rC!ness of a metal Is its' resistance to plastic deformation, determine
by measuring the resistance to indentation by a particular type of indenter.
A steel weldment with hardness above a certain maximum may be
susce tible to crackin , either during fabrication or in-service and welding
procedure qualification testin for certain steels and applications requires
t e es we o e ar ness surveyed to ensure no regions exceed the
maximum specified hardness.
Tbe hardness value is given by the size of the indentation produced under a
( l_standard load, the smaller the ihaeritation,-me_nafder themefar )
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fulcrum
diamG>nd pytaf)lid
indentor
\_
~peaimen
:l
load
11
Both the Vickers and Brinell methods are suitable for carrying out hardness
surveys on specimens prepared for macroscopic examination of weldments.
A typical hardness survey requires the indenter to measure the hardness in
the base metal (on both sides of the weld), the weld metal and across the
HAZ (on both sides of the weld).
The Brinell method gives an indentation too large to accurately measure the
hardness in specific regions of the HAZ and is mainly used to measure the
hardness of base metals.
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4.1.5
I!
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' ,'-
,..,.Atl<
s-"
'
Specimens
pecir.nen is i;.>rep,ared as a rect~ngular or square shape..Q bar cut]
transverse to the axis of the butt weld. AV notch is machined at the centre
o f the bar, which will be coincident with the test position, weld metal or HAZ.
---~.::Y:OD
A shallow saw cut is made at the bottom of the notch and the specimen put
into a machine that induces a cyclic bending load until a shallow fatigue
crack initiates from the saw cut.
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- Machined nptch
4.6t!"
).
ethoCI
CTOD specimens are usually tested at a temperature below ambient and
the specimen temperature is controlled by immersion in a bath of liquid
cooled to the required test temperatu_!!.)
..
For each test condition (position of notch and test temperature) it is usual to
carry out three tests.
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The figures below illustrate the main features of the CTOD test.
I.I
:I
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Fracture toughness is expressed as the distance the crack tip opens without
initiation of a brittle crack.
The clip gauge enables a chart to be generated showing the increase in
width of the crack mouth against applied load from which a CTOD value is
calculated.
Acceptance criteria
An application standard or client may specify a minimum CTOD value that
indicates ductile tearing. Alternatively, the test may be for information so that
a value can be used for an engineering critical assessment (ECA).
A very tough steel weldment will allow the mouth of the crack to open wid eJy
by ductile tearing at the tip of the crack whereas a very brittle weldment will
tend to fracture when the applied load is quite low and without any extension
at the tip of the crack. \
_ __
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----------
might . ~
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Bend testing
bjective
--- . - .... --Bend tests routinely taken from welding procedure qualification test piec'!.;j
and sometimes welder qualification test pieces.
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Former
1-
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Root bend
11
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Side bend
Method
Guided bend tests are usually used for welding procedure and welder
qualification.
---- -
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Acceptance criteria
11
4.1.7
Fracture tests
Fillet weld fractures
Objective
f1
I I
--
~ ~
It is a test method that can be used for welder qualification testing according
to European Standards but is not used for welding procedure ~ua lification J
-----------~-----Specimens
-- -
A test weld is cut into short (typically :2'.:50mm) lengths and a longitudinal
notch machined into the specimen as shown below. The notch profile may
be square, V or U shape.
11
I.
Method
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Hammer stroke
Moving press
r1
Acceptance criteria
The star:idard for welder ualification o appUcati n tqndard, wiU s ecif~ the
of penetration into the root
acceptance criteria for 1m erfections su as
of the joint and. solid inc us ons and porosity that are visio e on the fracture
surfaces:
I
j
. ,.
Test reports should also give a description of the appearance of the fracture
and location of any imperfection.
tes~s
spe~ified ~or
are
welder qualification testing to Europ;anl
These
Standards as an alternative to radiography and are not used for welding_ J
rocedure qualification ~ -
.
- -.Spe'cimens
.
.
Taken from a butt"weld and notched so that the fracture path will be in the
central region of the weld. Typical test piece types are shown below.
Method
4-16
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ra
Test reports should also give a description of the appearance of the fracture
and location of any imperfection.
4.2
.
. t
Macroscop1c exam ma ion
tf Q.uoAl'b/-
,~ 't-1t..\.&1
EN 895
EN 910
EN 1321
BS EN 10002
BS EN 10002
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Section 5
"I. I
Non-destructive Testing
.'
II
I
Non-destructive Testing
5.1
Introduction
Radiographic, ultrasonic, dye penetrant and magnetic particle methods are
briefly described below. Their relative advantages and limitations are
discussed in terms of their applicability to the examination of welds.
5.2
Radiographic methods
In all cases radiographic methods as applied to welds involve passing a
beam of penetrating radiation through the test object. The transmitted
radiation is collected by some form of sensor, capable of measuring / the
relative intensities of penetrating radiations impinging upon it. In most cases
this sensor is radiographic film; however the use of various electronic
devices is on the increase. These devices facilitate so-called real-time
radiography and examples may be seen in the security check area at
airports. Digital technology has enabled the storing of radiographs using
computers. The present discussion is confined to film radiography since this
is still the most common method applied to welds.
I,
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5.2.1
X-rays
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5.2.3
Gamma rays
Increased portability.
No need for a power source.
Lower initial equipment costs.
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5.2.4
Radiography of welds
X-ray equipment.
(.
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5.2.5
Radiographic. .testing
.
Advantages
.
Limitations
Permanent record
Real-time imaging
Relatively slow
requi~ed
5.3
Ultrasonic methods
The velocity of ultrasound in any given material is a constant for that
material and ultrasonic beams travel in straight lines in homogeneous
materials. When ultrasonic waves pass from a given material with a given
sound velocity to a second material with different velocity, refraction and a
reflection of the sound beam will occur at the boundary between the two
materials. The same laws of physics apply to ultrasonic waves as to light
waves. Ultrasonic waves are refracted at a boundary between two materials
having different acoustic properties so probes may be constructed which
can beam sound into a material at (within certain limits) any given angle.
Because sound is reflected at a boundary between two materials having
different acoustic properties ultrasound is a useful tool for the detection of
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weld defects. Since velocity is a constant for any given material and sound
travels in a straight line (with the right equipment) ultrasound can also be
used to give accurate positional information about a given reflector. Careful
observation of the echo pattern of a given reflector arid its behaviour as the
ultrasonic probe is moved together with the positional information obtained
above and knowledge of the component history enables the experienced
ultrasonic operator to classify the reflector as slag, lack of fusion or a crack.
r~
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5.3.1
l'
A flaw detector:
- Pulse generator.
- Adjustable time base generator with an adjustable delay control.
- Cathode ray tube with fully rectified display.
- Calibrated amplifier with a graduated g~in control or atte.nuator.
An ultrasonic probe:
- Piezo-electric crystal element capable of converting electrical vibrations
into mechanical vibrations and vice versa.
- Probe shoe, normally a Perspex block to which the crystal is firmly
attached using suitable adhesive.
- Electrical and/or mechaniGal crystal damping: facilities to prevent
excessive ringing.
"
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Ultrasonic equipment.
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5.3.2
Ultrasonic testing
Advantages
Limitations
No permanent record
Instant results
Critical
5.4
...
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Limitations
Inexpensive equipment
No permanent re!)ord
Calibration of equipment
dry powder)
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5.5
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5.5.1
Dye penetrant
Advantages
Limitations
Portable
Simple
Temperature dependent
Inexpensive
Sensitive
No permanent record
Time lapse between application and results
Messy
maximum test confidence.
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I
Section 6
WPS/Welder Qualifications
' '
WPS/Welder Qualifications
6.1
General
When structures and pressurised items are fabricated by welding, it is
essential that all the welded joints are sound and have suitable properties
for their application.
{Control of welding is by WPSs that give detailed written instructions about
the welding condition~hat must be used to ensure that welded joints have
the required properties.
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6.2
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Table 6.1 Typical sequence for welding procedure qualification by means of a test
weld.
The welding engineer writes a preliminary Welding Procedure Specification
(pWPS) for each test coupon to be welded .
I
I
The test coupon is subjected to NOT in accordance with the methods specified
by the Standard -visual inspection, MT or PT and RT or UT.
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6.2.1
to give
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6.2.2
AWS 01.2
Structural welding of aluminium.
The qualification process for welding procedures
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6.2.3
Once a WPQR has been produced, the welding engineer can write
qualified WPSs for the various production weld joints that need to be made.
The welding conditions that are allowed to be written on a qualified WPS are
referred to as the qualification range and depend on the welding conditions
used for the test piece (as-run details) and form part of the WPQR.
Welding conditions are referred to as welding variables by European and
American Welding Standards and are classified as either essential or nonessentiql variables .and can be defined as:
Essential variable
Variable that has an effect on the mechanical properties of the weldment and if
changed beyond the limits specified by the standard will require the WPS to be requalified.
..
'
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I
Non-essential variable
Variable that must 'be specified on a WPS but does not have a significant effect on
the mechankal properties of the weldment and can be changed without the need
for re-qualification but will require a new WPS to be written.
.l
7 Make another test weld using similar welding conditions to those used
for the affected weld and subject this to the same tests used for the
relevant WPQR to demonstrate that the properties still satisfy specified
requirements.
8 Remove the affected weld and re-weld the joint strictly in accordance
with the designated WPS.
1
Most of the welding variables classed as essential are the same in both the
European and American Welding Standards but their qualification ranges
may differ.
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Welding process
PWHT
Welding
consumables
Material thickness
Type of current
Preheat temperature
The preheat temperature used for the testis the minimum that
must be applied.
lnterpass
temperature
'
6.3
Welder qualification
The use of qualified WPSs is the accepted method fbr controlling production
welding but will only be successful if the welders understand and work in
accordance with them.
Welders also need to have the skill to consistently produce sound (defectfree) welds.
6.3.1
~
Qualification test of welders - Fusion welding .
Part 1: Steels.
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1.
.I
AWS 01.1
Structural welding of steels.
AWS 01.2
Structural welding of aluminium .
)l
6.3.2
I,
produce sound
Table 6.3 shows the steps required for qualifying welders in accordance with
EU Standards.
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The welding engineer writes a WPS for a welder qualification test piece .
,.....,
The welder makes the test weld in accordance with the WPS .
A welding inspector monitors the welding to ensure that the welder is
working in accordance with the WPS.
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6.3.3
6.3.4
Variable
Welding process
Type of weld
Filler material
Material thickness
Pipe diameter
Welding positions
allow~
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6.3.5
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Records/evidence are available that can be traced to the welder and the
WPSs used for productionwelding.
Supporting evidence must relate to volumetric examination of the
welder's production welds (RT or UT) on two welds made during the six
,
months prior to the extension date.
Supporting evidence welds must satisfy the acceptance levels for
imperfections specified by the EU welding standard and have been
made under the same conditions as the original test weld.
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Figure 6.4 Example of WPQR document (details of weld test) to EN15614 format.
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Section 7
Materials Inspection
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Materials Inspection
7.1
General
One of the duties of the visual/welding inspector is materials inspection and
there are a number of situations where this will be required :
Il
j
Steels.
Stainless steels.
Aluminium and its alloys.
Nickel and its alloys.
Copper and its alloys.
Titanium and its alloys.
Cast iron.
These materials are all widely used in fabrication, welding and construction
to meet the requirements of a diverse range of applications and industry
sectors.
There are three essential aspects to material inspection that the Inspector
should consider:
7.2
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Structural steel.
Minimum yield strength: N/mm 2 at t::;; 16mm.
Longitudinal Charpy, 27 Joules 20C.
Normalised or normalised rolled.
'. l
!I
Commonly used materials and most of the alloys can be fusion welded
using various welding processes, in a wide range of thickness and where
applicable, diameters.
Reference to other standards such as ISO 15608 Welding .,. Guidelines for a
metallic material grouping system and steel producer and welding
consumable data books can also provide the inspector. with guidance as to
the suitability of a material and consumable type for a given application.
I
7.3
7 .4
Fe
C
Mn
Si
Al'
Cr
Mo
V
Ni
Cu
S
P
Ti
Nb
Strength
Toughness ,
< 0.3% deoxidiser
Grain refiner:1 <0.008% deoxidiser + toughness
Corrosion resistance
1% is for creep resistance
Strength
Low temperature applications
Used for weathering steels (Carten)
Residual element (can cause hot shortness)
Residual element
Grain refiner, used as a micro-alloying element
(strength and toughness)
Grain refiner, used as a . micro-alloying element
(strength and tqughness)
l1
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1
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Material traceability
Traceability is defined as the ability ta trac;;e the history, application or
location of that which is under consideration. With a welded product,
traceability may require the inspector to consider the:
I,
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Non-specific inspection
Carried out by the manufacturer in accordance with his own procedures
to assess whether products defined by the same product specification
and made by the same manufacturing process, comply with the
requirements of the order.
- Type 2.1 are documents in which the manufacturer declares that the
products supplied comply with the requirements of the order without
inclusion of test results.
lJ
-Type 2.2 are documents in which the manufacturer declares that the
products supplied comply with the requirements of the order and
includestest results based on non-specific inspection.
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Specific inspection
Inspection carried out before delivery according to the product
specification on the products to be supplied or test units of which the
products supplied are part, to verify that these products comply with the
requirements of the order.
- Type 3.1 are certificates in which the manufacturer declares that the
products supplied comply with the requirements of the order and in
which test results are supplied.
- Type 3.2 are certificates prepared by both the manufacturer's
authorised inspection representative independent of the manufacturing
department and either the purchaser's authorised representative or the
inspector designated by the official regulations and in which they
declare that the products supplied comply with the requirements of the
order and in which test results are supplied.
Application or location of a particular material can be carried out through a
review of the WPS, fabrication drawings, quality plan or by physical
inspection of the material at the point of use.
In certain circumstances the inspector may have to witness the transfer of
cast numbers from the original plate to pieces to be used in production.
On pipeline work it is a requirement that the inspector records all the
relevant information for each piece of linepipe. On large diameter pipes this
information is usually stencilled on the inside of the pipe. On smaller
diameter pipes it may be stencilled along the outside of the pipe.
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Inspection document Type 2.2
Test report.
Statement of compliance with
the ,order:, with indication of
results of npn-specific
fnspection.
Validated by maQufacturer.
Specific inspection
Quality management system of the material
manufacturer certified by a competent body
established within the community and having
undergone a specific as::;essment for materials .
,.,
...
Inspection certificate Type 3.1
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7.5
General inspection.
Visible imperfections.
Dimensions.
Surface condition.
General inspection
This takes account of storage conditions, methods of handling, number of
plates or pipes and distortion tolerances.
Visiblti! imperfections
TypiC~I visible imperfections are usually attributable to the manufacturing
process ~hd include cold laps which break the surface orlaminations if they
appear at the edge of the plate. Ultrasonic testing using. a compression
probe may be required for laminations which may be present in the body of
the material.
~l
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Cold lap.
Plate lamination.
Dimensions
For plates this includes length, width and thickness.
For pipes this includes length and wall thickness and also inspection of
diameter and ovality. At thi~ stage of inspection the material cast or heat
number may be recorded for validation against the material certificate.
Surface condition
The surface condition is important and must not show excessive millscale or
rust, be badly pitted or have unacceptable mechanical damage.
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There are four grades of rusting which the inspector may have to consider:
Rust. Grade A: Steel surface largely covered with adherent millscale with
little or no rust.
Rust Grade B: Steel surface which has begun to rust and from which mill
scale has beg1:.1n to flake.
Rust Grade C: Steel surface on which the mill scale has rusted away or
from which it can be scraped. Slight pitting visible under normal vision.
J
Rust Grade D: Steel surface on which mill scale has rusted away. General
pitting visible under normal vision.
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7.6
Summary
Material inspection is an important part of the inspector's duties and an
understanding of the documentation involved is key to success.
Material inspection must be approached in a logical and precise manner if
materiai'verification and traceability are to be achieved. This can be difficult
if the material is not readily accessible, access may have to be provided,
safety precautions observed and authorisation obtained before material
inspection can be carried out. The quality plan should identify the level of
insp~ction required and the point at which inspection takes place. A
fabrication drawing should provide information on. the type and location of
the material.
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'u'sed.
-- -
These methods may include but are not limited to: Spark test, spectroscopic
analysis, chemical analysis, scleroscope hardness test, etc. These types of
test are normally conducted by an approved test house but sometimes onsite and the inspector may be required to witness them to verify compliance
with the purchase order or appropriate standard(s).
*EN ISO 9000 Quality management systems vocabulary.
Fundamentals and
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Section 8
Codes and Standards
I
8
8.1
General
It is not necessary for the inspector to carry a range of codes and standards
in the performance of his duties, normally the contract specification is the
only document required. However this may reference supporting codes and
standards and the inspector should know where to access these normative
documents.
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8.2
Normative document
Document that provides rules, guidelines or characteristics for activities or
their results. The term normative document is generic, covering documents
such as standards, technical specifications, codes of practice and
regulations.*
C,:,l~
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Definitions
Standard
_..:;.
Document established by consensus and approved by a recognised body. A
standard provides, for common and repeated use, guidelines, rules,
characteristics for activities or their' results, aimed at achieving the optimum
1.1
Harmonised standards
Standards on the same subject approved by different standardising bodies,
that establish inter-changeability of products, processes and services, or
mutual understanding of test results or information provided according to
these standards.*
ll
)I
Code of practice
Document that recommends practices or procedures for the design,
manufacture, installation, maintenance and utilisation of equipment,
structures or products. A code of practice may be a standard, part of a
standard or independent of a standard.*
Regulation
Document providing binding legislative rules adopted by an authority.*
Authority
A body (responsible for standards and regulations legal or administrative
entity that has specific tasks and composition) that has legal powers and
rights.*
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Regulatory authority
Authority responsible for preparing or adopting regulations.*
Enforcement authority
Authority responsible for enforcing regulations.*
Specification
Document stating requirements, meaningful data and its supporting medium
stating needs or expectations that are stated, generally implied or
obligatory.**
Procedure
Specified way to carry out an activity or process*. Usually a written
description of all essential parameters and precautions to be observed when
applying a technique to a specific application following an established
standard, code or specification.
Instruction
Written description of the precise steps to be followed based on an
established procedure, standard, code or specification.
Quality plan
Document specifying which procedures and associated resources shall be
applied ' by whom and : when to a specific project, product, process or
contract*
8.3
Summary
Application standards and codes of practice ensure that a structure or
component will have an acceptable level of quality and be fit-for-purpose.
Applying the requirements of a standard, code of practice or specification
can be a problem for the inexperienced inspector. Confidence in applying
the requirements of one or all of these documents t.o a specific application
only comes with use.
If in. doubt the inspector must always refer to a higher authority in order to
avoid confusion and potential problems.
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Year
Status
BS 499-1
2009
Current
BS 709
1983
Superseded
Superseded by:
BS EN ISO 9016:2011
BS EN ISO 5178:2011
BS EN ISO 4136:2011
BS EN ISO 5173:2010 + A 1 2011
BS EN ISO 9015-1:2011
BS EN ISO 9015 -2:2011
BS EN 1320:1997
BS EN 1321:1997 AMO 14972
BS EN ISO 9018 : 2003 AMO 15061
BS 1113(1999)
1999
Superseded
Superseded By:
BS EN 12952-1:2001 COR2010
BS EN 12952-2:2011
BS EN 12952-3:2011
BS EN 12952-5:2011
BS EN 12952-6:2011
BS EN 12952-7:2010
BS EN 12952-10:2002 COR 2010
BS EN 12952-11:2002COR2010
BS1453 (1972)
Partly
Superseded
BS 1821
Cancelled
BS 2493(1985)
1985
Superseded
BS 2633(1987)
Current
BS 2640(1982)
Cancelled
BS 2654(1989)
Superseded
BS 2901-3(1990)
1990
Superseded
Superseded by:
BS EN ISO 24373:2009
BS 2926
1984
Superseded
Superseded by:
BS EN ISO 3581:2012
BS 3019
1984
Superseded
Superseded by:
BS EN 1011-4:2000 AMO 2004
BS 3604-1 (1990)
1990
Superseded
Superseded by:
BS EN 10216-2:2002 AMO 2007 &
BS EN 10217-2:2002 AMO 2006
BS 3605
1991AMO1997
Superseded
Superseded by:
BS EN 10216-5:2004 COR 2008
11
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Comments
AMO = amended
CCR= corrected
Standard Number
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Superseded by:
BS EN ISO 18275:2012 &
BS EN ISO 3580:2011
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Standard Number
Year
Status
BS 4515-1 (2009)
BS 4570 (1985)
2009
1985
Current
Partly
Superseded
BS 4677 (1984)
BS 4872-1 (1982)
1985
1982
Current
Current
Comments
AMO = amended
COR = corrected
Partly superseded by:
BS EN 1011-8:2004 AMO
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BS 4872-2 (1976)
1976
Current
1982
Superseded
BS 6693-1(1986)
1986
Superseded
BS 6990(1989)
Current
BS 7191(1989)
Superseded
BS 7570(2000)
2000
Superseded
BS EN 287-1 :2011
2011
Current
BS EN 440:1995
1995
Superseded
Superseded By:
BS EN ISO 14341:2011
BS EN 499:1995
1995
Superseded
Superseded By:
BS EN ISO 2560:2009
BS EN 756:2004
2004
Superseded
Superseded By:
BS EN ISO 14171:2010
BS EN 760:1996
1996
Superseded
Superseded By:
BS EN ISO 14174:2012
BS EN 383
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I,
Year
Status
BS EN 910:1996
1996
Superseded
BS EN 970:1997
1997
Superseded
BS EN 12072:2000
2000
Superseded
BS EN ISO 18274:2011
2011
Current
BS EN 1011-1:2009
2009
Current
BS EN
2004
BS EN
2004
BS EN
2004
BS EN
1011-2:2001 AMD
2001
Current
1011-3:2000 AMD
2000
Current
1011-4:2000 AMD
2000
Current
1320: 1997
1997
Current
1997
Current
BS EN 10002-1:2001
?001
Superseded
2000
Current
BS EN 10027:2005
2005
Current
BS EN 10045-1:1990
1990
Superseded
BS EN 10204:2004
2004
Current
BS EN 22553:1995
1995
Current
BS EN 24063:1992
1992
Superseded
BS EN 25817:1992
1992
Superseded
BS EN 26520:1992
1992
Superseded
BS EN 26848:1991
1991
Superseded
ISO 857-1:1998
1998
Current
BS EN ISO 6947:2011
2011
Current
BS EN ISO 15607:2003
2003
Current
Comments
AMO = amended
COR = corrected
Standard Number
BS EN 10020:2000
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BS PD CR ISO 15608:2000
2000
Superseded
BS EN ISO 15609-1:2004
2004
Current
BS EN ISO 15610:2003
2003
Current
BS EN ISO 15611:2003
2003
Current
BS EN ISO 15613:2004
2004
Current
2004
Current
BS EN ISO 15614-2:2005
2005
Current
BS EN ISO 15614-3:2008
2008
BS EN ISO 15614-4:2005
COR 2008
2008
BS EN ISO 15614-5:2004
2004
BS EN ISO 15614-6:2006
2006
BS EN ISO 15614-7:2007
2007
BS EN ISO 15614-8:2002
2002
BS EN ISO 15614-9
None available
BS EN ISO 15614-10:2005
2005
BS EN ISO 15614-11:2002
2002
BS EN ISO 15614-12:2004
2004
BS EN ISO 15614-13:2005
2005
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Section 9
Welding Symbols
Welding Symbols
A weld joint can be represented on an engineering drawing by a detailed
sketch showing every detail and dimension of the joint preparation, as
shown below.
-12
.1
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1-4mm
Single U preparation.
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9.1
European Standard
EN 22553 - Welded, brazed & soldered joints, Symbolic representation on
drawings.
American St.a ndard
AWS A2.4, standard symbols for welding, brazing and non-destructive
examination.
l;
These standards are very similar in many respects, but there are also some
major differences that need to be understood to avoid misinterpretation.
11
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9.2
Symbol
II
v
v
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Single bevel butt weld
with broad root face
.1
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"
. j
Fillet weld
Surfacing (cladding)
Backing run
(back or backing weld)
Backing bar
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9.3
S mbol
I,
Double J butt.weld
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9.4
Supplementary symbols
Weld symbols may be complemented by
shape of the weld.
Examples of supplementary symbols and how they are applied are given
below.
Designation
Symbol
'.
r--.
Convex double V
butt weld
"--../
Note: If the weld symbol does not have a supplementary symbol then the shape of
the weld surface does not need to be indicated precisely.
9-5
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Welding Symbols
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9.5
An arrow line.
A dual reference line consisting of a continuous and a dashed line.
ri
3
2a
I
1
\
---
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~--- ~a~
2b
Arrow line
Reference (continuous line)
Identification line (dashed line)
Welding symbol (single V joint)
Joint line
9.6
Il
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The arrow side is always the end of the joint line that the arrow line points to
(and touches).
It can be at either end of the joint line and it is the draughtsman who decides
which end to make the arrow side.
I.
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Arrows~
Arrow line
Other side
Other side
Arrow
Other side
Arrow side
sid~
Arrow side
Arrow line
Arrow line
Other side
Arrow line
9. 7
Symbols for the weld details required on the arrow side must be placed
on the continuous line.
Symbols for the weld details on the other side must be placed on the
dashed line.
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9.8
11
lines
EN22553 allows the dashed line to be either above or below the continuous
line - as shown below.
fl
d~shed
or
If the weld is symmetrical it is not necessary to distinguish between the two
sides and EN22553 states that the dashed line should be omitted. Thus, a
single V butt weld with a backing run can be shown .bY any of the four
symbolic representations shown below.
11
11
Other side
Other side
Arrow side
j'
\....___-'C>-__
_
____?\____ _
----~-----
/\
Other side
Arrow side (
Other side
Arrow side
____v_ ____ _
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9.9
Dimensioning of welds
General rules
Dimensions may need to be specified for some types of weld and EN 22553
specifies a convention for this.
9.9.1
Dimensions for the cross-section of the weld are written on the lefthand
side of the symbol.
L~ngth c;limension~ for the weld are _written on, th~ righthand side of the
symbol.
In the. absence of any indication to the contrary, all butt w.elds are. full
penetration welds.
I
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Some examples of how these symbols are used are shewn below.
1
Partial penetration
single V butt weld
[
11
ZB~
- - --
c===::>
~
8h1'.rfil
a6~
----
>
9-9
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9.9.2
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100mm
I
:+-+:
I .
--r
8
........
. ~,,........
~=--=-
: Cl
Plan view
111:
End view
150mm
z
z
~ n x I (e)
Z8
n x I (e)
Z8
~3x
150 (100)
3 x 150 (100)
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_____ _________ j_
z
-r
Plan view
9.10
End view
~II
Complimentary. indications
Complementary indications may be needed to specify other characteristics
of welds, eg:
Field or site welds are indicated by a flag.
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Welding Symbols
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9.11
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111 = MMA
121 =SAW
131 =MIG
135 =MAG
9.11.1
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9.12
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Arrow
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/\
sid~
Other side
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Section 10
Introduction to Welding Processes
I '
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10
10.1
General
Common characteristics of the four main arc welding processes, MMA, TIG,
MIG/MAG and SAW are:
1'0.2
Productivity
the~A
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11
rmetal
For consumable electrode welding processes the rate of transfer of molten
to the weld pool is directly related to the welding current density (ratio
of the current to the diameter of the electrode). )
( For TIG welding, the higher the current, the mo~e energy th.ere is for fusion}
\ o the higher the rate at which filler wire can be ad,ded to the weld pool.
10.3
Heat input
(Arc energy is the amount of heat generated in the welding arc per unit
length of weld and is usually expressed in kilojoule\ p,ermillimetre length of
weld (kJ/mm) Heat input (HI) for arc welding is calculated from the following
formula:)
A re energy (kJ I mm )
Volts x Amps
Travel speed (mm I sec) x 1000
Heat input is the energy supplied by the welding arc to the workpiece and is
expressed in terms of arc energy x thermal efficiency factor.
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(The thermal efficiency factor is the ratio of heat energy into the welding arc
to the electrical energy consumed by the arc.)
. . .
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Heat input values into the weld for various processes can be calculated from
the arc energy by multiplying by the following thermal efficiency factors:
SAW (wire electrode)
MMA (covered electrode)
MIG/MAG
FCAW (with or without gas shield)
TIG
Plasma
1.0
0.8
0.8
0.8
0.6
0.6
Example
A weld is made using the MAG welding process and the following welding
conditions were recorded:
Volts:
Amps:
Travel speed:
24
240
300mm pe r.n im1t _.....,_ _ __
, /
{ Arc energy ( Kd I mm)
Volts x Amps
Travel speed (mm I sec) x 1060
:;;iiiJ8
11
,/
24x240
300/60x1000
5760
5000
Arc energy ,
1.152 or 1.2kJ/mm
Heat input
{ Heat input
Welding po~'.ition and the process have a major influence on the travel
speed that can be used.j
For manual and semi-automatic welding the following are general principles:
c.
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Vertical-down welding tends to give the lowest heat input because of the
fast travel speed that can be used.)
Horizontal-vertical welding is a relatively low heat input welding position
because the welder cannot weave in this position)
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Overhead welding tends to give low heat input because of the need to
use low current and relatively fast travel speed.
Welding in the flat position (downhand) can be a low or high heat input
position because the welder has more flexibility about the travel speed
that can be used.
Of the arc welding processes, SAW has the potential to give the highest
heat input and deposition rates and TIG and MIG/MAG can produce very
low heat input.
Typical heat input val.ues for controlled heat input welding will tend to be
-1.0--3.SkJ/mm.)
10.4
I]
II
Welding .parameters
Arc volta e
volta. e is related to the arc eri th. For processes where the arc voltage
is controlled by the power source (SA , Ml
G and FCAW and can be
depencle.o ly from the current, the voltage settin will affect th
vari
profile of the weld. )
I' :
)
{As weldfng current is raised, the voltage also needs to be raised to spread
the weld metal and produce a wider and flatter deposi0
( For MIG/MAG, arc voltage has a major influence on droplet transfer across
the arc.)
Welding .current
Welding current has a major influence on)the depth of fusion/penetration
(
'-
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1
The location of the heat with respect to polarity is not the same for all
processes and the effects/options/benefits for each of the main arc welding
processes are summarised below.
Process , ' /
Polarity
DC+ve
DC-ve
AC
Best penetration
GMAWsolid
wires
(MIG/MAG)
Rarely used
Not used
FCAW/MCAW
gas-shielded
and selfshielded cored
wires
Most common
Not used
Best penetration
MMA
11
TIG
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SAW
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{1'0:5
,, --
(To
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100
ocv
>
(1)
Ol
.....ro
g
c
0
50
:;::;
ro
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Current, A
Small change in current
Figure 10.1 Typical volt-amp curves for a constant current power source.
(For manual welding (MMA and manual TIG) the welder sets the required
current on the power source but arc voltage is controlled by the arc length
the welder uses.)
(A
welder has to work within a fairly narrow range of arc length for a
particular current setting) if it is too long the arc will extinguish, too short and
the electrode may stub into the weld pool and the arc extinguish.
(For the
The welder tries to hold a fairly constant arc length (B in Figure 10.1) for the
current (Y) that has been set. However, he cannot keep the arc length
constant and it will vary over a small working range (A-C) due to normal
hand movement during welding.
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The power source is designed to ensure that these small changes in arc
voltage during normal welding will give only small changes in current (X to
Z). Thus the current can be considered to be essentially constanfl and this
J
ensures that the welder is able to maintain control of fusion.
r-
. ( The drooping shape of the volt-amp curves has led to constant current
power sources sometimes being said to have a drooping characteristic)
r
J
10.5.2
This is the preferred type_pf p_owe so rce for welding 'processes that have a
~d.eJ_(MlGLMAG,_E.CAW..an~AW'W ire feed SQeed a d c :e.riUrfLd.ire.ctl welatecLso that as the current)
increases, so does the feed speed and there is a corresponding increase in
the burn-off rate to maintain the arc length/voltage.
I~
The operating principle of this type of power source is shown in Figure 10.2.
A welder sets voltage B and current Y on the power source. If the arc length
is decreased to C (due to a variation in weld profile or as the welder's hand
moves up and down during semi-automatic welding) there will be a
momentary increase in welding curr~nt to z.frhe higher current Z gives a
higher burn-off rat~ which brings the arc length (and arc voltage) back to the
pre-set value. )
I
I
Similarly,{if the arc length increases the current quickly falls to X and the
burn-off rate is reduced] so that the arc length is brought back to the pre-set
level B.
/
(Thus, although the arc voltage does vary a little during welding the changes
in current that restore the voltage to the pre-set value happen extremely
quickly so that the voltage can be considered constant. )
l'
The straight-line relationship between voltage and current and the relatively
small gradient is why this type of power source is often referred to as having
a flat characteristic.
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100
ocv
>
a)
C)
.s
>
0
50
~-.1
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x y; z
Current, A
~
Large (momentary) change in current
Figure 10.2 Typical volt-amp curves for a constant voltage power source.
(l)l
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Section 11
MMA Welding
L
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11
Manual metal arc (MMA) welding was invented in ~sia ~ 88"" and
involved a bare metal rod with no flux coating to give a protective gas shield.
Coated electrodes weren't developed until the early 1900s when the
Kjellberg process was inventeq in Sweden and the quasi-arc method was
introduced in the UK.
The most versatile welding process, (MMA is suitable for most ferrous and
non-ferrous metalsJ over a wide range of thicknesses. (lt can be used in all
positions) with reasonable ease of use and relatively economically.t'fhe final
weld quality is primarily dependent on the skill of the welder}
Whe;n C!n arc is stru~k between the 'coated electr ~[iece L both
surfaces melt t
a weld pool.
verage te Qeratme...Qf_ the arc @)
approximately___O.O~ sufficient to simultaneously melt the arent metal,
s-1.:tma-OleCOre wire and flux coat' n .
s
sla whicl
the weld pool from ox~g.e.o_an.Q nitrogen J
he-sJ . ; ndin
.b.eref lhe molten slag solidifies, cools' and must be chipped off the
weld bead once the weJd run is .complete (or before the next weld pass is
deposited). (The process allows only short lengths of weld to be produced
before a n,ew electrodey~eef!~J~~~~i::ii:serted in the holder. )
1:-P
Electrode angle
75-80 to the horizontal
able electrode
Parent
metal
Weld metal
MMA welding.
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11.2
Power requirements
Power sources for MMA welding are transformers (which transform mains
AC-AC suitable for welding),' transformer-rect[fiers which rectify AC-DC),
(d"iesel or petrol driven generators (preferred for site work) or inverters (a
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An OCV.
Initiate the arc.
Welding voltage between 20 and 40V to maintain the arc during welding .)
Suitable current range, typically 30-350 amps.)
Stable arc-rapid arc recovery or arc re-ignition without current surge.\
.Cbhstant welding current. The . arc length .. may change during welding,
but consistent electrode burn-off rate and weld penetration
ch~racteristics must be maintained.
11.3
Welding varia.bles
Other factors or welding variables which affect the final quality of the MMA
weld, are:
Current (amperage)
Voltage
Travel speed
Polarity
Type of electrode
/
Affects heat input ../
II
11.3.1
Current (amperage)
( The flow of electrons through the circuit is the welding current measured in
t ~mperes (!). ~Amperage controls burn-off rate and depth of penetration.)
~elding current level is determined by the size of electrode"} and
manufacturers recommend the normal operating range and current. ) )
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/
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11.3.2
Voltage
(The welding potential or pressure required for current to flow through the
circuit is the voltage (U). For MMA welding the-voltage required to initiate
the arc is OCV,Qhe voltage measured between the output terminals of the
power source when no current is flowing through the welding circu~
(For safety reasons the OCV should not exceed 90V and is usually 50-90V.J
Arc voltage that is required to maintain the arc during welding and is usually
20-40V)and is a function of arc length(With MMA the welder controls the arc
length and therefore the arc voltage which in tutn controls weld. pool fluidity/
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OCV 90V
Normal
arc voltage
range
_I
,I
Welding amperage
I I
11.3.3
Travel speed
The rate of weld progression, the third factor that affects heat input and
therefore metallurgical and mechanical conditions.
( Travel speed too fast
< Narrow thin weld b~ad, fast cooling, slag inclusions, undercut, poor fusion,
I 1:._enetration J
- - - - - _ __
.,.........._..
~ Travel speed too slow
11.3.4
Polarity will determine the distribution of heat energy at the welding arc. The
preferred polarity of the MMA system deQends primarily on the
ode
being used and the desired properties of the we l
Direct current (DC)
Direct current is the flow of current in one direction and for MMA welding it
refers to the polarity of the electrode.
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When using DC the welding arc can be affected bt arc blow, the deflection
( of the arc from its normal path due t m~g~~-~~-f~~~:J
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11.3.5
For MMA welding there are three generic types of flux covering:
11-6
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Features:
Modernte weld. m~.t!;l!JIJ.ech~nic::.~Lprog~rtie~. __ _
~ Good be d PJ~ grod ce thr.o.u ht. e vi~ous slag . .
Positional welding possible with a fluid slag (containing fluoride).
Easily removable slag.
~ c. Le&M-l~ Aa~mt
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Features
Low h drogen weld meta
Re uires high welding currents/sp_ee s
Poor bea pro 1 e convex and coarse surface profile).)
Slag removal difficult. ~
. of.v'f"' ~ ot.W'f! _,
Cellulosic electrodes - ~~
C_p~rlt. in a high roportio ~~i_Q_the coating ~n,d are hara~terise
dee .
eneffati ~~ id~UJO;. ff ra~ ~iv!~g-~~ng
speeds. Weld deposit can be coarse and with fluid slag, deslagging can e
difficy!t.i These electrodes are easy to use in any. position and are noted for
( their use in the stovepipe welding fechn ~
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11-7
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Rev 2 April 2013
, Manual Metal Arc/Shielded Metal Arc Welding (MMA/SMAW)
Copyright TWI Ltd 2013
Operating factor should not be confused with the term duty cycle which is a
a conductor can carry a current and is
safety value given as the % of time _
given as a specific current at so and: i1 oo~-of 10-minutes, ie 350A 60% and
300A 100%
' . \ ' f.
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1'1.4
Summary of MMA/SMAW
Equipment requirement:
Transformer/rectifier, generator, inverter (constant amperage type).
Power and power return cable (of a suitable amperage rating).
Electrode holder (of a suitable amperage rating).
Electrodes (of a suitable type and amperage rating).
Correct visor/glass, safety clothing and good extraction.
Parameters and inspection points: Amperage .
ocv.
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Advantages:
Field or shop use.
Range of consumables.
All positional.
Very portable.
Simple equipment.
1.
Disadvantages:
High skill factor required.
Arc strikes/slag inclusions.
Low operating'"faCfot .,.. ~ High level of generated fumes.
Hydrogen control.
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Section 12
TIG Welding
I.
'
12
TIG Welding
12.1
Process charact~ristics
'
In the US the TIG process is also called gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW)'(
Melting is produced by heating with an arc struck between a nonconsumable tungsten electrode and the workpiece. An inert gas shields the
electrode and weld zone to prevent oxidation of the tungsten electrode and
atmospheric contamination of the weld and hot filler wire (as shown below).
r
l ..1
Curre nt
col)cluci or
Gas nozzle
12.2
Process variables
The main variables in TIG welding are:
angle.~
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12.2.1
Welding current
~.
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12.2.2
../
12.2.3
(AC.)
Current
type/polarity
DC-ve
AC
DC+ve
Heat
balance.
70% at work
30% at electrode
50% at work
50% at electrode
30% at work
70% at electrode
Weld profile
Deep, narrow
Medium
Shallow, wide
Cleaning
action
No
Yes
Electrode
capacity
Excellent
(3.2mm/400A)
Good
(3.2mm/225A)
Poor
(6.4mm/120A)
Travel speed
~ Affects both weld width and penetration but the effect on width is more
pronounced.
~ Tncreasing the travel speed reduces the penetration and width.
~
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12.2.4
~ pure tungsten electrodes are used when welding light metals with AC
because they maintain a clean balled end, but possess poor arc initiation
and stability in AC mode compared with other types]
~ Jhoriated electrodes are alloyed . with thorium oxide (thori.e) to improve
arc initiation and have higher current carrying caj'.)acity than pure
tungsten electrodes and maintain a sharp tip for Ion Unfortunately,
thoria is slightly radioactive (emitting a radiatioh) and the clust generated
during tip grindipg should not be inhaled. Electrode grinding machines
used for thoriated tungsten grinding should be fitted with a dust
extraction system.
,C.er.Jated aod laotbaaia.1~ electrodes are alloyed with cerium and
lanthanum oxides; for the same reason as thoriated electrodes and
operate successfully with DC or AC and as cerjym and lanthOOQ..llJ..J!Le
not radioactiv~. they h.ave been used as replacements for thoriated
electrodes.
Zirco i ted e
e allo S with zirconium oxide with operating_
A characteristics between the thoriated types and pure tung.te!L They are
1L
al51e to!reta@ a balled end during weldil19., so are recommended for AC
welding. They have a high resistance to c otami n so are used for
high integrity welds where tungsten inclusions must be avoided.
12.2.5
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T'W I
Shape of ti.mg_
s ten electrode tip
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Electrode tip
(or vertex angle).
12.2.6
Electrode tip
with flat end.
Shielding gases
The following inert gases can be used as shielding gases for TIG welding:
Argon.
Helium.
Mixtures of argon and helium.
~Note:
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Argon
Performance item
Helium
Arc voltage
Heating power
of the arc
Protection
of weld
Availability
and cost
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Back purging
It is necessary to protect the back of the weld from excessive oxidation
during TIG welding, achieved by using a purge gas, usually pure argon.
--
For pipe welding spools it is relatively easy to purge the pipe bore, but for
plate/sheet welding it is necessary to use a. purge channel or sometimes
another operator positions and moves' a bacl<'. urge nozzle as the weld
progresses. For purging large systems soluble dams or ungs are required
and can it can .be a complex operation.
The initial stage of back purging is to exclude all the air at the back of the
weld and having allowed sufficient time for this the flow rate should be
reduced prior to starting to weld so there is positive flow (typically
-41/min).
,-
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1:1
Electrode extension
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Electrode
e~tension
Stickout -
~.
[ I
If the electrode extension is too short, the electrode tip will not be
adequately heated leading to an unstable arc.
If the electrode extension is too long, the electrode tip might overheat,
_...causing melting and lead to tungsten inclusions.
As a general rule stickout length ' should be~ times the electrode
~
12.3
--~~...;;:;::.....--------~~---
Filler wires
Filler wires usually have a similar composition to the parent metal buf .
contain small additions of elements that will combine. with any oxygen and /
nitrogen present.
----~-- --
_..
12.4
....
,. - -
. .:...- - ~- -- - "- .
Tungsten inclusions
__mall _fragments of tungsten that enter a weld will always show up on
radiographs because of the ~e l atively high densit of this me@_I and for most
applications will not be acceptable.
[_
2_hermal shock to the tungsten caus.ing small fragments to enter the weld
pool 1s a common cause of tun sten inclusions and is why modern power
sources have8""current slo -up device to minimise this risk.
This device allows the current to rise to the set value over a short period so
the tungsten is heated more slowly and gently.
12.5
rater cracking
One form of solidification cracking which some filler metals are sensitive to.
Modern power sources have aCilr ent slo e-out device so that at the end of
a weld when the welder switches off the current it reauces gradually and the
weld pool gets' smaller and shallower. The weld pool
will have a more
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12.6
Common applications
Include autogenous welding of longitudinal seams in thin walled pipes and
tubes in stainless steel and other alloys on continuous forming mills.
Using filler wires, TIG is used for making high quality joints in heavier auge
gipe and tubing or
e chemrca , pe ro eum an power generating
industries.
It is also used in the aerospace industry for items such as airframes and
rocket motor cases.
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The heat source and filler metal additions are controlled independently
so it is very good for joining thin base metals.
Disadvantages
Advantages
12.8
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1
Gives low deposition rates compared with other arc welding processes.
Need higher dexterity and welder co-ordination than with MIG/MAG or
MMA welding.
Less economical than MMA or MIG/MAG for sections thicker than
-10mm.
Difficult to fully shield the weld zone in draughty conditions so may not
be suitable for site/field welding.
Tungsten inclusions can occur if the electrode contacts the weld pool.
No cleaning action so low tolerance for contaminants on filler or base
metals.
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'(
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Section 13
.(
'MIG/MAG Welding
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13
MIG/MA.G Welding
13.1
Process
Known in the US as gas metal arc welding (GMAW), the MIG/MAG welding
process Figure 13.1 is a versatile technique suitable for~oth thin sh ~
an
1c section com onents in mos
a ena s. n arc is struck
e een e en of a wire electrode and the workpiece, melting both to form
a weld pool. fie wire serves as e source o hea '.(via the arc at the wire
tip) and filler me ar for tne joint and is fed through a co er contact t e
(~lso called a contact tip) which conducts welding current into the wir~. The
weffi pool is prot.ected from the surrounding atmosphere by a sfiielding gas
fed through a nozzle surrounding the wire. hielding gas selection de~
on the material being welded and the agQlication. The wire is fed from a reel
by a motor drive and the "Yelder or machine moves the welding gun or torch
a!Ong the joint line. The process otters high productivit~ ancf is economical
because the consumable wire i$ continuously fed.
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$Upply
Welding gun
orlorcn
1=
Safety earth
Cool!ng unit
Shielding gaa
(optlona1)
aupply
(SeekHSE
guldance)
1. Re~um lead
.....,,,-
{I
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Advantages:
Contin uous wire fe.ao .
Automatic self-regulation of the arc length .
Hrg e osr ron t a minima num15er of sto /sta rt locations .
1gh consumable efficiency .
Heat inputs in the range 0.1-2kJ/mm .
Low hydrogen potential process .
Welder has good visibility of weld pool and joint line .
Little or no post-weld cleaning .
Can be used in all positions (dip transfer) .
Good process control possibilities .
Wide range of applications .
Disadvantages:
No independent control of filler addition.
Difficult to set up optimum parameters to minimise spatter levels.
\....- Risk of lack of fusion when using dip transfer on thicker weldments.
High level of equipment maintenance.
'-'" Lower heat input can lead to high hardness values.
Higher equipment cost than MMA welding.
Site welding requires special precautions to exclude draughts which may
disturb the gas shield.
Joint and part access is not as good as MMA or TIG welding.
Cleanliness of base metal, slag processes tolerate greater contamination.
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13.2
Primary variables
13.2.1
11
~ Increasing wire feed speed automatically increases the current in the wire .
Wires are generally produced in 0.6, 0.8, 1, 1.2, 1.4 and 1.6mm diameter.
13.2.2
Voltage__
The most important setting in spray transfer as it controls the arc length. In
dip transfer it also affects the rise of current and the overall heat input into
the weld. Increase both wire feed speed/current and volta.9e will increase
heat inpu
e 1ng connections neea to be cnecked for soundness as any
oose ones will result in resistance and cause a voltage drop in the circuit
and will affect the characteristic of the welding arc. The voltage will affect
the type of transfer achievable but this is also highly dependent on the type
of gas being used .
..
a)
22V
b)
23V
c)
24V
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Sr.rvlcct W ol'ldwJde
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13.2.3
Gases
Ar-He
Ar
He
Ji.r>"r
10
100%C02
.
\Or,..S
')l.D
C02 gas cannot sustain spray transfer as the ~nisfuion potential of the gaS I
is too high it gives very good penetration but promotes globular droplet_. J
transfer also a very unstable arc and lots of spatter.
r- -
Argon +15-20%C02
The percentage of C02 or oxygen depends on the type _.of steel bein
weldac:La d he mode of metal transfer used. ( Ar o .
uc lower/
ionisation potential and can sustain spray transfer above 24 welding v9 lS)
Argon gives a very sta e arc, 1fie spa er . ut lower pene ration 'lian C0 2 .
Argon and 5*20%C02 gas mixtures give the benefit of both' gases ie good
penetration with a stable arc and very little spatter. C0 2 gas is much
cheaper than argon or its mixtures and is widely used for carbon and some
low alloy steels.
5 Y, C. 1. I L
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Argon +1-5%C02
Widely used for stainless steels and some low alloy steels.
Material thickness (mm): o
2 3 4 5
8 9 to 1t 12 13 t 15+
Dli> transfer
Argon.C0 2 mixture5
Sptay transrer
Argon.CO:z mixtures
ulse tram;f r
ArgOnC~
mlxtureii
Figure 13.5 Active shielding gas mixtures for MAG welding of carbon, C-Mn and
low alloy steels. Blue is a cooler and red a hotter mixture gas.
~ixtur;-:;h
in~tead
~r
f~uid
helium
of ar.gon give a hott
.
arc, mo.re
.weld ,
ol and better weld profile. These quaternary .mixtures Pflrm1t higher )
__/
ldirig speeds but may not be suitable for thin sections.
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MaleliaUhlckness{mm): o
10
11 12
13 14 15+-
40%He
C~
n
n
n
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Figure 13.6 Active shielding gas mixtures for MAG welding of stainless steels. Blue
is a cooler and; red a hotter gas mixture.
\__gQh~
---------
Argon-helium mixtures
Argon is most commonly used for MIG welding of light alloys but an
advantage can be gained by use of helium and argon/helium mixtures.
Helium possesses a higher thermal conductivity than argon and the hotter
weld pool red uces improved penetration
dLor an incr:ease.Jn w.eldin
a deep broad enetration
rofile
speed. igh he ium con en s
-"
__.- b
~ uce 1 h spatter levels / With less than 80% argo
rue p_ray,_~~O'
Qs not poss io l ~J Wiffi globular-type transfer the WE!lder should use a buried
arc to minimise spatter. Arc stability can be problematic in helium and
argon-helium mixtures, since helium raises the arc voltage so there is a
larger change in arc voltage with respect to arc length. Helium mixtures
require higher flow rates than argon shielding to provide the same gas
protection.
- tve
-~--
--------
___
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10
II 12
13 14 15-t
Argon
Figure 13.7 Inert shielding gas mixtures for MIG welding of aluminium,
Blue' is
aif& red
. magnesluiri/ titanium, nicl<fi(and copper'
gas mixture.
alloys:.
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Summary of shielding gases and mixtures used for different base materials
for MIG/MAG welding
r:
Metal
Carbon
steel
Shielding
gas
Reaction
behaviour
Argon-C02
Slightly
oxidising
Argon-02
Slightly
oxidising
Ar-He-C02
Slightly
oxidising
C02
Oxidising
He-Ar-C02
Slightly
oxidising
Slightly
oxidising
Argon
Inert
Good arc stability, low spatter and generalpurpose gas. Titanium alloys require inert gas
backing and trailing shields to prevent air
contamination.
Ar-He
Inert
,...,
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Stainless
ste Is
'.Argon-02
"
Aluminium,
copper,
nickel,
titanium
alloys
Characteristics
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13.2.4
The faster the travel speed the less penetration, narrower bead width and
the higher risk of undercut.
Figure 13;8 The effec;t of travel speed: ,1;1.s travel speed increases, reducing
penetration ~nd width, undercut.
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Penetration
Excess weld metal
Ondercut
Deep
Maximum
Severe
Moderate
Moderate
Moderate
Shallow
Minimum
Minimum
j,
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Gas nozzle
Contact tip
setback
fl
Workpiece
Figure 13.10 Contact tip to workpiece distance; electrode extension and nozzle to
workpiece distance:
l\
)
Stable condition
Figure 13.11 Effect of increasing the contact tip to workpiece distance. Arc length
remains same length.
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Increased extension
j ]
~t short CTWDs, radiated heat from the weld pool can cause overheating of
~he contact tube and weldi~~'l-~9.!!?ll.':Y.~,!~~~n lead to spatter adhe~e~ce and
increased wear of the contact tuoe.
Lt~--(~2.''f
CTWD,mm
Dip
Spray
10-15
20-25
Pulse
15~20
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Electrode
extension
6-13mm
II
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Contact tip
recessed
(3-5mm)
+
Figure 13.13 Suggested contact tip to work distance.
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Dip
Spray
4-Bmm inside
Spray (alumlhium)
6-10mm inside
13.2.7
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Joint access and type should also be considered when selecting the
required gas nozzle and flow rate. Too small a nozzle may cause it to
become obstructed by spatter more quickly and if the wire bends on leaving
the contact tube, the shielding envelope and arc location may not coincide.
""
13.2.8
Spray transfer
Arc Voltage, V
l -
Transition regJon
Globular traflsfer
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--
In dip transfer' the wire short-circuits the arc 50-200 times/second and this
type ot:tr.ansfer is normally achieved with C02 or mixtures of C02 and argon
~.
;.
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MIG/MAG Welding
Copyrig ht TWI Ltd 2013
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With steels it can be used .only in downhand butts and HN fillet welds but
gives higher deposition rate, penetration and fusion than dip transfer
because of the continuous arc heating. It is mainly used for steel plate
thicknesses >3mm but has limited use for positional welding due to the
potential large weld pool involved.
Key characteristics pulsed transfer:
~ Free-flight droplet transfer without short-circuiting over the ' entire working
range.
\._....--@ Very low spatter.
~ Lower heat input than spray transfer.
~ Reduced risk of lack of fusion compared with dip transfer.
Control of weld bead profile for dynamically loaded parts.
Process control/flexibility.
Enables use of larger diameter, less expensive wires with thinner plates
- more easily fed (particular advantage for aluminium welding).
Pulsing the welding current extends the range of spray transfer operation
well below the natural transition from dip to spray transfer. This allows
\Clth ,Q.a e r~fr
ray transfer at mea n current/ below the transition
level, eg 50-150A and at lower heat inputs. Pulsing was introd\,lced originally
on ro metal trans er y imposm g artificial cyclic operation on the arc
at..I and_ ow currents.
s stem by ap I in
l
I.
A typical pulsed wavefo r:_~ q_nd 11J~- main ulse weldin ~ari a bl es ar. hown
in Fi ur c--1 3 lLJK IOW-back round current (typrCally 20-BOA) is supplied to
eep he wire ip molten;-gtv stat51eanode a
ca o e
aintain the ar
roots an maintain average current during the cycle. Droplet detachment
occurs during a high current pulse at current levels above the transition
current level. The pulse of current generates very high electromagnetic
forces which cause a strong pinch effect on the metal filament supporting
the droplet the droplet is detached and projected across the arc gap. Pulse
current and current density must be sufficiently high to ensure that spray
transfer (not globular) always occurs so that positional welding can be used.
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Pulse transfer uses pulses of current to fire a single globule of metal across
the arc gap at a frequency of 50-300 pulses/second. It is a development of
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spray transfer that gives positional welding capability for steels, combined
with controlled heat input, good fusion and high productivity and may be
used for all sheet steel thickness >1 mm, but is mainly used for positional
welding of steels >6mm.
1/Frequency
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Peak current
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Cl.ITOnl
Tlme. m&
The globular transfer range occupies the transitional range of arc voltage
between free-flight and fully short-circuiting transfer. Irregular droplet
transfer and arc instability are inherent, particularly when operating near the
transition threshold. In globular transfer a molten droplet several times the
electrode diameter forms on the wire tip, gravity eventually detaches it when
its weight overcomes surface tension forces and transfer takes place often
with excessive spatter. Before transfer the arc wanders and its cone covers
a large area, dissipating energy.
There is a short duration short-circuit when the droplet contacts with the
molten pool but rather than causing droplet transfer it occurs as a result of it.
Although the short-circuit is of very short duration, some inductance is
necessary to reduce spatter, although to the operator the short-circuits are
not discernible and the arc has the appearance of a free-flight type.
To further minimise spatter levels, it is common to operate with a very short
arc length and in some cases a buried arc technique is adopted. Globular
transfer can only be used in the flat position and is often associated with
lack of penetration, fusion defects and uneven weld beads because of the
irregular transfer and tendency for arc wander.
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13.2.9
Inductance
When MIG/MAG welding in the dip transfer mode, the weldin electrode
to.uches the weld pool causing a short-circuit during whicl),Jfila_at:C.JLQL!aga.i&'
c ear y ze
If the constant voltage power supply responded instant! very
h g current would immediately begin to flow through the welding circuit and
the rapid rise in current to a high value would melt the short-circuited
electrode free with explosive force, disp~ the weld metal and causing
considerable spatter.
-----ry; J?
I
Inductance is the property in an electrical circuit that slows down the rate of
current rise (Figure 13.18). The current travelling through an inductance coil
creates a magnetic field which creates a current in th
e di g r:.cu _
opposition to the welding current ncreasing inductance will also increase
the arc time and decrease the frequency o s o -c1rcu1ting
l.
No inductance
Inductance
~dded
Time
Figure 13.18 Relationship between inductance and current rise.
There is an optimum value of inductance for each electrode feed rate,. Too
little results in excessive spatter, too much and current will not rise fast
enough and the molten tip of the electrode is not heated sufficiently causing
the electrode to stub into the base metal. Modern electronic power sources
automatically set inductance to give a smooth arc and metal transfer.
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13.3
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20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
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The MIG/MAG wire drive assembly
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Wire guide.
I.
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I I
11
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1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Torch body.
On/off or latching switch.
Spot welding spacer attachment.
Contact tips.
Gas diffuser.
Gas shrouds.
Torch head assembly (minus the shmud).
13.4
13.4.1
Welding equipment
Electrode wire
The diameter, specification and ualit Q~ire sire !,be main ins12ection
head in s'' The eve lo de-oxidation of the wire is an important factor w
singe, double and triple de-oxidised wires .bein~
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The higher the level of de-oxidants in the wire, the lower the chance of
porosity in the weld. The quality of the wire winding, copper coating and
temper are also important factors in minimising wire feed problems.
Quality of wire windings and increasing costs
a) Random wound. b) Layer wound. c) Precision layer wound.
n
ll
Check that the liner is the correct type and size for the wire. One size of liner
and_1.2~ j 4 atlJ 1.6.ro
generally fits two s es of wire, ie 0.6 and 0.8
diamele . eel liners are use or s ee wires and Teflon for aluminium
."(
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on
.._.,
-- -
- -
<'
----~
13.4.5 Connections
The electric arc length in MIG/MAG welding is controlled by the voltage
settings, achieved by using a constant voltage volt/amp characteristic inside
the equipment. Any poor connection in the welding circuit will affect the
nature and stability of the electric arc so is a major inspection point.
I,
Checks should be made for correct wire feed speed, voltage, speed of travel
and all other essential variables of the process given on the approved
welding procedure.
'-
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13.4.8
Safety checks
Checks should be made on the current carrying capacity or duty cycle of
equipment and electrical insulation. Correct extraction systems should be
used to avoid exposure to ozone and fumes.
A check should always be made to ensure that the welder is qualified
to weld the procedure being used.
13.5
I
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1.1
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; --- - - -- ~
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Baking of cored wires is ineffective and will not restore the condition of a
contaminated flux within a wire.
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Note~
13.6
Disadvantages
High productivity
Easily automated
Complex equipment
Continuous electrode
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Section 14
.
14
14.1
Process
In submerged arc welding (SAW) an arc is struck between a continuous
bare wire and the parent plate. The arc, electrode end molten pool are
submerged in an agglomerated or fused powdered flux, which turns into a
gas and slag in its lower layers when subjected to the heat of the arc thus
protecting the weld from contamination. The wire electrode is fed
continuously by a feed unit of motor driven rollers Yi Lcb..are uau_ally_ ill econtrolled to ensure an arc of constant length A hopper fixed to the welding
hea has a u e w rc
ea s e ux rn a continuous elongated mound in
front of the arc along the line of ths intended weld and of sufficient depth to
submerge the arc completely so there is no spatter. The weld is shielded
from the atmosphere and there are no ultraviolet or infrared radiation effects
(see belpw .
ltecrllux r
c arme or
fTFie use of powdered tll3J
1c s e p ocess tne fla ana liorrzontal-vertical welding_positions .. -
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Se rvlcWi WOl'h..lw"fdo
+
(A.C.)
Difficulties sometimes arise in ensuring conformity of the weld with a predetermined line owing to the obscuring effect of the flux. Where possible, a
guide wheel to run in ttie joint preparation is positioned in front of the
welding head and flux hoppers. .
.
.
.
Submerged arp welding is widely used in the fabrication of ships, pressure
vessels, line i e r y_car.r.iages...aod wber..e.JQng welds are required. It
n e used to weld thicknesses from 5mm upwards.
Materials joined
. Welding ofcarbon steels.
Welding low alloy steels (eg fine grained and creep resisting).
Welding stainless steels.
14.2
Fluxes
Flux is granular mineral compounds mixed to various formulations.
Welding characteristics: More stable arc, improved weld
appearance, eas.ier slag removal, higher welding speeds.
~I
Neutral
II
Basic
Highly basic
Type of fluxes
Fused
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Fused fluxes are produced by the constituents being dry mixed, melted in an
electric furnace then granulated by pouring the molten mixture into water or
on to an ice block. Subsequently these particles are crushed and screened
to yield a uniform glass-like product.
n
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In agglomerated fluxes
mixing the dry
_sOJ iul'.T.L.Sil'
and the wet mixture is then
constituents with o as
pelletised, dried, crushed and screened to size.
Advantages of agglomerated fluxes
'V/~ Deoxidisers and alloying elements can easily be added to the flux to
adjust the weld metal composition.
Vt) Allow a thicker flux layer when welding ..
~
Can be identified by colour and shape.
Disadvantages of agglomerated fluxes
\...-- .~ Generally more hygroscopic (baking hardly practical).
~ Gas may evolve from the slag as it is melted, leading to porosity.
May be changes in weld metal chemical composition from the
segregation of fine particles produced by the mechanical handling of the
granulated flux.
14.3
Process variables
1.
l.
L-
Welding current.
Type of flux and particle distribution.
Arc voltage.
Travel speed.
Electrode size.
Electrode extension.
Type of electrode.
Width and depth of the layer of flux.
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14.3.1
Welding current
Increasing current increases penetration and wire melt-off rate.
350A
500A
650A
I
Welding current effect on weld 'profile (2.4mm ele.ctrode diameter, 35V arc voltage
and 61 cm/min travel spe'ed).
/.
14.3.2
Arc vo1tage
Arc voltage adjustmen~ varies. the length of the arc between the electrode
and the molten weld metal. As it increases, the arc length increases and
vice versa. Voltage prindpally determines the shape of the weld bead crosssection and its external appearance.
.. J
: j
Arc voltage effect on weld profile 2.4mm electrode diameter, 500A welding
current and 61cm/min travel speed.
L_
Increasing the arc voltage with constant current and travel speed will:
:i
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Submerged Arc Welding
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n
Excessively high arc voltage will :
v
~-
(l
~Reducing the arc.voltage with constant current and travel speed will produce
a stiffer arc which improves penetration in a deep weld groove and resists
- - - - - --
- - . - -....
arc blow.
II
14.3.3
I~
Travel speed
If travel speed is increased:
~-
11
~
weld metal.
Penetration decreases so th.e weld bead becomes smaller.
[
305mm/min
610mm/min
1220mm/min
Travel speed effect on weld profile (2.4mm electrode diameter, 500A welding' .
current and 35V arc voltage).
14.3.4
\/"""
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Deposition rate
At any given amperage setting, a small diameter electrode will have a
higher current density and deposition rate of molten metal than a larger
diameter electrode. However, a larger diameter electrode can carry more
current than a smaller one, so can ultimately produce a higher deposition
.i..,
rate at higher amperage.
/\_\ (I
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1'
3.2mm
4mm
Smm
Electrode siie effect ori weld profile (600A welding current, 30V arc voltage and
76cmlmin travel speed).
14.3.5
Electrode extension
r
\
30mm
14.3.6
45mm
60mm
The width and depth of the layer of granular flux influence the appearance
and soundness o t e finished weld as well as the welding action. I If the
~~iranular layer is too deep;lne arc too 'confined and a rough weid with a
rope-like appearance is likely to result arid it may produce local flat areas.a
the surface often referred to as gas flats . The gases generated during
welding cannot readily escape and the surface of the molten weld metal is
irregularly distorted. If the granular layer is too shallow the arc will not be
entirely submerged in flux, flashing and spattering will occur and the weld
will have a poor appearance and may show porosity.
rs
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Type of electrode
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14.4
"n
Care must be taken with fluxes supplied for SAW which, although they may
be dry when packaged, may be exposed to high humidity during storage. In
such cases they should be dried as per the manufacturer's
recommendations before use or porosity or cracking may result.
Ferrous wire coils supplied as continuous feeding electrodes are usually
copper-coated which provides some corrosion resistance, ensures good
electrical contacts and helps in smooth feeding. Rust and mechanical
damage should be avoided in such products as they interrupt smooth
feeding of the electrode. Rust is detrimental to weld quality generally since it
is hygroscopic (may contain or absorb moisture) so can lead to hydrogen
induced cracking.
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14.5
Power sources
In arc welding it is principally the current which det rmines the amount of
heat generated and this controls the melting of the electrode and parent
metal and also such factors as penetration and bead shape and size.
Voltage and arc length are also important factors with, increasing voltage
leading to increasing arc length and vice/versa. Usually In SAW a constant
voltage or flat characteristic power source is used.
( !
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...
Section 15
Thermal Cutting Processes
Ii
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15.1
Oxy-fuel cutting
Oxy-fuel cutting cuts or removes metal by the chemical reaction of oxygen
with the metal at elevated temperatures. Temperature is provided by a gas
flame which preheats and brings the material up to the burning temperature
(approximately 850C). Once this is achieved, a stream of oxygen is
released which rapidly oxidises most qt the metal and performs the actual
cutting operation. Metal oxides; together with molten m~tal, are expelled
from the cut by the kinetic energy of the oxygen stre_
am. Moving the torch
across the workpiece produces a continuous cutting a~tion.
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Oxygen
ll
Heating tlame
[1
\.)
i
Slag jet
(\
'
Oxy-fue/ cutting.
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L--'
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These conditions are fulfilled by carbon steels and some low alloy steels.
However, the oxides of many of the alloying elements in steels, such as
aluminium and chromium have melting points higher than those of iron
oxides. These high melting point oxides (which are refractory in nature!)
may shield the material in the kerf so that fresh iron is not continuously
exposed to the cutting oxygen stream, leading to a decrease of the cutting
speed and ultimately an unstable process. In practice the process is
! I
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Oxygen for cutting operations should be 99.5% or higher purity: Lower will
result in a decrease in cutting speed and an increase in consumption of
cutting oxygen thus reducing the efficiency of the operation. With purity
below 95% cutting becomes a melt-and-wash action that is usually
unacceptable.
The preheating flame has the following functions in the cutting operation :
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Preheating time.
Effect on cutting speed and productivity.
Cost and availability.
Volume of oxygen required per volume of fuel gas to obtain a neutral
flame.
Safety in transporting and handling ..
Some of the more common fuel gases used are acetylene, natural gas
(methane), propane, propylene and methylacetylene .. propadiene (MAPP)
gas.
Fuel gas characteristics and applications
15.1.2
Fuel gas
Main characteristics
Applications
Acetylene
Propane
MAPP
Cutting underwater
Propylene
Methane
15-3
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The face of a satjsfaQt0.1..0.ut-h.~~ a.sl;larp, itop. . ed.e, drag lil'.les, which are
fine and. even, little ,oxide and a sharp bottom
edge. Underside is free of
.
slag.
:,
'
'
A satisfactory cut is shown in the .centre. If the cut is too slow (left) the top
edge is melted, there are raeeJ) grooves1'in the lower pdrtion of the face,
scaling is heavy and the bottom edge may be rough, with adherent dross. If
the cut is too fast (right). the appearance' is simi'lar, with an irregular cut
With a very fast travel speed the drag lines are coarse and at an angle to
the surface with an excessive amount of slag sticking to the bottom edge of
the plate, due to the oxygen jet trailing with insufficient oxygen reaching the
bottom of the cut.
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A satisfactory cut is shown in the centre. If the preheating flame is too low
(left) the most noticeabl.e effect on the cut edge is deep gouges in the lower
part of the cut face. If the preheating flame is too high (right) the top edge is
melted, the cut irregular and there is an excess of adherent dross. Plate
thickness 12mm.
~
I
A satisfactory cut is shown in the centre. If the blowpipe nqzzle is too high
above the work (left) excessive melting of the top edge occurs with much
oxide. If the torch travel speed is irregular (right) uneven spacing of the drag
lines can be observed together with an irregular botto.m surface and
adherent oxide. Plate thickness 12mm.
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15.3-
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b)
a)
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workpiece(-)
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Advantages
Approximately five times faster than chipping.
Easily controllable, removes defects with precision as they are clearly
visible and may be followed with ease. The depth of cut is easily
regulated and slag does not deflect or hamper the cutting action.
Low equipment cost no gas cylinders or regulators necessary except onsite.
Economical to operate as no oxygen or fuel gas required. The welder
may also do the gouging (no qualification requirements for this
operation).
Easy to operate as the equipment is similar to' MMA except the torch and
air supply hose.
Compact with the torch not much larger than an MMA electrode holder,
allowing work in confined areas.
Versatile.
Can be automated.
Disadvantages
Other cutting processes usually produce a better arid quicker cut.
Requires a large voll)me of compressed air.
Increases the carbon content leading to an increase in hardness in of
cast iron and hardenable metals. In stainless steels it can iead to carbide
precipitation and sensili~cition so grinding the carbide layer usually
follows arc air gouging.
Introduces hazards such as fire (due to discharge of sparks and molten
metal), fumes, noise and intense light.
15.4
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Direction of gougi?
Profile of gouge
i"
When correctly applied, MMA gouging can prodU.ce relative.ly clean gouged
surfaces. For ' general applicatlb(lS, welding c~n ' oe . carried . out without the
need to dress by grinding, however wtien .goug'ing stainiess steel, a thin
layer of higher carbon content material will be produced which should be
removed by grinding.
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Section 16
Welding Consumables
I
Rev 2 April 2013
Welding Consumables
Copyright 1WI Ltd 2013
r
I
16
Welding Consumables
Welding consumables are defined as all that is used up during the
production of a weld.
This list could include a!I thing~ used up in the production of a weld;
however, we normally refer to welding consumables as those items used up
by a particular welding process.
These are:
Electrodes
Wires
Fluxes
Gases
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'-.._,
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Size.
Type or specification.
Condition.
Storage.
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v
../
Electrodes for MMA/SMAW are grouped by the main constituent in their flux
coating, which in turn has a major effect on the weld properties and ease of
use. The common groups are:
Group
Constituent
Shield gas
Uses
AWSA 5.1
Rutile
Titania
Mainly C02
General purpose
E 6013
Basic
Calcium
compounds
Mainly C02
High quality
E 7018
Cellulosic
Cellulose
Hydrogen + C02
E 6010
f S.ome basic electrodes may be tipped with a carbon compound which eases
l arc ignition.
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Symbol
35
38
42
46
50
11
Tensile Strength
N/ mm2
440-570
470-600
500-640
530-680
560-720
Yield Strength
min. N/mm2 .
355
380
420
460
500
Elongation
min.%
. 22
20
20
20
18
All positions
All positions. except vertical down
Flal bull wuld, llol llllot weld, horizontal-vertical fillet weld
Flat bun weld. llat llllel weld
Verl lcal down and positions ncoorcllng lo symbol 3
Metal recovery, %
Type al current
1
2
3
< 105
< 105
>105 .. 125
>105 .. 125
>125 .. 160
>125 .. 160
> 160
> 160
AC+DC
DC
AC+DC
DC
AC+DC
DC
AC+DC
DC
7
8.
Welding position
1
2
3
4
5
Sympol
5
6
E 46
Symb ol
1Ni
B
Symbol
A
B
R
RR
AC
RA
AB
Symbol
lmp"acl Energy
Charpy-V
Temp
lor 47J min.
z
A
0
2
3
4
5
6
H5
Covered electrode
lor manual metal arc
welding.
Symbol
No requirements
+20
0
-20
-30
--40
-50
-60
I
Coatl ng lype
Acid
Basic
Celluloslc
Ru tile
Rulile (thick coated)
Autile-Celluloslc
Autlle-Acld
Autile-Basic
Chemical composition
No symbol
Mo
Mn Mo
1Ni
2Ni
3Ni
Mn1Ni
1NiMo
Mn
2.0
1.4
>1.4 - 2.0
1.4
1.4
1.4
> 1.4-2.0
1.4
Symbol
Hydrogen content,
ml/100 g deposited
weld metal, max.
H5
H10
H15
5
10
15
oi all-weld metal , %
Mo
Ni
0.3-0.6
0.3 -0.6
---
0.6 -1.2
1.6- 2.6
> 2.6 -3.6
0.3 - 0.6
Any (hur agreed composlt on
O.G-1.2
0.6 -1.2
It not specified Mo< 0.2, NI < 0.3, Cr< 0.2, V < 0.05, Nb < 0.05, Cu < 0.3
Single values shown in Iha lable mean maximum values,
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Mandatory
designation:
Classified for impacts
at 4 7J + yield strength
Covered electrode
Minimum
\YWIQ SfiiillQlh
Cha'rpy V notch
minimum test
temperature C
Chemical composition
Electrode covering
Optional designation:
Weld metal recovery
and current type
I
.......I
Positional designation
Diffusible hydrogen
ml/1 OOg weld metal
__________________________________ J
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X .HX
-
Example
T""
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Mandatory
designation:
11
~~;;t.reogth
Electrode covering
11
Chemical composition
Heat treatment
condition
Opti~mal
designation: ..
Optional supplemental
impact test at 4 7Jat '
same test temperature
given for 27 J test
Diffusible hydrogen
ml/1 OOg weld metal
I.
c LP\~SifiC.ATiONS
$ f A/AW5 A5"1
:: E 701~
~ lNDic..c...k~
~ N 1 s0 2 s b 0 .;A; ~ y 2 ~ B
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Minimum yield
2
N/mm
Tensile strength,
2
N/mm
Minimum E% b,
2
N/mm
35
355
440-570
22
38
380
470-600
20
42
420
500:liJ40
20
46
460
530-680
20
50
500
560-720
18
1_1
=5 x 0
Method 8
Symbol
43
430
49
490
55
550
57
570
No requirement
+20
-20
-30
-40
-50
-60
Method 8
Impact or Charpy V notch testing temperature at 27J temperature in
method B is determined through the classification of tensile strength,
electrode covering and alloying elements (Table 88) ie E 55 16-N7 which
must reach 27 J at -75C.
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Method A
Uses an alpha/numerical designation from the tables as listed below:
Symbol
Symbol
Efficiency, %
Type of current
Acid
< 105
AC or DC
Cellulosic
1
2 , .
<105
DC
Rutile
>105-<125
AC or DC
RR
>105-<125
DC
RC
Rutile/cellulosic
>125-<160
AC or DC
RA
Rutile/acid
>125-<160
DC
RB
Rutile/basic
>160
AC or DC
Basic
>160
DC
r1
Method B
This method uses a numerical designation from the table as listed
below
l.
Symbol
Covering type
Positions
Type of current
03
Rutile/basic
All
AC and DC+/-
10
Cellulosic
All
DC+
11
Cellulosic
All
AC and DC+
12
Rutile
All
AC and DC-
13
Rutile
All
AC and DC+/-
14
Rutile + Fe powder
All
AC and DC+/-
15
Basic
All
DC+
16
Basic
All
AC and DC+
18
Basic + Fe powder
All
AC and DC+
19
All
AC and DC+/-
20
Fe oxide
PA/PB
AC and DC-
24
Rutile + Fe powder
PA/PB
AC and DC+/-
27
Fe oxide + Fe powder
PA/PB only
AC and DC-
28
Basic + Fe powder
PA/PB/PC
AC and DC+
40
Not specified
As per manufacturer's
recommendations
48
Basic
l.
'
All
AC and DC+
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Hydrogen scales
Diffusible hydrogen is indicated in the same way in both methods, where
after baking the amount of. hydrogen Is given as ml/1 oog weld metal ie H 5
= 51)1111 OOg weld i;net.al.
'"
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16.2
AWS A 5.1- and AWS 5.5A typical AWS A5.1 and A5.5 Specification
Reference given in box letter:
and E%
Min tensile
PSI x 1000
MinE%
In 2" min
60,000
11~22
70,000
80,000
100,000
17-22
19-22
13-16
E 70xx
E 80xx
E 100xx
22
22
B Welding position
All positional
1
2
Flat butt and HN fillet welds
Flat only
3
Note: Not all Category 1 electrodes
can weld in the vertical-down
position.
V notch Impact
lzod test (ft.lbs)
20 ft.lbs at-20F
Radiographic
standard
Grade 2
Grade 2
Not required
E 6012
48,000
60,000
17
20 ~.ll~s at-20F
Not required
E 6013
48,000
60,000
17
Not required
Grade 2
E 6020
48,000
60,000
22
Not required
Grade 1
E 6022
Not required
60,000
Not required
Not required
Not required
E 6027
48,000
60,000
22
E 7014
58,000
70,000
17
20ft.lbs at-20F
Nqt required
Grade 2
E 7015
58,000
70,000
22
20 ft.lbs at~20F
Grade 1
E 7016
58,000
70,000
22
20 ft.lbs at-20F
Grade 1
E 7018
58,000
70,000
22
E 7024
58,000
70,000
17
20 ft.lbs at-20F
Not required
Grade 2
E 7028
58,000
70,000
20
20 ft.lbs at 0F
Grade 2
I
\'
E 80 1 8 G
A 8 C D (A.5 only)
Exx10
Exx11
Exx12
Exx13
Exx14
Exx15
Exx16
Exx18
Exx20
Exx24
Exx27
Exx28
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Cellulosic/organic
Cellulosic/organic
Rutile
Rutile + 30% Fe powder
Rutile
Basic
Basic
Basic + 25% Fe powder
High Fe oxide content
Rutile + 50% Fe powder
Mineral + 50% Fe powder
Basic + 50% Fe powder
DC+ only
AC or OC+
AC or DCAC or DC+/AC or DC+/DC+ only
AC or DC+
AC or DC+
AC or DC+/AC or DC+/AC or DC+/AC or DC+
Grade 2
Grade 1
16-9
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16.3
---.:
'
:+-I
Condition
Correc~ specification/code
Storage
Checks should also be made to ensure that basic electrodes have been
through the correct P-re-use procedure. Having been bake'd to the correct
01pemture !Y.Rical!.Y. 300-350C) for 1 hour hen
i
holdi..........._ . . J .
(150C maxj basic electrodes are issued to welders in eated uivers.
ost electrode flux coatings deteriorate rapidly'when damp so care must be
taken to inspect storage facilities to ensure they are a(jequately dry and that
all electrodes are stored in controlled humidity.
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Welding Consumables
Copyright TWI Ltd 2013
'
16.4
,)
ungsten electrodes for TIG welding are generally produce hy' povi.ide
forgin technolog 'and contain other oxides to increase their cond ctivity,
an . elec ran em1ss1on and also affect t cbaracteristics of the arc. ff hey are
availa e off=tlie-s el 1. : 1Omm diameter. -Geratnic shiel . may also be
considered a consumable item as they are easily broken, the size and
shape depending mainly on the type of joint design and the diameter of the
tungsten.
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After welding
.----.' i---
Fused
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16-11
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16.5
--
_____ ...--
Wires are available from 0.6-1.6mm diameter with finer wires available on a
1kg reel, though most are supplied on a 15kg drum.
Common gases and mixtures used for MIG/MAG welding include:
16.6
"
Gas type
Process
Used for
Pure argon
MIG
Characteristics
penetration and low spatter
levels.
Pure C02
MAG
Argon+
5-20% C02
MAG
Argon+
1-2% 02 or
C02
MAG
16-12
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I
Fused fluxes
_
Mixed together and fuaked at a very hi h tern erature (>1,000C) so all the
components fuse. Wilen cooled the resultant mass resem61es a tieet of
coloured glass, which is then pulverised into small particles.
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The weld metal properties result from using a particular wire with a particular
flux in a particular weld sequence so the grading of SAW consumables is
given as a function of a wire/flux combination and welding sequence.
A typical grade will give values for:
Tensile strength.
Elongation,. %.
Toughness, Joules.
Toughness testing temperature.
I
All consumables for SAW (wires and fluxes) should be stored in a dry,
humid-free atmosphere. The flux manufacturer's handling/storage
instruction and conditions must be very strictly followed to minimise any
moisture pick-up. Any re-use of fluxes is totally dependent on applicable
clauses within the applicatiol"l~standard:
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Section 17
Weldability of Steels
l.
17
Weldability of Steels
17.1
Introduction
Weldability simply means the ability to be welded and many types of
weldable steel have been developed for a wide range of applications.
The ease or difficulty of making a weld with suitable properties and free from
defects determines whether steels are considered as having good or poor
weldability. A steel is usually said to have poor weldability if it is necessary
to take special precautions to avoid a particular type of imperfection.
Another reason for poor weldability may be the need to weld within a very
narrow range of parameters to achieve properties required for the joint.
17 .2
)l
l
--
'
..._/"
WPSs give welding conditions that do npt cause cracking but achieve
the specified properties.
Welders work strictly i,n .accordance with the specified welding
conditions.
Welding inspectors regularly monitor welders to ensure they are working
strictly in accordance with the WPSs.
17.3
Hydrogen cracking
11
11
11
During fabrication by welding, cracks can occur in some types of steel due
technlcal name is Fly rogen in uce'Cr cold
to ie p_res.e..oce oL y. r. en
cracking (HICC) but is often referred to by names that describe various
..___
characteristics of hydrogen cracks:
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Underbead cracking
Although most hydrogen cracks occur in the HAZ, there are circumstances
when they may form in weld metal.
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Figure 17.2 Hydrogen induced cold crack that initiated at the HAZ at the toe of a
fillet weld.
1
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17.3.1
Factors
influe~cing
Hydrogen cracking in the HAZ of a steel occurs when four conditions exist at
H - 1~~. I ~
Def"tct~d Nl'1 eee>.f.
. the same time:
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Hydrogen level
Stress
/-\ IJ
Temperature
<390'!C
II ) Susceptible microstructure >400HV hardness
.J-1:.fes<re!
Cracking mechanism
Hydrogen (H) can enter the molten weld metal when hydrogen-containing
molecules are broken down into H atoms in the welding arc.
Because atoms are ve small the can move about (diffuse) in solid steel
and while weld metal is hot can diffuse to the weld surface and escape into
the atmasphere.
However, at lower tern eratures: H c nnot diffuse as quickll'. and if the
weldment coos down g~Y. to ambient temF,?erature H will becom~
trapped, usually in ~--AZ..:__
.. .... .....
,,
---~- -----
-~-------~-~ --
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Methods to minimise the influence of each of the four factors are considered
in the following sub-sections.
I~
Hydrogen
I he main source of hydrog~ n is moisture (H20) and the nnc1
sou ~is
~~_g_ ~t
. Some fluxes contain cellulose and this can be a very
active source of hydrogen. -
n
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---
Welding processes that do not require flux can be regarded as low hydrogen
processes.
[I
Other sources of hydrogen are moisture present in rust or scale and oils and
greases (hydrocarbons).
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Tensile stress
There are always tensile stresses acting on a weld because there are
always residual stresses from welding.
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The only practical ways of reducing the influence of residual stresses may
,
be by:
f I
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These measures are particularly important when welding some low alloy
steels that are particularly sensitive to hydrogen cracking.
Susceptible HAZ microstructure
A susceptibl e HAZ microstructure is one that contains_ a relatively high
proportion o
rittle p ases o steel, particularly martensite.
I
I
--
For C and C-Mn steels a formula has been developed to assess how the
chemical composition will influence the tendency for significant HAZ
hardening - the carbon equivalent value (CEV) formula.
The CEV formula most widely used (and adopted by llW) is:
'-C'EvIIW-
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Weldability of Steels
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Procuring steel with a GEV at the low end of the range for the steel
grade (limited scope of effectiveness).
~ 'Using moderate welding heat input so that the weld doe.s not cool quickly
and give HAZ hardening.
'
......,,,,,- Applying preheat so that the HAZ cools more slowly and does not show
significant HAZ hardening; in multi-run welds maintain a specific
interpass temperature.
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The CEV formula is not applicable to low alloy steels, with additions of
elements such as Cr, Mo and V. The HAZ of these steels will always tend to
be relatively hard regardless of heat input and preheat and so this is a factor
that cannot be effectively controlled to reduce the risk of H cracking. This is
why some of the low alloy steels have a greater tendency to show hydrogen
cracking than in weldable C and C-Mn steels which enable HAZ hardness to
be controlled.
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17.3.4
12
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Transverse
cracks
IY
a)
~
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.... >... ........ ~ .. ~ . . . .~..J....
.
.
.................................
b)
Figure 17. 3:
a) Plan view of a plate butt weld showing subsurface transverse cracks;
b) Longitudinal section X-Y of the above weld showing how the transverse cracks
lie at 45 to the surface. They tend to remain within an individual weld run and may
be in weld several layers.
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17.4
Solidification cracking
The technical name for cracks. that form during weld metal solidification is
solidification cracks but other names-are sometimes used:
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")'l~dV'l.
"'~ll he.
~
/"1"""1' "ml-t'1-i
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oi1Jert.rl
o t.Lfl( J'Ut<
~"~~""
Lt>\
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Figure 17.4:
lflr;,4"'i
_gL Solidification crack at the weld centre where columnar dendrites have trapped
V some lower melting point liquid;
b) The weld bead does not have an ideal shape but has solidified without the
dendrites meeting end-on and trapping lower melting point liquid thereby resisting
solidification cracking.
17.4.1
Solidification cracking occurs when three conditions exist at the same time:
17 .4.2
_..._,__...,,.
Cracking mechanism
All weld metals solidify over a temperature range and since ~ill.c9tion
starts at the fusion line towards the centreline oU
w.el
ool, during the
last stages of weld bead solidification there may be enough liquid to form a
weak zone in the centre of the bead. This liquid film is the result of low
melting point constituents being pushed ahead of the solidification front.
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-Avoiding
solidification cracking (of an otherwise non-sensitive weld metal)
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Figure 17.5 shows a weld bead that has solidified under unfavourable
welding conditions associated with centreline solidification cracking.
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The weld bead has a cross-section that is quite deep and narrow - a wjdthto-d~re.ater than 1:2,.i nd the solid if in
ndrites have
e
m~point liquid to the cen re of the bead where it has become
trapped . Since the surrounding material is shrinking as a result of cooling,
this film would be subjected to tensile stress, which leads to cracking.
rower
: .]
In contrast, Figure 17.6 shows a bead with a width-to-depth ratio less than
1:2. This bead shape shows lower melting point liquid pushed ahead of the
solidifying dendrites but. it does not become trapped at the bead centre,
thus, even under tensile stresses resulting from cooling, this film is selfhealing and cracking avoided .
~rec~=
of travel
Figure 17.6 Weld bead with favourable width-to-depth ratio. The dendrites push
the lowest melting point metal towards the surface at the centre of the bead centre
so it does not form a weak central zone.
---
SAW and spray-transfer GM8 are the arc welding processes most likely to
- give weld beads with an unfavourable width-to-depth ratio. Also, electron
-- -
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beam and laser welding processes are extremely sensitive to this kind of
cracking as a resUTI: offfieaeep, narrow beads produced.
Avoiding unfavourable welding conditions that lead to centreline
solidification cracking (of weld metals with sensitive compositions) may
require significant changes to welding parameters, such as reducing:
~
./
V.
TIG welding when using a current slope-out device so that the current
and welq_ pool depth gradually reduce befora..tbe- ar:c- is_extlnguisbe.d
(gives more favourable weld 'bead width-to-depth ratio). It is also a
common practice to backtrack the bead slightly before breaking the arc
or lengthen the arc gradually to avoid the crater cracks.
Modify weld pool solidification mode by feeding the filler wire into the
pool until solidification is almost complete and avoiding a concave crater.
When MMA ', welding modify the weld pool solidification mode by
reversing th~ . direction of travel at the end of the weld run so that the
crater is filled.
17.5
.'
Lamellar tearing
tel.<ii.44
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Fusion
boundary
HAz{
Through-thickness
residual stresses
from welding
Inclusion
stringer
De-cohesion of
inclusion stringers
Crack propagation by
tearing of ligaments between
de-cohesioI inclusion stringers
--
Figure 17.7
a) Typical lame/far tear located just outside the visible HAZ;
b) Step-like crack a characteristic of a /amel/ar tear.
17.5.1
Lamellar tearing occurs when two conditions exist at the same time:
"",...,..
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Cracking mechanism
High stresses in the through-thickness direction present as welding residual
stresses cause the inclusion stringers to open-up (de-cohese) and the thin
ligaments between individual de-cohesed inclusions then tear and produce
a stepped crack.
I!
I
Resistance to lamellar tearing c . b_e ev.aluated b.y. tensi,le test, pieG_.~s tgk~ri
with their axes perpendicular to the plate surface (through-thickness
direction). Through-thickness ductility is measured as the % ..r.edu<2!!9n J)f
area (%Ro
a e point o racture on ne ensrle test piece (Figure 17.8).
-- -- .. - .
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Plate surface
Tfffougn-~-
~,_,.
-,
thickness
tensile test
piece
Reduction of
diameter at
point of
fracture
Plate ,surface
Figure 17.B Round tensile test piece taken .with its axis in the short-transverse
direction (through-thickness of plate) to measure the %R of A and assess
resistance to lame/Jar tearing.
Using clefuri steel that has low ::~,sulphur contentt ( ~-0.01 5%) \ and
consequently relatively few inclusions.r - - - - Procuring steel plate that has beeh subjected to through-thickness
tensile testing to demonstrate good through-thickness ductility (as
EN 10164).
Through-thickness stress
Through-thickness stress in T, K and Y joints is principally the residual
stress from welding, although the additional service stress may have some
influence.
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Susceptible plate
Susceptible plate
Figure 17.9 Reducing the effective size of a weld will reduce the thro4 h-thickness
stress on the susceptible plate and may be sufficient to reduce the rfsk of lamellar
tearing.
Susceptible plate
Figure 17.10 Lamellar tearing can be avoided by changing the joint design.
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Weldability of Steels
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Susceptible plate
Figure 17.11 Two layers of weld metal applied usually by MMA to susceptible plate
before the T butt is made.
17 .6
.'
Weld decay
Occurance
Service failure roblem caused by corrosion, may be long time in service
associated with welding but is not a abrication defect, like H cracking, etc).
~Appearanc~
. Called. weld decay because a narrow zone in the HAZ can be severely
corroded ~ut surrounding areas (weld and a1e11l metal) may not be
. . affected.
Only af(ects certain types of aust~nWG
stajnl.~s steels .
,~
., _ _ _ : . - . . : . - - - -
- -.- - -- .--,. ., .. -
- . , . -
~ Se~sitive
v
17.6.1
HAZ.
Corrosive liquid in contact with the sensitive HAZ, in service.
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Service environment
Corrosion of HAZ determined by service conditions, type of chemicals
and temperature.
Problem not solved by trying to address service conditions but by
selection of material, taking account of effects of Welding/welding
parameters.
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Section 18
Weld Repairs
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18
Weld Repairs
18.1
I,
A number of key factors need to be considered before any repair, the most
important being it is financially worthwhile. Before this judgement can be
made, the fabricator needs to answer the following questions:
11
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Detailed assessment to find out the extremity of the defect possibly using
a surface or sub-surface NOT method.
Cleaning the repair area (removal of paint grease, etc):
Once established the excavation site must be clearly identified and
marked out.
An excavation procedure rriay be required (method used ie grinding,
arc/air gouging, preheat requirements, etc).
NOT to locate the defect and confirm its removal.
A welding repair procedure/method statement with the appropriate
(suitable fpr the alloys being repaire.d and may not apply in specific
situations.) welding process, consumable, technique, controlled heat
input and interpass temperatures, etc will need to be approved.
Use of approved welders.
Dressing the weld and final visual..
NOT procedure/te chnique prepared and carried out to ensure that the
defect has been successfully removed and repaired.
Any post repf3ir heat,tre.atment requirements.
Final NOT procedure/techniqye prepared and carried out after heat
.
treatment requireme'nts.
Applying protective treatments (painting, etc as required).
Production repairs
Repairs are usually identified during production inspection. Evaluation of the
reports is by the Welding Inspector or NOT operator. Discontinuities in the
welds are only classed as defects when they are outside the range
permitted by the applied code or standard.
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Assessment
As the defect is open to the surface, magnetic particle inspection (MPI) or
dye penetrant inspection (OPI) may be used to gauge the length of the
defect and ultrasonic testing (UT) to gauge the depth.
f.
Plan view of defect.
r.
'
Excavation
If a thermal method of excavation is to be used, iearc/air gouging it may be
a requirement to qualify a procedure as the heat generated may affect the
metallurgical structure, resulting in the risk of cracking in ' th~: weld or parent
material.
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Cleaning the excavation
At this stage grinding the repair area is important dtie to th:e .risk of carbon
becoming impregnated Into the weld metal/parent material :and .it should be
ground back typically 3-4mm to bright metal.
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Confirmation of excavation
NOT must confirm that the defect has been completely excavated from the
area.
Rewelding of the excavation
Prior to rewelding a detailed repair welding procedure/method statement
shall be approved.
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In-service repairs
Most in-service repairs are very complex as the component is likely to be in
a different welding position and condition than during production. It may
have been in contact with toxic or combustible fluids so a permit to work will
be needed prior to any work. The repair welding procedure may look very
different to the original production procedure due to changes.
Other factors may be taken into consideration such as the effect of heat on
surrounding areas of the component, ie electrical components, or materials
that may be damaged by the repair procedure. This may also include
difficulty in carrying out any required pre- or post-welding heat treatments
and a possible restriction of access to the area to be repaired. For large
fabrications it is likely that the repair must also take place on-site without a
shutdown of operations which may bring other considerations.
Repair of in-service defects may require consideration of these and many
other factors so are generally considered more complicated than production
repairs .
.Joining technologies often play a vital role in the repair and maintenance of
structures. Parts can be. replaced, worn or corroded parts can be built up
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It is very important that repair and maintenance welding are not regarded
as activities which are simple or straightforward. A repair may seem
undemanding but getting it wrong can result catastrophic failure with
disastrous consequences.
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The small cost of analysis could prevent a valuable component being ruined
by ill-prepared repairs or save money by reducing or avoiding the need for
preheat if the composition is leaner than expected. Once the composition is
known, a welding procedure can be devised.
.
.
What strength is required from the repair?
The higher the yield strength of the repair weld metal the greater the
residual stress level on completion of welding, risk of cracking, clamping
needed to avoid distortion and more difficulty in formulating the welding
procedure. The practical limit for the yield strength of conventional steel
weld metals is about 1000N/mm2 .
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For all repair welds it i~ vital to ensure that welders are properly motivated
and carefully supervised.
As-welded.repairs
Repair without PWHT is, normal where the original weld was not heat
treated but some alloy steels and many thick-sectioned components require
PWHT to maintain a reasonable level of toughness, c.orrosion resistance,
etc. However, PWHT of components in-service is not always easy or even
possible and local PWHT may cause more problems than it solves except in
simple structures.
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Section 19
Residual Stresses and Distortions
19
19.1
As long as these stresses are above the yield point of the metal at the
p(evailing temperature, they continue to produce permanent deformation,
but in so doing are relieved and fall to yield-:stress level so cease to cause
further distortion. But, if at this point we could release the weld from the
plate by cutting along the joint line, it woufd shrink further because, even
when distortion has stopped, the weld contains an elastic strain equivalent
to the yield stress. Visualise the completed joint as weld metal being
stretched elastically between two plates.
a)
I .
The stresses left in the joint after welding are referred to as residual
stresses. From the above it can be seen there will be both longitudinal and
transverse stresses (in the case of a very thick plate there is a throughthickness component of residual stress as well).
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19.1.1
The magnitude of thermal stresses induced into the material can be seen by
the volume change in the weld area on solidification and subsequent cooling
to room temperature.. For example, when welding C-Mn steel the molten
weld metal volume will be reduced by approximately 3% on solidification
and the volume of the solidified weld metal/ HAZ will be reduced by a further
7% as its temperature falls from the melting point of steel to room
temperature.
Perpendicular to the weld, in the transverse direction, the stresses in the
weld are more dependent on the clamping condition of the parts. Transverse
residual stresses are often relatively small although transverse distortion is
substantial. The distribution of transverse residual stresses in a butt joint is
shown below. Tensile stress of a relatively low magnitude is produced in the
middle section while compressive stress is generated at both ends of the
joint. It must be noted that the longer the weld, the higher the tensile
residual stress until yield stress is reach~d.
In longitudinal stresses the weld and some of the plate which has been
heated are at or near yield-stress level. Moving out into the plate from the
HAZ, the stresses first fall to zero {the tensile stress. region .extends beyond
the weld and HAZ into the pa,rent plate) and beyond this there is a region of
compressive stress. The width of the band where tensile residual stresses
are present depends on the heat input during welding, the higher the heat
input the wider the band where these tensile residual stresses occur.
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All. fu.sion welds which have not be.en subjected to postweld treatments, the
vast .majority of welded joints, contain residual stresses. Procedures
developed to minimiE?e distortion may alter the distribl,.ltian of the residual
stresses but do not eliminate, them or even reduce their peak level.
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One method of reducing the .level.. of residual stres~ iri. a welded joint is to
perform.PWHT.to relieve these stresses. So once the temperature is raised
the yleJd stress starts to drop. As a result of this the pea:k r~sidual stresses
'h'l;lich were up to the value of yield, stress .at room temperature, cannot be
carried over any. more by the material and.are relaxed by pl,astic deformation
(usually, this' plastic deformatioff 'is confined c;tt the level of grains but in
some situations can lead to significant .deformation of the welded
component). This process ends when the material has reached the soaking
temperature. So the level of residual stresses will be reduced by the
difference between the value of the yield stress at room temperature (at the
beginning of PWHT) at the soaking temperature. As can be seen from the
following figure, this can reduce the level of tensile residual stresses up to a
quarter of ,..its ini.tial level but compressive residual stresses are left
unchanged. It must be pointed out that PWHT does not completely eliminate
these residual stresses.
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- - - - Compression
Maximum residual
stress before PWHT
Maximum residual
stress after PWHT
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19.1.3
19.2
Material properties.
Amount of restraint.
Joint design.
Fit-up.
Welding sequence.
Causes of distortion
Welding involves highly localised heating of joint edges to fuse the material
and non-uniform stresses are set up in the component because of
expansion and contraction of the heated material.
Initially, compressive stresses are created in the surrounding cold parent
metal when the weld pool is formed due to the thermal expansion of the hot
metal (HAZ) adjacent to the weld pool. Tensile stresses occur on cooling
when the contraction of the weld metal and im.mediate HAZ is resisted by
the bulk of the cold parent metal.
11
The magnitude of thermal stresses induced into the material can be seen by
the volume change in the weld area on solidification and subsequent cooling
to room temperature. For exarnple, when welding C-Mn steel; the molten
weld metal volume will be reduced by. approximately 3% on solidification
and the volume of the solidified weld metal/HAZ will be reduced by a further
7% as its temperature falls from -the melting .point of steel to room
temperature.
If the stresses generated from thermal expansion/contraction exceed the
yield strength of the parent metal, localised plastic deformation of the metal
occurs, causing a permanent reduction in the component dimensions and
distorts the structure.
19.3
Longitudinal shrinkage.
Transverse shrinkage.
Angular distortion.
Bo'-'Ying and dishing.
Buckling.
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For example, in a single V butt weld, the first weld run produces longitudinal
and transverse shrinkage and rotation. The second run causes the plates to
rotate using the first weld deposit as a fulcrum so balanced welding in a
double-sided V butt joint can produce uniform contraction and prevent
angular distortion.
In a single-sided fillet weld, non-uniform contraction will produce
distortion of the upstanding leg so double-sided fillet welds can be
control distortion in the upstanding fillet but because the weld
deposited on one side of the base plate, angular distortion will
produced in the plate.
angular
used to
is only
now be
Longitudinal bowing in welded plates happens when the weld centre is not
coincident with the neutral axis of the section so that longitudinal shrinkage
in the welds bends the section into a curved shape. Clad plate tends to bow
in two directions due to longitudinal and transverse shrinkage of the
cladding, producing a dished shape.
Dishing is also produced in stiffened plating. Plates usually dish inwards
between the stiffeners, because of angular distortion at the stiffener
attachment welds .
In plating, long range compressive stresses can cause elastic buckling in
thin plates, resulting in dishing, bowing or rippling, Figure 19.1.
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19.4.2
Restraint
Joint design
Both butt and fillet joints are prone to distortion. It can be minimised in butt
joints by adopting a joint type which balances the thermal stresses through
the plate thickness, eg double-sided in preference to a single-sided weld.
Double-sided fillet welds should eliminate angular distortion of the
upstanding member especially if the two welds are deposited at the same
time.
19.4.4
Part fit-up
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19.4.5
Welding procedure
This influences the degree of distortion mainly through its effect on heat
input. As welding procedures are usually selected for reasons of quality and
productivity, the welder has limited scope for reducing distortion. As a
general rule weld volume should be kept to a minimum. Also, the welding
sequence and technique should balance the thermally induced stresses
around the neutral axis of the component.
19.5
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Pre-setting of parts.
Pre-bending of parts.
Use of restraint.
The technique chosen will be influenced by the size and complexity of the
component or assembly, the cost of any restraining equipment and the need
to limit residual stresses.
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19.5.1
Pre-setting
The parts are pre~set and left fre~ to move during welding, see Figure 19.2.
The parts are pre-set by a pre-determined amount so that distortion
occurring during welding is used to achieve overall alignment and
dimensional control.
The main advantages compared with restraint are there is no expensive
equipment needed and it gives lower residual stress in the structure.
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Pre-bending
Pre-bending or pre-springing parts before welding pre-stresses the
assembly to counteract shrinkage during welding. As shown in Figure 19.3,
pre-bending using strongbacks and wedges can pre-set a seam before
welding to compensate for -angular distortion. Releasing the wedges after
welding will allows the parts to move back into alignment.
The figure below shows the diagonal bracings and centre jack used to prebend the fixture, not the component, counteracting the distortion introduced
through out-of-balance welding.
I.
19.5.3
l.
Use of restraint
Because of the difficulty in applying pre-setting and pre-bending restraint is
the more widely used technique. The basic principle is that the parts are
placed in position and held under restraint to minimise any movement during
welding. When removing the component from the restraining equipment a
relatively small amount of movement will occur due to locked-in stresses
which can be cured by applying a small amount of pre-set or stress-relieving
before removing the restraint.
When welding assemblies all the component parts should be held in the
correct position until completion of welding and a suitably balanced
fabrication sequence used to minimise distortion.
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Welding with restraint will generate additional residual stresses in the weld
which may .cause cracking. When ,welding susceptible materials a suitable
welding sequence and the use of preheating will reduce this risk. Restraint
is relatively simple to apply using clamps, jigs and fixtures.
Welding jigs and fixtures
Used to locate the parts and ensure that dimensional accuracy is
maintained whilst welding, can be of a relatively simple construction as
shown in Figure 19.4a but the welding engineer will need to ensure that the
finished fabrication cari be removed easily after welding.
Flexible clamps
Can be effective in applying restraint but also-in setting up and maintaining
the joint gap (can also be used to close a gap that is too wide), Figure
19.4b.
a)
b)
c)
d)
a Welding jig;
b Flexible clamp;
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Fully welded (welded on both sides of the joint) strongbacks (Figure 19.4d)
will minimise both angular distortion and transverse shrinkage. As significant
stresses can be generated across the weld which will increase any tendency
for cracking, care should be taken in their use.
19.5.4
Best practice
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19.6
Pre-set parts so that welding distortion will achieve overall alignment and
dimensional control with the minimum of residual stress.. .
Pre-bend joint edges to countera'ct distortion and achieve alignment and
dimensional control with minimal residual stress.
Apply restraint during welding using jigs and fixtures, flexible clamps,
strongbacks and tack welding but consider the cracking risk which can
be quite significant, especially for fully welded strongt)acks.
Use an approved procedure for welding and removal of welds for
restraint techniques which may need preheat to avoid inperfections
forming in the compone~t surface.
Prevention by design
Design principles
At the design stage welding distortion can often be prevented or restricted
by considering:
Elimination of welding.
Weld placement.
Reducing the volume of weld metal.
Reducing the number of runs.
Use of balanced welding.
19.6.1
Elimination of welding
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If possible the design should use intermittent welds rather than a continuous
run to reduce the amount of welding. For example in attaching stiffening
pl.ates, a substantial reduction in the . amount of welding can often be
achieved whilst maintaining adequate strength.
19.,6.2
Weld placement
Neutral
/axis
Poo~
Figure 19.6 Distortion may be reduced by placing the welds around the neutral
axis.
As most welds are deposited away from the neutral axis, distbrtion can be
minimised by designing the fabrication so the shrinkage forces of an
individual weld are balanced .by placing another weld on the opposite side
of the neutral axis. Where possible welding should be carried out alternately
on opposite sides instead of completing one side first. In large structures if
distortion is occurring preferentially on one side it may be possible to take
corrective action, for example, by increasing welding on the other side to
control the overall distortion.
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19.6.3
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Figure 19. 7 Reducing the amount of angular distortion and lateral shrinkage.
11
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19.6.4
If welding alternately on either side of the joint is not possible or if one side
has to be completed first, an asymmetrical .joint preparation may be used
with more weld metal being deposited on the second side. The greater
contraction resulting from depositing the weld metal on the second side will
help countera ct the distortion on the first side.
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19.6.6
Best practice
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Adopting best practice principles can have cost benefits. For example, for a
design fillet leg length of 6mrp, depositing an 8mm leg length will result in
the deposition of 57% additional weld metal. Besides the extra cost of
depositing weld metal and the increased risk of distortion, it is costly to
remove this extra weld metal later. Designing for distortion control may incur
additional fabrication costs, for example, the use of a double V joint
preparation is an excellent way to reduce weld volume and control distortion
but extra costs may be incurred in production through manipulation of the
workpiece for the welder to access the reverse side.
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19.7.1
Assembly techniques
In general, the welder has little influence on the choice of welding procedure
but assembly techniques can often be crucial in minimising dis.tortion. The
principal assembly techniques are:
Tack welding.
Back-to-back assembly.
Stiffening.
Tack welding
Ideal for setting and maintaining the joint gap but can also be used to resist
transverse shrinkage. To be effective, thought should be given to the
number of tack welds, their length and the distance between them. Too few
risks the joint progressively closing up as welding proceeds. In a long seam
using MMA or MIG/MAG the joint edges may even overlap. When using the
submerged arc process the joint might open up if not adequately tacked.
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Figure 19.9 Alternative procedures used for tack welding to prevent transverse
shrinkage.
Directional tacking is useful for controlling the joint gap, for example closing
a joint gap which is or has become too wide.
When tack welding it is important that tacks to be fused into the main weld
are produced to an approved procedure using appropriately qualified
welders . The procedure may require preheat and an approved consumable
as specified for the main weld. Removal of the tacks also needs careful
control to avoid causing de.fects in the component surface.
Back-to,.back assembly
By tack welding or clamping two identical components back-to-back,
welding of both components can be balanced around the neutral axis of the
combined assembly (see Figure 19.1 Oa). It is recommended that the
assembly is stress-relieved before separating the components or it may be
necessary to insert wedges between the components (Figure 19.10b) so
when the wedges are removed the parts will move back to the correct shape
or alignment.
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a)
b)
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Stiffening
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Figure 19.11 Longitudinal stiffeners prevent bowing in butt welded thin plate joints.
19.7.2
Welding procedure
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Figure 19.12 Angular distortion of the joint as determined by the number of runs in
the fillet weld.
Without restraint angular distortion in both fillet and butt joints is due to joint
geometry, weld size and the number of runs for a given cross-section.
Angular distortion~ measured in degrees as a function of the number of runs
for a 1Omm leg length fillet weld is shown.
If possible, balanced welding around the neutral axis should be done, for
example on double-sided fillet joints; by two people welding simultaneously.
In butt joints, the run order may be crueial as balanced welding can be used
to correct angular distortion as it develops.
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Welding sequence
The welding sequence or direction is important and should be towards the
free end of the joint. For long welds the whole of the weld is not completed
in one direction. Short runs, for example using the back-step or skip welding
technique, are very effective in distortion control (Figure 19.13).
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Figure 19.13 Use of welding direction to control distortion.
a) Back-step welding.
,
b) Skip welding.
Best practice
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19.8
Corrective techniques
Distortion should be avoided at the design stage and by using suitable
fabrication procedures. As it is not always possible to avoid distortion during
fabrication, several well-established corrective techniques can be used.
Reworking to correct distortion should not be undertaken lightly as it is
costly and. needs considerable ~kill to avoid damaging the component.
General guidelines are provided on best practice for correcting distortion
using mechanical or thermal techniques.
19.8.1
Mechanical techniques
The principal techniques are hammering which may cause surface damage
and work hardening.
With bowing or angular distortion the complete component can often be
straightened on a press without the disadvantages of hammering. Packing
pieces are inserted between the component and the platens of the press. It
is important to impose sufficient deformation to give over-correction so that
the normal elastic spring-back will allow the component to assume its
correct shape.
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Rev 2 April 2013
Residual Stresses and Distortions
Copyright lWI Ltd 2013
19.8.2
Thermal techniques
11
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Use packing pieces which will over-correct the distortion so that the
spring-back will return the component to the correct shape.
Check that the component is adequately supported during pressing to
prevent buckling.
Use a former or rolling to achieve a straight component or produce a
curvature.
As unsecured packing pieces may fly out from the press, the following
safe practices must be adopted:
- Bolt the packing pieces to the platen.
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Spot heating
.1
Spot heating is used to remove buckling, for example when a relatively thin
sheet has been welded to a stiff frame. Distortion is corrected by spot
heating on the convex side. If the buckling is regular, the spots can be
arranged symmetrically, starting at the centre of the buckle and working
outwards.
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Line heating
Figure 19.1 'l Line heating to correct angular distortion in a fillet weld.
Wedge-shaped heating
To correct distortion in larger complex fabrications it may be necessary to
heat whole areas in addition to using line heating. The pattern aims at
shrinking one part of the fabrication to pull the material back into shape.
Apart from spot heating of thin panels, a wedge-shaped heating zone should
be used; Figure 19.18 from base to apex and the temperature profile should
be uniform through the plate thickness. For thicker section material it may
be necessary to use two torches, one on each side of the plate.
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b.
a.
C.
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General precautions
The dangers of using thermal straightening techniques are over-shrinking
too large an area or causing metallurgical changes by heating to too high a
temperature. When correcting distortion in steels the temperature of the
area should be restricted to approximately 600-650C, dull red heat. If the
heating is interrupted or the heat lost, the operator must allow the metal to
cool then begin again.
Best practice for distortion correction by thermal heating
The following should be adopted when using thermal techniques to remove
distortion:
19-24
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Section 20
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Heat Treatment
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20
Heat Treatment
20.1
Introduction
20.2
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Applied to
Re.latively thin. lower strength C-steel.
Thermomechanical controlled processing (TMCP), control-rolled,
thermomechanically rolled
Steel plate given 'pr~cisely controlled thickness reductions during hot rolling
within carefully controlled temperature ranges; final rolling temperature is
also carefully controlled.
Applied to .
Relatively thin , high strength low alloy_ (HSLA) steels and some steels with
good toughness at low temperatures, eg ~ els . l
Normalised
After working (rolling or forging) the steel to size, it is heated to -900C then
allowed to cool in _air to ambient temperature; which Otimises stren th and
~oughness and gTues unjform groperties from item to item for a particula
""grade ofsteel (Figure 20.1 ).
( ab\'Applied to
C-Mn steels and some low alloy steels .
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Normalising:
P - 900C
~:::J
....,
(j)
a.
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Time
,..
Figure 20.1 Typical normalising heat treatment applied to C-Mn and some low
alloy steels.
t''"'......
Applied to
Some low alloy steels to give higher strength toughness or wear.resistance.
Quenching and tempering:
_ 9000 C
Quenching
cycle
Time
Figure 20.2 A typical quenching and tempering heat treatment applied to some low
alloy steels.
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Solution annealed
Hot or cold working to size, steel heated to -1100C after.
Slab heating temperature > - 1050C
!
Austenite
MNWNM
Rolling period
(y)
cj
0
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Q)
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Austenite + ferrite
- -(~.~~: - - - J- -----
Ferrite
pearlite
( f'L) iron+carbide
''
As-rolled or
hot rolled
Control-rolled
OrTMCP
Time
Figure 20.3 Comparison of the control-rolled (TMCP) and as-rolled (hot rolling)
conditions.
0
Q
>-1050C
.
.......... ... ................. .............. ,
Q)"
......
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(!)
a.
E
Q)
I-
Time
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Applied to
Austenitic stainless steels such as 304 and 316 grades.
Annealed
After working the steel (pressing or forging, etc) to size, it is heated to
-900C then allowed to cool in the furnace to ambient temperature; this
reduces strength and toughness but improves ductility (Figure 20.5).
Annealing:
f'
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- 900C
Time
Figure 20.5 Typical anneF;Jling heat treatment applied to C-Mn and some low alloy
steels.
Applied to
C-Mn steels and some low alloy steels.
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Figures 20.1-20.5 show thermal cycles for the main supply conditions and
subsequent heat treatment that can be applied to steels.
20.3
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The major benefits of reducing residual stress and ensuring that the HAZ
hardness is not too high for steels for particular service applications are:
Because the main reason for and benefit of PWHT -is to reduce residual
stresses, PWHT is often called stress-relief.
20.4
20.4~1
Heating rate
Must be cont olled to avoid large tern erature differences, (large thermal
gradients) within the fabricate item. Which will produce arge stresses and
may be high enough to cause distortion or e:ven cracking.
Application Standards usually require control of the maximum heating rate
when the temperature of the item is above -300C because steels start to
show significant ass of stren th above this tern erature and are more
suscep 1 le to distortion if there are large ermal gra 1ents.
The temperature of the fabricated item must be monitored during the
thermal cycle by thermocouples attached to the surface at locations
representing the thickness range of the item.
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20.4.2
Soak temperature
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20.4.3
Soak time
It is necessary to allow time for all the welded joints to experience the
specified temperature throughout the full joint thickness.
The temperature is monitored by surface contact thermocouples and it is
the thickest joint of the fabrication that governs the minimum time for
temperature equalisation.
Typical specified soak times are 1h per 25mm ,thickness.
,-
It Is necessary to control the rate of cooling from the PWHT temperature for
the same reason that heating rate needs to be controlled, to avoid distortion
or cracking due to high stresses from thermal g a i 1lts,
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- 600C
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... . . . . . . . . }
Controlled heating
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!Soak
.
t 1me
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Air cool
Time
20.5
sulphur.
20.5.1
Local PWHT
Width of the heated band (must be within the soak temperature range).
Width of the temperature decay band (soak temperature to -300C).
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Section 21
Arc Welding Safety
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21
21.1
General
Working in a safe manner, whether in the workshop or on-site, is an
important consideration in any welding operation . Responsibility for safety is
on the individuals, not only for their own but also for other people's. The
visual/welding inspector has an important function in ensuring that safe
working legislation is in place and safe working practices implemented. The
inspector may be required to carry out safety audits of welding equipment
prior to welding, implement risk assessment/permit to work requirements or
monitor the safe working operations for a particular task during welding.
The inspector may refer to a number of documents for guidance:
1
There are four aspects of arc welding safety that the visual/welding
inspector must consider:
21.2
Electric shock.
Heat and light.
Fumes and gases. _
Noise.
Electric shock
One of the most serious and immediate risks facing personnel involved in
the welding operation. Contact with metal parts, which are electrically hot
can cause injury or death because of the effect of the shock on the body or
a fall as a result of the reaction to electric shock.
The electric shock hazard associated with arc welding may be divided into
two categories:
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Welding lead from one terminal of the power source to the electrode
holder or welding torch.
Welding return lead to complete the circuit from the work to the other
terminal of the power source.
Earth lead frbm the work to an earth point. The power source should also
be earthed.
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All three leads should be capable of carrying the highest welding current
required.
To establish whether the capacity of any piece of current carrying equipment
is adequate for the job, the visual/welding, inspector can refer to the duty
cycle of the equipment. All current carrying welding equipment is rated in
terms of:
Duty cycle
All current carrying conductors heat up when welding current is passed
through them. Duty cycle is a measure of the capability of the welding
equipment in terms of the ratio of welding time to total time which can be
expressed as:
Dutycyc Ie =
Welding time
x 100
Total time
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By observing t.his ratio the current carrying conductors will not be heated
above their rated temperature. Duty cycles are based on a total time of 10
minutes. For example: a power source has a rated output of 350A at 60%
duty cycle. This particular power source will deliver 350A (it's rated output)
for six minutes out of every ten mi.nutes without oyerheating . .
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Failure to carefully observe the duty cycle of equipment can ov.er-stress the
part and with welding equipment cause overheating leading to instability and
the potential for electric shock.
21.3
21.3.1
Heat
In arc welding electrical energy is converted into heat and light energies,
both of which can have serious health consequences.
The welding arc creates sparks with the potential to cause flammable
materials riear the welding area to ignite and cause fires . The welding area
should be clear of all combustible materials and the inspector should know
where the nearest fire extinguishers are and the correct type to use if a fire
does break out.
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Light
Type
Wavelength,
nanometres
Infrared (heat)
>700
Visible light
400-700
Ultraviolet radiation
<400
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Arc eye develops some hours after exposure, which may not even have
been noticed. The sand in the eye symptom and pain usually lasts for 12-24
hours but can be longer in more severe cases. Fortunately it is almost
always a temporary condition. In the unlikely event of prolonged and
frequently repeated exposures permanent damage can occur.
Treatment of arc eye is simply: rest in a dark room. A qualified person or
hospital casualty department ct:in administer various soothing anaesthetic
eye drops which can provide almost instantaneous relief. Prevention is
better than cure and wearing safety glasses with side shields will
considerably reduce the risk of this condition.
Ultraviolet effects upon the skin
The UV from arc processes does not produce -the browning effect of
sunburn but resolts in reddening and frritation caused by changes in the
mi'nute surface blood vessels. In extreme cases, the skin may be severely
burned' and blisters form. T_
he reddened skin may die and flake off in a day
9r s'9. With intense -prolopged or frequent exposure skin cancers can
develop.
Visible light
.
Intense visible light particularly approaching UV or blue light wavelengths
passes through the cornea and lehs a11d can dazzle and, in extreme cases,
damage the network of optically sensitive nerves on the retina. Wavelengths
of visible. light approaching infrared .have slightly different effects but can
produce similar symptoms. Effects depend on the duration and intensity of
exposure and to some extent the individual's natural reflex action to close
the eye and exclude . the incident light. Normally this dazzling does not
produce a long-term effect.
Infrared radiation
Infrared radiation is of longer wavelength than the visible light frequencies
and is perceptible as heat. The main hazard to the eyes is that prolonged
exposure (over years) causes a gradual but irreversible opacity of the lens.
Fortunately, the infrared radiation emitted by normal welding arcs causes
damage only within a comparatively short distance from the arc. There is an
immediate burning sensation in the skin surrounding the eyes should they
be exposed to arc heat and the natural reaction is to move or cover up to
prevent the. skiri heating, which also reduces eye exposure.
BS ,EN 169 specifies a range of permanent filter shades of gradually
increasing optical density . which limit exposure to radiation emitted by
different processes at different currents. It must be stressed that shade
numbers indicated in the standard and the corresponding current ranges are
for guidance only.
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21.4
21 ;4.1
Fumes
Because of the variables involved in fume generation from arc welding and
allied processes (the welding proce$s and electrode, base metal, coatings
on the base metal and other possible contaminants in the air), the dangers
of welding fume can be considered in a general way. Although health
considerations vary according to the type of fume composition and individual
reactions the following holds true for most welding fume.
The fume plume contains solid particles from the consumables, base metal
and base metal coating. Depending on the length of exposure to these
fumes, most acute effects are temporary and iDclude symptoms of burning
eyes and skin, dizziness, nausea and fever. Zinc fumes can cause metal
fume fever, a temporary illness similar to flu. Chronic, lor)g-term exposure to
welding fumes can lead to siderosis (iron deposits in the lungs) and may
affect pulmonary function. Cadmium, is a toxic metal found on steel as a
coating or in silver solder. Cadmium fumes can be fatal even under brief
exposure, with symptoms much like those of metal fume fever. These two
should not be confused. Twenty minutes of welding in the presence of
cadmium can be enough to cause fatalities, with symptoms appearing within
an hour and death five days later.
..
21:4.2
Gases
The gases resulting from arc welding present a potential hazard. Most of the
shielding gases (argon, helium and carbon dioxide) are nol')-toxic when
released, but displace oxygen in the breathing air, causing dizziness,
unconsciousness and death the longer the brain is denied oxygen.
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To identify hazardous substances, first read the material safety data sheet
for the consumable to see what fumes can be reasonably expected from
use of the product. Refer to the Occupational Exposure Limit (OEL) as
defined in the COSHH regulations which gives maximum concentrations to
which a healthy adult can be exposed to any one substance. Second, know
the base metal and determine if a paint or coating would cause toxic fumes
or gases. Particular attention should also be made to the dangers of
asphyxiation when welding in confined spaces. Risk assessment, permits to
work and gas testing are some of the necessary actions required to ensure
the safety of all personnel.
Noise
Exposure to loud noise can permanently damage hearing, cause stress and
increase blood pressure. Working in a noisy environment for long periods
can contribute to tiredness, nervousness and irritability. If the noise
exposure is greater than 85 decibels averaged over an 8 hour period then
hearing protection must be worn and annual hearing tests carried out.
Normal welding operations are not assoeiated with noise level problems with
two exceptions: Plasma arc welding and air carbon arc cutting. If either of
these is to be performed then hearing protectors must be worn. The noise
associated with welding is. usually due to ancillary operations such as
chipping, grinding and hammering. Hearing protection must be worn when
carrying out or when working in the vicinity of these operations.
21.5
Summary
The best way to manage the risks associated with welding is by
implementing risk management programmes. Risk management requires
the identification of hazards, assessment of the risks and implementation of
suitable controls to reduce the risk to an acceptable level.
It is essential to evaluate and review a risk management programme.
Evaluation involves ensuring that control measures have eliminated or
reduced the risks and review the aims to check that the process is working
effectively to identify hazards and manage risks.
It is quite likely that the visual/welding inspector will be involved in managing
the risks associated with welding as part of their duties.
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Section 22
Calibration
22
Calibration
22.1
Introduction
BS 7570 - Code of practice for validation of arc welding equipment, is a
standard that gives guidance-to:
22.2
Terminology
BS 7570 defines the terms it uses, such as:
Cfllibration
Validation
Accuracy
When considering welding equipment, those with output meters for welding
parameters (current, voltage, travel speed, etc) can be calibrated by
checking the meter reading with a more accurate measuring device and
adjusting the readings appropriately.
Equipment that does not have output meters (some power sources for
MMA, MIG/MAG) cannot be calibrated but can be validated to see the
controls are functioning properly.
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22.3
Calibration frequency
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22.5
Calibration methods
The Standard gives details about the characteristics of power source types,
how many readings should be taken for each parameter and guidance on
precautions that may be necessary.
For the main welding parameters, recommendations from the Standard are
as follows.
Current
Details are given about the instrumentation requirements and how to
measure pulsed current but there are requirements given, specified, or
recommendations made, about where in the circuit current measurements
should be made.
I
The implication is that current can be measured at any position in the circuit
- the value should be the same.
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Voltage
The standard emphasises that for processes where voltage is pre-set (on
constant voltage the power sources) the connection points used for the
t.
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voltage meter incorporated into the power source may differ from the arc
voltage, which is the important parameter.
To obt~ln an accurate measure of arc voltage, the voltage meter should be
positioned as near as practical to the arc.
This is illustrated by the figure which shows the power source voltage meter
connected across points 1 and 7.
Power
source
._.1-+---~Wire feeder
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5
6
A welding circuit (for MIG/MAG).
However because there will be some voltage drops in sections 1-2, 3-4 and
6-7 due to connection points introducing extra resistance into the circuit, the
voltage meter reading on the power source will tend to give a higher reading
than the true arc voltage.
Even if the power source voltage meter is connected across points 3 and 7
(which it may be) the meter reading would not take account of any
significant voltage drops in the return cable, section 6-7.
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The magnitude of any voltage drops in the welding circuit will depend on
cable diameter, length and temperature and the Standard emphasises the
following:
It is desirable to measure the true arc voltage between points 4-5 but for
some welding processes it is not practical to measure arc voltage so
close to the arc.
For MMA it is possible to take a voltage reading relatively close to the
arc by connecting one terminal of the voltmeter through the cable sheath
as close as -2m from the arc and connect the other terminal to the
workpiece (or to earth).
For MIG/MAG the nearest practical connection points have to be 3-5 but
a change from an air to a water-cooled torch or vice versa may have a
.
significant effect on the measured voltage.
Voltage drops between points 5-6 will be insignificant if there is a good
connection of the return cable at point 6.
The Standard gives guidance about minimising any drop in line voltage by
ensuring that the:
The Standard gives data for line voltage drops (DC voltage) according to
current, cable cross-section and length (for both copper .and aluminium
cables).
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Travel speed
Welding manipulators, such as rotators and robotic manipulators, as well as
the more conventional linear travel carriages, influence heat input and other
properties of a weld and should be checked at intervals. Most of the
standard devices can be checked using a stopwatch and measuring rule but
more sophisticated equipment, such as a tacho-generator, may be
appropriate.
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Section 23
Application and Control of Preheat
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23
23.1
f.
23.2
Definiti~ns .
Preheat temperature
Temperature of the workpiece in the weld zone imm~diately before any
welding operation (including tack welding).
Normally expressed as a minimum but can also be specified as a range.
lnterpass temperature
Temperature of the weld during welding and between passes in a multirun weld and adjacent parent metal immediately prior to the application
of the next run.
Normally expressed as a maximum but should not drop below the
minimum preheat temperature.
Preheat maintenance temperature
Minimum temperature in the weld zone which should be maintained if
welding is interrupted.
Should be monitored during interruption.
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23.3
Application of preheat
Local
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Preheat
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Gas/electric
oven
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Resistive .heating
elements
Global
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HF heating
elements
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Flame applied
preheat
23-2
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Gas/electric ovens
Generally used for PWHT but can be used for large sections of material to
give a controlled and uniform preheat.
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With flame applied preheating sufficient time must be allowed for the
temperature to equalise throughout the thickness .of the components to be
welded, otherwise only the surface temperature will be measured. The time
lapse depends on the specification requirements.
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23.4
!I
Where?
t > 50mm
t::;; spmm
A = 4 x t but maximum
50mm.
Temperature shall be
measured on the surface
of the work piece facing
the welder.
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A = minimum 75mm.
Where practicable
temperature is measured on
the face opposite that being
heated.
Allow 2min per 25mm of
parent metal thickness for
temperature equalisation.
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Slows down the cooling rate of the weld and HAZ, reducing the risk of
hardened microstructures forming; allowing absorbed hydrogen more
opportunity of diffusing out, thus reducing the potential for cracking.
Removes moisture from .the region of the weld preparation.
lmpmves overall fusion characteristics during W,elding.
Ensures more uniform expansion and contraction, lowering stresses
between weld and parent material.
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23.4.1
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23.4.2
Contact thermometer
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23.4.3
Thermocouple
......
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Thermister
f.
Examples of thermocouples.
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23.5
Summary
The visual/welding inspector should refer to the WPS for both preheat and
interpass temperature requirements. If in any doubt as to where the
temperature measurements should be taken, the senior welding inspector or
welding engineer should be consulted for guidance.
Both preheat and interpass temperatures are applied to slow down the
cooling rate during welding, avoiding the formation of brittle microstructures
(ie martensite) and thus preventing cold cracking.
Preheat temperatures can be calculated using different methods as
described in various standards (eg BS EN 1011 :.2, AWS 01 .1, etc) and are
validated during the qualification of the welding procedure. According to BS
EN ISO 15614 and ASME IX both preheat and interpass temperatures are
considered essential variables hence any change Gutside the range of
qualificatipn requires a new procedure qualification.
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Section 24
Gauges
24
Gauges
Specialist gauges
Measure the various elements that need to be measured in a welded
fabrication inCluding:
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(Ya to 1 inch)
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Linear misalignment
Can be used' to measure
misalignment of members by
pla~ing the edge of the gauge on
the tower member and rotating
the segm'ent untWthe pointed
finger contacts the higher
member.
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Excess weld metal
root penetration
Scale used to measure excess
weld metal height or root
penetration bead height of
single-sided butt welds by
placing the edge of the gauge on
the plate and rotating the
segment until the pointed finger
contacts the excess weld metal
or root bead at its highest point.
Pitting/mechanical damage,
etc
The gauge can measure defects
by placing the edge of the gauge
on the plate and rotating the
segment until the pointed finger
contacts the lowest depth.
The reading is taken on the scale
to the left of the zero mark in
metric or imperial.
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Fillet
weld
thickness
actual
throat
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Excess weld metal can be easily calculated by measuring the leg length,
and multiplying it by 0. 7. This value is then subtracted from the measured
throat thickness = excess weld metal.
Example: For a measured leg length of 1Omm and a throat thickness of
8mm, 10 x 0.7 =7 (throat thickness 8) - 7 = 1mm of excess weld metal.
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Appendix 1
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Appendix 1
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1 Which mechanical test can be used to measure the toughness of weld metal,
HAZ and parent material?
a
b
c
d
Macro.
Nick break.
Hardness.
Charpy impact.
2 Which is the best destructive test for showing lack of sidewall fusion in a 25mm
thickness butt weld?
a
b
c
d
Nick break.
Side bend.
Charpy impact.
Face bend test.
4 A fabrication procedure calls for the toes of all welds to be blended in by grinding.
The reason for doing this is to:
a
b
c
d
5 For full penetration single-sided butt joints, root bead penetration and profile are
mainly influenced by:
a
b
c
d
Root face.
Bevel angle.
Root gap.
Included angle.
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6 Which of the following would be cause for rejection by most fabrication standards
when inspecting fillet welds with undercut, a small amount of?
a Depth.
b Length.
c Width .
d Sharpness.
7 When visually inspecting the root bead of a single V-butt weld it should be
checked for:
a Lack of root penetration.
b HAZ hardness.
c Tungsten inclusions.
d Slag.
a Leg length.
b Weld profile.
c Weld width.
d Throat thickness.
9 The European Standard for NOE of fusion welds by visual examination is:
a
b
c
d
EN 1561 4.
EN 2560.
EN 2'87.
EN 17637.
10 Visual inspection of a fabricated item for a high integrity application should cover
inspection activities:
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Linear misalignment.
Root gap being too large.
Root faces being too small.
Welding current too high.
13 When visually inspecting the face of a finished weld which of the following flaws
would be cons.idered the most serious:
a
b
c
d
a
b
c
d
15 A Code of Practice is a:
a
b
c
d
a
b
c
d
Entrapped slag.
Entrapped gas.
Lack of inter-run fusion.
None of the above.
a
b
c
d
Throat thickness.
Leg lengths.
Penetration depths.
Both a and c.
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19 In a bend test, when the face of the specimen is in tension and root is in
compression, the test is called a
a
b
c
d
Root bend.
Side bend.
Face bend.
Longitudinal bend.
20 Heavy porosity on the surface of some MMA welds made on a construction site is
most likely to be caused by:
.)
a
b
c
d
'\
a
b
c
d
Excessive amps.
Excessive OCV.
Excessive travel speed.
Current too low.
24 Which of the following fillet welds is the strongest assuming they are all made
using the same material and welded using the same WPS?
a
b
c
d
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25 A typical included angle for MMA welding a full penetration pipe butt joint is:
a 35
b 70 0
c goo
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b
c
d
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29 BS EN 17637 allows the use of a magnifying glass for visual inspection, but
recommends that the magnification is:
a x2.
t .
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b x2 to x5.
c x5 to x10.
d Not greater than x20.
30 The majority of welder qualification tests are carried out using unbacked joints,
because:
a It is quicker and cheaper if back gouging is not required.
b If the welding process is not TIG back purging is not required.
c All welder qualification tests are done on small diameter pipe.
d It requires more skill and increases the welders' qualification range.
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1 Deflection of the arc by magnetic forces that can make welding difficult to control
is commonly known as:
a
b
c
d
Arc
Arc
Arc
Arc
initiation.
misalignment.
blow.'
constriction.
'
a E 38 3 R.
b E 6013.
c E 7018 - G.
d E 51 33 B.
3 Which type of electrode is used for stovepipe welding for overland pipeline
construction?
a
b
c
d
Rutile.
Cellulosic.
High recovery rutile .
Acid-rutile.
4 The three main types of MMA electrodes used for welding C and C-Mn steels
are:
a
b
c
d
5 A WPS may specify a maximum width for individual weld beads (weave width)
when welding C-Mn steels. If the width is exceeded it may cause:
a
b
c
d
6 You notice that MMA electrodes with the flux covering removed are being used
as filler rods for TIG welding. This should not be allowed because:
a
b
c
d
It is wasteful.
The rod diameter may be too large.
The weld metal composition may be wrong.
The rod is too short.
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Tungsten spatter.
Risk of crater cracking .
Risk of arc strikes.
lnterpass temperature.
8 Which type of power source characteristic is normally used for manual welding?
n
(l
n
r
1.
a
b
c
d
Constant voltage.
Flat characteristic.
Constant current.
A motor generator.
Arc voltage.
Welding speed.
Ferro-silicon in the electrode coating .
Current.
10 Pipe bores of some materials must be purged with argon before and during TIG
welding to:
a
b
c
d
11 The chemical composition of the weld metal deposited by a C-Mn steel MMA
electrode is usually controlled by:
a Provide deoxidation.
b Improve strength.
c Improve toughness.
d Provide more resistance to hydrogen cracking .
[
I.
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e
14 According to AWS 2.4 a weld symbol for the other side is placed:
a
b
c
d
15 The term low hydrogen electrode is often used for certain electrodes. What type
of covering will they have?
a
b
c
d
Cellulosic.
Rutile.
Acid.
Basic.
a
b
c
d
--- ~-----
~-------~--- ---
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.._____..,,
~--
---
C/1~-- --
-------~-------
/ y
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a Joules.
b N/mm 2 .
c J/mm 2.
d kJ/mm.
19 Which of the following elements is._ added to steel to give resistance to creep at
a
b
c
d
Weld quality.
Weld metal ductility.
Weld metal toughness.
Resistance to fracture.
18%Cr, 8%Ni.
b 2.25Cr 1Mo.
c 9%Cr,1Mo.
d 9%Ni.
l
l
@) Excessive current.
b Incorrect baking and storage of electrodes.
c Bad batch of electrodes.
d Too low an OCV.
23 A qualified Welding Procedure Specification is used to:
a Give instruction to the welder.
b Give information to the welding inspector.
c Give confidence that welds will have the specified properties.
@) All of the above.
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a WPS number.
Welding process.
c Filler material.
d Acceptance standard .
/ -----------<
141
28 The current/polarity used for TIG welding all materials except aluminium and
magnesium is:
~ DC negative.
b DC positive.
c AC.
d Square wave AC.
el~ctrodes
is:
a 150-200C.
b 200-250C.
@ 300-350C.
d 400-450C.
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30 If welding travel speed is doubled but the current and voltage remain the same
the heat input will be:
-
(}
Reduced by 50%.
b Increased by a factor of two.
c About the same.
d Reduced by approximately 25%.
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Neutral.
Agglomerated.
Fused.
All about the same.
2 A large grain size in the HAZ of a C-Mn steel weld joint may have:
(
'
a
b
c
d
Low ductility.
Low toughness. v
High toughness.
High tensite strength.
l;:- - -- >
of
'
C-Mn steels.
Austenitic stainless steel.
Low alloy steels for elevated temperature service.
Low carbon steels for cryogenical service.
5 The property of a material which has the greatest influence on welding distortion
is its:
a
b
c
d
Yield strength.
Coefficient of thermal expansion.""-'/i-Q 1.:>efac 'f e) .1 c(l.tQed- ~ tff\
Elastic modulus.
iM r~P'f(l ~e .r11ttl c. ., roNlV\
. . ~ i~rIi fleiY
~""",
Coefficient of thermal conductivity. o t~ 1<. tC
'lc,r.fe.rr>-
a
b
c
d
100% argon.
70% argon+ 30%He.
Argon + 5% hydrogen.
Argon + 20% C02.
)-M'Q:.
'1 y1 e (
6 Which of the following is a suitable shielding gas for FCAW of stainless steels?
1...
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Solidification cracking.'
Hydrogen cracking.
Lamellar tearing.
Weld decay.
a
b
c
d
l
\
?.
a
b
c
d
a 100%C02.
b 100% Argon.v'
c 80% argon + 20% C02.
d 98% argon + 2% 02.
11 Which of the following is associated with SAW more often than it is with MMA
welds?
a
b
c
d
12 EN ISO 5817 (Level C) specifies that the limit for the diameter (D) of a single
pore in a weld is:
?
.
.. _ror
I..
N1 ,.
~6
I
"f!(;t
a
~ b
-_s. c
I d
1
'~
s1
1 ~~mm ,
s - 15mm,
s1
1 1Omm,
s
measured
measured
tn easured
1
easured
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pore
pore
pore
pore
diameter= ~m-m .
diameter= 4.Smm ~
diameter =3mm. V'
diameter ~ 3,.5mm. V(
A1-14
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a
b
c
d
14 Lamellar tearing has occurred in a steel fabrication. What technique could have
been used to find it before the weld was made?
a X-ray examination.
b Liquid penetrant examination.
c Ultrasonic examination.
d It could not have been found by ai:iy inspection method.
15 Preheating a low alloy steel prior to welding will minimise the risk of:
a Porosity.
b Excessive distortion.
c HAZ cracking.
d Lack of fusion.
16 Typical temperatures used for normalising a C-Mn steel plate are:
a 600-650C.
b 1000-1100c.
c 700-800C.
d 880-920C.
~I
17 For GMAW the burn-off rate of the wire is directly related to:
a
b
c
d
18 When MMA welding a 60mm wall nozzle to a 100mm wall vessel shell, preheat
temperature should be checked :
a
b
c
d
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19 A crack running along the centreline of a weld bead could be caused by:
a
b
c
d
a
b
c
d
21 The use of low carbon austenitic stainless steels and stabiliser stainless steels
HAZ cracking.
Weld decay.
Weld metal cracking.
Distortion.
22 Which type of SAW flux is susceptible to breaking down into fine particles during
circulation?
1
l:
a
b
c
d
Fused.
Neutral.
Alloyed.
Agglomerated . V
l.
a
b
c
d
24 BS EN ISO 5817 (Level B) specifies the limit for excess weld metal (h) on a butt
weld as:
.
h 5 1mm + 0.1 b, but max. 5mm, b =weld width_
In which of the following situations is the measured excess weld metal acceptable.
a
b
c
d
b = 10
b = 20
b = 35
b = 45
measured
measured
measured
measured
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excess weld
excess weld
excess weld
excess weld
metal= 2.5mm.
metal= 3.5mm.
metal= 4.Smm.
metal = 5.Smm.
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25 A C-Mn-steel is being welded by MMA and the electrode run-out lengths that
have been used are much shorter than specified by the WPS. This deviation may
give:
a
b
c
d
26 The first procedure prepared for a Weld Procedure Qualification test weld is a:
'
a
b
c
d
pWPS.
WPS.
WPQR.
WPAR.
a
b
./ c
d
Is too slow.
Can be a safety hazard .
May damage the material.
Causes problems with.. coating operations.
550J/mm.
55J/mm.
5.5J/mm.
5kJ/mm.
30 Initiation of a TIG arc using a high frequency spark may not be allowed because
it:
a
b
c
d
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.]
.1
r-
Multiple Choice Questions - Paper 4
I
Ii
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rt
fJ
[1
l
lI
1
a
b
....-.-c
d
I
l -
- - -
a Time .
....-b Type of isotope.
c Source-to-film distance.
d Source strength.
4
Which element has the greatest effect on the HAZ hardness of C-Mn steel?
,,.
a
b
c
d
l .
~~0-
1~
- - - - -
11
/ ~-- ~-----
Molybdenum.
Chromium.
Titanium.
Carbon.
Preheating a steel plate with a carbon equivalent value (CEV) of 0.48 may be
required to:
a Drive moisture from the plate.
b Prevent excessive hardening in the HAZ.
c Prevent the formation of carbides.
d Improve the mechanical properties of the weld metal.
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7 In friction welding, the metal at the interface when the joining occurs is described
as being in the:
a
b
c
d
I!
Liquid state.
lntercritical state .
Plastic state.
Elastic state.
9 Which of the following cutting methods is suitable for cutting stainless steel?
./a
b
c
d
Plasma.
Oxy-acetylene.
Oxy-propane .
It depends upon the thickness.
10 Which of the following would be classed as the most serious type of defect?
a
b
c
d
11 Ultrasonic testing has an advantage over other NOT methods for the detection of:
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I
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12 Exceeding the maximum interpass temperature specified for a C-Mn steel weld
joint may give:
a
b
,,,,.,,-c
d
Excessive porosity.
Burn through.
Lower toughness.
Higher strength.
13 MJG/MAG welding has a tendency to give lack of sidewall fusion when using:
a
b
c
,_,/ d
14 The temperature range over which a steel goes from having high to low
toughness is called the:
---:>
<
v'
a
b
c
d
15 For SAW what is the effect of raising arc voltage but keeping all other parameters
the same?
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E 6010 .
E 7016 .
E 7018.
E 6013.
,...
19 Welds made with very high heat input will show a reduction in:
a
...,/. b
c
d
Tensile ductility .
Notch toughness.
Fatigue strength.
Creep resistance.
a
b
c
-./ d
a
b
c
d
Using inductance.
Using 1OO%C02.
Using Ar + 30%He.
Increasing the stick-out length.
22 Repair welding of in-service plant and equipment may be more difficult than
making repairs during initial fabrication because:
a
b
c
../ d
Thulium 170.
Ytterbium 169.
Iridium 192.
Cobalt 60.
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Using a densitometer.
Using an image quality indicator (IQI).
From the kVA used.
From the source/tube to work standoff distance used.
25 A transverse tensile test from a Weld Procedure Approval Record (WPAR) test
plate is used to measure the:
a
---- b
c
d
26 The highest and lowest heat input positions are considered to be,:
a PB highest; PA lowest.
fI
b PE highest; PC lowest.
c PD highest; PB lowest.
d PF highest; PG lowest.
27 What type of covering will an electrode have that is suitable for welding 60mm CMn steel and can give good weld metal toughness at -S0C?
I.
a
.../b
c
d
Rutile .
Basic.
Cellulosic.
Choice will depend on the welding position.
28 The dip transfer or .shoi:t-circuiting mode of metal transfer used for . MIG/MAG
welding is characterised by:
29 Carbon equivalent values (CEV) are used to determine how to avoid the risk of:
./a
b
c
d
Hydrogen cracking.
Lamellar tearing.
Solidification cracking.
Weld decay.
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30 When two different material types are welded together the joint is referred to as:
J
a
b
c
d
A composite joint.
A transition joint.
An autogenous weld.
Heterogeneous joint.
\.
.1
1
,i'--1
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Appendix 2
Plate Reports and Questions
.I
'.
Appendix 2
.'
I
I
1 Maximum excess weld metal height (highest individual point measured): Which
answer best matches your assessment and would you accept or reject your
findings to the given acceptance levels?
a Equal to or less than Omm.
b 1-4mm.
@ 5-6mm.
d 7-Bmm.
e Accept.
([) Reject.
2 Incomplete fill: Which answer best matches your assessment of the total
' ' -.,, accumulative length and would you accept or reject your findings to the given
''aQ.~~ptance levels?
a None observed.
b 50-75mm.
@ 10-30mm.
d 80-110mm.
e Accept.
Reject.
ij
Il
3 Slag inclusions: Which answer best matches your assessment of the total
accumulative length and would you accept or reject your findings to the given
acceptance levels?
a 50-65mm.
b 22-35mm.
c None observed.
@ 8-18mm.v
Accept. /
f Reject.
I tJ>
.J
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I
. I
.I
.
4
Undercut: Which answer best matches your assessment of the imperfection and
would you .accept or reject your firqdings to the given acceptance levels?
a
b
c
@)
.e
Smooth intermittent.
Sharp but less than 1mm deep.
Norie observed.
Sharp but more than 1mm deep.~
Accept.
Reject. ~
5 Crater pipes in the weld: Which answer best matches your assessment of the
total accumulative. area and would you accept or reject your findings to the given
acceptance levels?
6
[ I
I v(
Cracks: Which answer best matches your assessment Of th,e total al!:cumulative
length and would you accept or reject your findings to the given acceptance
levels?
(9 None observed.
d
l
l'
Lack of fusion: Which answer best matches your assessment of the total
accumulative length and would you accept or reject your findings to the given
acceptance levels?
@
b
c
d
e
"t)
70-90mm. ~
30-60mm.
None observed .
5-10mm.
Accept.
Reject.
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8 Arc strikes: Which answer best matches your assessment of the total number
and would you accept or reject your findings to the given acceptance levels?
a
@
c
d
e
3 areas.
4 areas.
None observed.
1area. ~
Accept.
( fl Reject.
;x
. Weld.Root
CD
11 Root penetration height (highest individual point measured): Which answer best
matches your assessment and would you accept or reject your findings to the
given acceptance levels?
(a)
3-5mm.
1-2mm.
None.
Greater than 5mm .
Accept.
C...~ Reject.
'-[)
c
d
e
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I.
12 Lack of root penetration: Which answer best matches your assessment of the
accumulative total and would you accept or reject your findings to the given
acceptance levels?
n
l
fl
n
l
tl
l1
ll
l
a 35-40mm.
b 20-25mm.
None observed.
d 0-10mm.
@ Accept.
f Reject.
,X
13 Lack of root fusion: Which answer best matches your assessment of the
accumulative total length and would you accept or reject your findings to the
given acceptance levels?
a 28-35rilm.
tb. 0-10mm. ,
@
'f
None observed.
15-23mm.
Accept.
Reject.
14 Root concavity or root shrinkage: Which answer best matches your assessment
of the accumulative total length and would you accept or reject your findings to
the given acceptance levels?
a 31-39mm.
b 18-22mm.
c None observed.
@) 40-60mm.
e Accept.
~eject.
I!
'~
I.
15 Root undercut: Which answer best matches your assessment of the accumulative
total length and would you accept or reject your findings to the given acceptance
levels?
@ 15-30mm.
b
c
d
e
CD
5-8mm.
None observed.
0-2mm.
Accept.
Reject.
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16 Cracks in the root: Which answer best matches your assessment of the
accumulative total length and would you accept or reject your findings to the
given acceptance levels?
a 10-17mm.
b 0-4mm.
~ None observed.
d 5-8mm.
<] Accept.
f Reject.
I
11
17 Sharp indications of mechanical damage in the root area weld and parent
material (excluding hard stamping): Which answer best matches your
assessment of the accumulative total and would you accept or reject you findings
to the given acceptance levels?
18 Crater pipes ih the weld root area: Which answer best matches your assessment
of the total number of areas and would you accept or reject your findings to the
given acceptance levels?
a 1area.
b 2 areas.
@ None observed.
d 3 areas.
~ Accept.
Reject.
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Il
TWI
)
I
20 Angular distortion: Which answer best matches your assessment and would you
accept or reject your findings to the given acceptance levels {measure from the
weld centreline- to the plate edge).
I-
3-.5mm.
b 6-8mm.
c None observed ..
d 1-2mm.
!3. Accept.
(f) Reject.
[!
1
-io
b-t,
r ;
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\r'f. ~
~~
~~
': ~
~
Signature
Welding process
Code/Specification used
@~
~
fl~l M
Joint type_ _ _ _ _ _ __
OQ
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Welding position_ _ _ _ __
:!. ~
h
a: 5"
Date
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toe blend=
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WI 3.1
EXAM
VERSION
1234567
-
GENERAL THEORY -
110. 110
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
TECHNOLOGY THEORY
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10 CJCJCJCJ10CJCJCJ
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18 CJ CJ Cl Cl 18 CJ CJ CJ
19 CJ CJ CJ D 19 D
CJ D
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21CJ Cl CJ Cl 21CJ CJ CJ
22 CJ CJ CJ [J 22 CJ CJ CJ
23 CJ CJ CJ CJ 23 CJ CJ CJ
24 Cl Cl CJ CJ 24 CJ CJ CJ
25 CJ CJ CJ CJ 25 Cl Cl CJ
26 CJ CJ CJ CJ 26 CJ CJ CJ
21 CJ CJ CJ D 21 CJ D D
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CJ 34CJ CJ CJ CJ
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- 0000000000
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- 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 iCJ CJ CJ CJ CJ CJ
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D 36 DD D CJ
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BOOKING REFERENCE OFFICE USE ONLY
CANDIDATE NUMBER FOlt OFFICE USE ONLY
4 CJDDOCJCJ
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CJ 39 D D CJ D
PLATE
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~~~ ~~~
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D D D Cl CJ D
D 42 0 D CJD 2 DD CJ CJ CJ CJ 2 CJ CJ CJ CJ CJ CJ s CJ CJ CJ CJ CJD
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CJ 45 CJ Cl D Cl s CJ CJ CJ CJ CJ. CJ s CJ Cl Cl CJ Cl Cl CJ D D CJ CJ CJ
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CJ 45 CJ Cl CJ CJ 6 0 Cl DD Cl D sCJ Cl Cl Cl Cl Cl CJ CJ Cl CJ CJD
CJ 47 Cl Cl CJ CJ 7 Cl CJ Cl Cl Cl D 1 Cl CJ CJ tJ Cl CJ I
MACRO B
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WI 3.1
EXAM
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1234567
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1 Maximum excess weld metal height (highest individual point measured): Which
answer best matches your assessment and would you accept or reject your
findings to the given acceptance levels?
.l
Incomplete fill: Which answer best matches your assessment of the total
accumulative length and would you accept or reject your findings to the given
acceptance levels?
a
Non~
observed.
b 45"'aoinm ..
(C) 0-40rrim.
10.0-120mm.
e Accept.
(!) Reject.
er
3 1 Slag inclusions: Which answer best matches your assessment of the total
accumulative length and would you accept or reject your findings to the given
acceptance levels?
a 60-?0mm.
20-30mm.
c None observed .
d 5-18mm.
@ Accept.
f Reject.
'@>
Undercut: Which answer best matches your assessment of the imperfection and
would you accept or reject your findings to the given acceptance levels?
a 60mm in length.
b Sharp but less than 1mm deep.
c None observed.
@) Sharp but more than 1mm deep.
e Accept.
(!) Reject.
TWI .
[7J7/]j71
vu~
Se rvices Worldwide
~I
A2-9
www.twitraining.com
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5 Porosity in the weld: Which answer best matches your assessment of the total
accumulative area and would you accept or reject your findings to the given
acceptance levels?
a The area is between 10-15mm2 .
b The area is greater than 100mm2 .
None observed.
d The area is between 70-9Qmm 2 .
@ Accept.
f Reject.
6
11
Il
j
7 Lack of fusion: Which answer best matches your assessment of the total
accumulative length and would you accept or reject your findings to . thE! given
acceptance levels?
~ 35-45mm.
b 15-25mm.
c None observed.
d 5-10mm.
e Accept.
Reject.
(f)
l.
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j
Cracks: Which answer best matches your assessment of the total accumulative
length and would you accept or reject your findtnQ~ to the given acceptance
levels?
Arc strikes: Which answer best matches your assessment of the total number
and would you accept or reject your findings to the given acceptance levels?
a 3.
b 4.
('C) None observed .
d 1.
Accept.
f Reject.
I.
(
TWI
VL7(7,j71
if_ u~
A2-10
www.twitraining.com
Taining & Examination
ServlcesWorldwlde
Weld Root
10 Misalignment: Which answer best matches your assessment of the m~ximum
value and would you accept or reject your findings to the given acceptance
levels?
Ca'i
1-2mm.
3-4mm.
c 0-1mm.
d Greater than Smm.
(e) Accept.
Y Reject
Il
11 Root penetration height (highest individual point measured): Which answer best
matches your assessment and would you accept or reject your findings to the
given acceptance levels?
:I
a 4-Smm.
2-3mm.
c None.
d Greater than Smm.
Accept.
f Reject.
@>
GJ
12 Lack of root penetration: Which answer best matches your assessment of the
accumulative total length and would you accept or reject your findings to the
given acceptance levels?
35-40mm.
15-25mm.
c None observed.
d 0-10mm.
e Accept.
Reject.
Ci)
TWI
unn
71
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A2-11
www.twitraining.com
Training & Examination
Services Worldwide
l
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13 Lack of root fusion: Which answer best matches your assessment of the
accumulative total length and would you accept or reject your findings to the
given acceptance levels?
~) 28-35mm.
b 0-10mm.
c None observed.
d 13-20mm.
e Accept.
\D Reject.
14 Root concavity or root shrinkage: Which answer best matches your assessment
of the accumulative total length and would you accept or reject your findings to
..
a 15-30mm.
b 5-Bmm.
@ None observed.
a 0-2mm.
@ Accept.
f Reject.
16 Cracks in the root: Which answer best matches your assessment of the
accumulative total length and would you accept or reject your findings to the
a 10-17mm.
b 0-4mm.
None observed.
a 5-8mm.
~ Accept.
f Reject.
TWI
7n71
'7!1
~ u~
A2-12
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Training & Examination
ServicesWorldwlde
17 Sharp indications of mechanical damage in the root area weld and parent
material (excluding hard stamping): Which answer best matches your
assessment of the accumulative total number and would you accept or reject
your findings to the given acceptance levels?
18 Porosity in the weld root area: Which answer best matches your assessment of
the accumulative total area and would you accept or reject your findings to the
given acceptance levels?
: 1
; I
a
b
19 Burn-through in the root area: Which answer best matches your assessment of
the accumulative total and would you accept or reject your findings to the given
acceptance levels?
a 1 area.
b 2 areas.
None observed.
d , 3 areas.
@) Accept.
f Reject.
.I
20 Angular distortion: Which answer best matches your assessment and would you
accept or reject your findings to the given acceptance levels, measure from the
weld centreline to the plate edge.
3-5mm.
6-8mm.
c None observed.
d 1-2mm.
@ Accept.
f Reject.
A2-13
www.twitraining.com
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--
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3 4 5
I o I 0 I o 110o 110o I
INITIAL
00 00 00 00 00 00 00
GENERAL THEORY
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RETEST RETEST
YR
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1
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1 CJ
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1
1'
Weld Face
1 Maximum excess weld metal height (highest individual point measured): Which
answer best matches your assessment and would you accept or reject your
findings to the given acceptance levels?
a
b
c
d
e
f
2 Incomplete fill: Which answer best matches your assessment of the total
(
accumulative length and would you accept or. reject your- findings to the given
acceptance levels?
a
b
c
d.
e
f
I '
II
None observed.
40-60mm.
0-30mm.
75-100mm.
Accept.
Reject.
3 Slag inclu.sions: Which answer best matches your assessment of the total
accumulative length arid would you accept or reject your findings to_ the given
acceptance levels?
I
I
a
b
c
d
e
f
'
60-?0mm.
20-30mm.
None observed.
5-18mm.
Accept.
Reject.
Undercut: Which answer best matches your assessment of the imperfection and
would you accept or reject your findings to the given acceptance levels?
a
b
c
d
e
f
50mm in length.
Sharp but less than 1mm deep.
None observed.
Sharp but more than 1mm deep.
Accept.
Reject.
TWI
f7/7n71
vu~
A2-16
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Porosity in the weld: Which answer" best matches your assessment of the total
accumulative area and would you accept or reject your findings to the given
acceptance levels?
a
b
c
d
e
f
6 Cracks: Which answer best matches your assessment of the total accumulative
length and would you accept or reject your findings to the given acceptance
levels?
a
b
c
d
e
f
7 Lack of fusion: Which answer best matches your assessment of the total
accumulative length and would you accept or reject your findings to the given
acceptance levels?
a
b
c
d
e
f
70-90mm.
30-60mm.
None observed .
91-100mm.
Accept.
Reject.
~
I
8 Arc strikes: Which answer best matches your assessment of the total number
and would you accept or reject your find~ngs to the given acceptance levels?
a
b
c
d
e
f
3 total.
4 total.
None observed.
1 total.
Accept.
Reject.
TWI
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71
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A2-17
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Training & Examination
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I
Rev 2 April 2013
Appendix 2
Copyright TWI Ltd 2013
r.
9
Sharp areas of mechanical damage (exclding hard stamping and pop marks):
Which answer best matches your assessment of the total number of areas and
would you accept or reject your findings to the given acceptance levels.
a
b
c
d
e
f
Weld Root
I:
11
!1
r.
!.
!;
I.
l
t'
r
a
b
c
d
e
2-3mm.
4-5mm.
0-1.
Greater than 5mm.
Accept.
Reject.
11 Root penetration height (highest individual point measured): Which answer best
matches your assessment and would you accept or reject your findings to the
given acceptance levels?
a
b
c
d
e
f
2-3mm.
1-2mm.
None.
Greater than 5mm .
Accept.
Reject.
12 Lack of root penetration: Which answer best matches your assessment of the
accumulative total length and would you accept or reject your findings to the
given acceptance levels?
a
b
c
d
e
f
40-55mm.
25-35mm.
None observed .
0-10mm.
Accept.
Reject.
[_
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13 Lack of root fusion: Which answer best matches your assessment of the
accumulative total length and would you accept or reject your findings to the
30-45mm.
0-15mm.
None observed.
16-29mm.
Accept.
Reject.
14 Root concavity or shrinkage: Which answer best matches your assessment of the
accumulative total length and would you accept or reject your findings to the
given acceptance levels.
a 31-39mm.
b 18-22mm.
c None observed.
d 40-60mm.
e Accept.
f Reject.
und~rcut: Which answer best matches your assessment of the accumulative
total length and would you accept or reject your findings to the given acceptance
levels?
15 Root
a
b
c
d
e
f
40-60mm.
5-8mm.
None observed.
2-4mm.
Accept.
Reject.
16 Cracks in. the root: Which answer be.st matches your assessment of the
accumulative tOtal length and would you accept or reject your findings to the
given acceptance levels?
l
a
b
c
d
e
f
10-17mm.
0-4mm.
None observed.
5-8mm.
Accept.
Reject.
TWI
7n71
Jf_ v~
VL
A2-19
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Trainine & Examination
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r
n
17 Sharp indications of mechanical damage in the root area weld and parent
material (excluding hard stamping): -Which answer best matches your
assessment of the total number of items and would you accept or reject your
findings to the given acceptance levels?
a
b
c
d
e
f
2 observed.
1 item observed.
None observed.
3 or more items observed.
Accept.
Reject.
18 Porosity in the weld root area: Which answer best matches your assessment of
the accumulative total area and would you accept or reject your findings to the
given acceptance levels?
11
a
b
c
d
e
f
'
'
19 Burri-through in the root area: Which answer best matches your assessment of
the total number of areas and would you accept or reject your findings to the
given acceptance levels?
a
b
c
d
e
f
1.
2.
None observed.
3.
Accept.
Reject.
20 Angular distortion: Which answer best matches your assessment and would you
accept or reject your findings to the given acceptance levels_(measure from the
weld centreline to the plate edge).
a
b
c
d
e
f
3-4mm.
5-6mm.
None observed.
1-2mm.
Accept.
Reject.
TWI
f7!1
A2-20
71]71 ServJcesWorldwide
Training Examination
~ u~
&
www.twitraining.com
~.,
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Name [Block
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1 Maximum excess weld metal height (highest individual point measured): Which
answer best matches your assessment and would you accept or reject your
findings to the given acceptance levels?
@ 1-4mm.
c 5-6mm ..
d 7-Bmm.
e Accept.
Reject.
'ID
2 Incomplete fill: Which answer . best matches your assessment of the total
accumulative length and would ybu accept or reject your findings to the given
acceptance levels?
a None observed.
3(j .. 5omm.
c 0-25mm.
d 100-120mm .
.e Accept.
(D Reject.
3 Slag inclusions: Which answer best matches your assessment of the total
accumulative length and would you accept or reject your findings to the given
acceptance levels?
a 12-18mm.
b 8-10mm.
@ None observed.
d 2 . . 6mm.
@ Accept.
f Reject.
4 Undercut: Which answer best matches your assessment of the imperfection and
would you accept or reject your findings to the given acceptance levels?
a 10-20mm in length.
b Sharp but less than 1mm deep.
c None observed.
@ Sharp but more than 1mm deep.
1e) Accept.
f Reject.
TWI
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r
f
fl
Porosity in the weld: Which answer best matches your assessment of the total
accumulative area and would you accept or reject your findings to the given
acceptance levels?
a The area is between 0-5mm 2 .
b The pore is greater than 45-60mm 2 .
@ None observed.
d The pore is between 2Q-30mm 2 .
@ Accept.
f Reject.
6 Cracks: Which answer best matches your assessment of the total accumulative
length and would you accept or reject your findings to the given acceptance
levels?
a 2-3mm transverse crack.
b 15mm longitudinal crack.
@ None observed.
d 9-14mm longitudinal crack.
@ Accept.
f Reject.
7 Lack of fusion: Which answer best matches your assessment of . the total
accumulative total length and would you accept or reject your findings to the
given acceptance levels?
I
. " :., .
a 30-39mm.
40-55mm.
c None observed.
d 5-10mm.
e Accept.
{!) Reject.
8 Arc strikes: Which answer best matches your assessment of the total number
and would you accept or reject your findings to the given acceptance levels?
~ 3.None observed.
2.
''(
c
d 1.
e Accept.
(f) Reject.
TWI
f7/7n71
vu~
A2-24
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Tra ining & Examination
Set\l'JcesWorJdwide
9 Sharp areas of mechanical damage (excluding hard stamping and pop marks):
Which answer best matches your assessment of the total number of areas and
would you accept or reject your findings to the given acceptance levels.
a 4 areas.
1-2 areas.
c None observed.
d 3 areas.
@Accept.
f Reject.
()
'
.)
11
Weld Root
10 Misalignment: Which answer best matches your assessment of the maximum
value and would you accept or reject your findings to the given acceptance
levels?
a 0.5-1mm.
1.5-2mm.
c None observed.
d Greater than Smm.
e Accept.
f Reject.
~ \
)
: 1
' '
II
I
11 Root penetration height (highest individual point measured): Which answer best
matches your assessment and would you accept or reject your findings to the
given acceptance levels?
) )
(a) 3-Smm.
c
d
e
'\:!)
1-2mm.
None.
Greater than Smm .
Accept.
Reject.
12 Lack of root penetration: Which answer best matches your assessment of the
accumulative total length and would you accept or reject your findings to the
given acceptance levels?
a 35-40mm.
b 20-25mm.
() None observed .
d 0-10mm.
Accept.
f Reject.
_,
TWI
17/71]
71
vu~
A2-25
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Services Worldwide
l
[.
13 Lack of root fusion: Which answer best matches your assessment of the
accumulative total length and would you accept or reject your findings to the
given acceptance levels?
a 28-35mm.
b 0-10mm.
@ None observed.
d 15-23mm.
~Accept.
f Reject.
14 Root concavity or root shrinkage: Which answer best matches your assessment
of the accumulative total length and would you accept or reject your findings to
the given acceptance levels.
I 1
a 31-39mm.
b 18-22mm.
c None observed.
@) 40-?Smr:n.
e Accept.
Reject.
CD
15 Root undercut: Which answer best matches your assessment of the accumulative
total length and would you accept or reject your findings to the given acceptance
levels?
(a) 15-30mm.
(bJ
5-Bmm.
c None observed.
d 40-SOmm.
e Accept.
(D Reject.
16 Cracks in the root: Which answer best matches your assessment of the
accumulative total length and would you accept or reject your findings to the
given c;icceptance levels?
a 10-17mm.
b 0-4mm.
None observed.
d 5-8mm.
@ Accept.
f Reject.
A2-26
www.twitraining.com
17 Sharp indications of mechani'cal damage in the root area weld and parent
material (excluding hard stamping): Which answer best matches your
assessment of the accumulative total and would you accept or reject your
findings to the given acceptance levels?
()
'.
7\
19 .Burn-through in the root ,area: Which answer best matches your assessment of
the accumulative total n'umber of areas-end would yo1;.1 accept or reject your
findings to the given acc~ptance levels?
a 1.
b 2.
!'('?\ None observed .
\ [ 3.
(i) Accept.
f Reject.
20 With refrence to cluster porosity which answer best matches your assessment
and would you accept or reject your findings to the given acceptance levels.
a 20-30mm 2 .
b 31-40mm 2 .
c None observed.
12-18mm2 .
Accept.
Reject.
TWI
7n71
Jf_ u~
r;a
A2-27
www .twitraining.com
Training & Examination
ServicesWorldwide
.j
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A2-29
Training & Examination
Services Worldwide
www.twitraining.com
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1 Excess weld metal height (highest individual point measured): Which answer best
matches your assessment and would you accept or reject your findings to the
given acceptance levels?
b 1-4mm.
c
d
e
f
n
2
s'-6mm.
7~8mm.
Accept.
Reject.
Incomplete fill: Which answer best matches your assessment of the total
accumulative length and would you accept or reject your findings 'to the given
acceptance levels?
a
b
c
d
e
f
None observed.
16-29mm.
0-15mm.
40-50mm.
Accept.
Reject.
3 Slag inclusions: Which answer best matches your assessment of the total
accumulative length and would you accept or reject your findings to the given
acceptance levels?
a
b
c
d
e
f
60-?0mm.
20-30mm.
None observed.
5-12mm.
Accept.
Reject.
4 Undercut: Which answer best matches your assessment of the imperfection and
would you accept or reject your findings to the given acceptance levels?
a
b
c
d
e
f
60-?0mm in length.
Sharp but less than 1mm deep.
None observed.
Sharp but more than 1mm deep.
Accept.
Reject.
TWI
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5 Porosity in the weld: Which answer best matches your assessment of the total
accumulative area and would you accept or reject your findings to the given
acceptance levels?
a
b
c
d
e
f
6
Cracks: Which answer best matches your assessment of the total accumulative
length and would you accept or reject your findings to the given acceptance
levels?
a
b
c
d
e
f
.l
Lack of fusion: Which answer best matches your assessment of the total
accumulative length and would you accept or reject your findings to the given
acceptance levels?
a
b
c
d
e
f
0-15mm 2 .
Greater than 100mm2 .
None observed.
The area is between 70-90mm 2 .
Accept.
Reject.
40-60mm.
20-39mm.
None observed.
5-10mm.
Accept.
Reject.
Arc strikes: Which answer best matches your assessment of the total number
and would you accept or reject your findings to the given acceptance levels?
a 3.
b 4.
c None observed .
d 1.
e Accept.
f Reject.
TWI
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.1
Sharp areas of mechanical damage (excluding hard stamping and pop marks):
Which answer best matches your assessment of the total number of areas and
would you accept or reject your findings to the given acceptance levels.
a
b
c
d
e
f
4.
1-2.
None observed.
3.
Accept.
Reject.
Weld Root
10 Misalignment: Which answer best matches your assessment of the maximum
value and would you accept or reject your findings to the given acceptance
levels?
l
11
ll
J
a
b
c
d
e
f
11 Root penetration height (highest individual point m'easured): Which answer best
matches your assessment and would you accept or reject your findin'gs to the
given acceptance levels?
a
b
c
d
e
f
!.
l.
1
I
1-2mm.
3-4mm.
None observed.
Greater than Smm.
Accept.
Reject.
2-3mm.
0-1mm.
None.
Greater than Smm.
Accept.
Reject.
12 Lack of root penetration: Which answer best matches your assessment of the
accumulative total length and would you accept or reject your findings to the
given acceptance levels?
a
b
c
d
e
f
30-40mm.
20-25mm.
None observed.
0-10mm.
Accept.
Reject.
TWI
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13 Lack of root fusion: Which answer best matches your assessment of the
accumulative total length and would you accept or reject your findings to the
given acceptance levels?
a
b
c
d
e
28-40mm.
0-10mm.
None observed.
15-23mm.
Accept.
Reject.
I
'I
14 Root concavity or shrinkage: Which answer best matches your assessment of the
accumulative total length and would you accept or reject your findings to the
given acceptance levels.
a
b
c
d
e
31-39mm.
18-25mm.
None observed.
40-75mm.
Accept.
Reject.
15 Root undercut: Which answer best matches your assessment of the accumulative
total length and would you accept or reject your findings to the given acceptance
levels?
a
b
c
d
e
f
.I
15-30mm.
5-8mm.
None observed.
0-2mm.
Accept.
Reject.
16 Cracks in the root: Which answer best matches your assessment of the
accumulative total length and would you accept or reject your findings to the
given acceptance levels?
a
b
c
d
e
f
10-17mm.
0-4mm.
None observed.
5-Bmm.
Accept
Reject.
TWI
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I
I
17 Sharp indications of mechanical damage in the root area weld and parent
material (excluding hard stamping): Which answer best matches your
assessment of the total number of items and would you accept or reject your
findings to the given acceptance levels?
a
b
c
d
e
f
2 items observed.
1 item observed.
None observed.
3 or more items observed .
Accept.
Reject.
18 Porosity in the weld root area: Which answer best matches your assessment of
the accumulative total area and would you accept or ..reject your findings to the
given acceptance levels?
a
b
c
d
e
f
( '
!I
19 Burn-through in the root area: Which answer best matches your assessment of
the total number of areas and would you accept or reject your findir:igs to the
given acceptance levels?
a
b
c
d
e
f
1.
2.
None observed.
3.
Accept.
Reject.
20 Angular distortion: Which answer best matches your assessment and would you
accept or reject your findings to the given acceptance levels (measure from the
weld centreline to the plate edge).
a
b
c
d
e
f
2-4mm.
6-8mm.
None observed .
0-1mm.
Accept.
Reject.
TWI
VL7n71
~ u~
A2-34
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Training & Examination
ServicesWorldwlde
.t:..:J..
~~
~~
.
~~
~
.,
~
[
~
~
~~
Signature
Code/Specification used
:!.~
Welding proce$S
Joint type_ _ _ _ _ _ __
~3
a: 5'
g.,
~
Welding position _ _ _ __ _
M
E
A
_______.
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Excess weld
metal
Slag/silica
Inclusions
t1l
Acceptance
levels
macro only
a.
(!)
Remarks
At no point shall the excess weld
metal fall below the outside
surface of the parent material. All
weld runs shall blend smoothly.
Slag inclusions are defined as
non-metallic inclusions trapped in
the weld metal or between the
weld metal and the parent
material.
Undercut
Porosity or
Gas Cavities
Cracks or
Laminations
Lack of fusion
Laps
Cold .lap
Arc strikes
Mechanical
damage
Misalignment
10
Penetration
11
Maximum allowance
Remarks
No sharp indications
Smooth blend required
Not permitted
Not permitted
Not permitted
Not permitted
Not permitted
Not permitted
Max H = 1.5mm
Max H s 3mm
Lack of root
penetration
Not permitted
Not permitted
12
Lack of root
fusion
Not permitted
13
Burn through
Not permitted
Not pe rmitted
Angu lar
distortion
Root
concavity
Accept
Accept
14
15
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,~
l
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f
...
Appendix 3 . .. _.:
Pipe Reports and Questions
.
'
,.
'
Appendix 3
CSWIP 3.1 Training Questions for Pipe Butt Weld 1
.l
1 Maximum excess weld metal height. (highest individual point measured): Which
answer best matches your assessment and would you accept or reject your
findings to the given acceptance levels?.,, a Equal to or less than Omm.
4-5mm.
c 1-3mm.
/
d 7-Bmm.
V
e Accept.
'(!) Reject.
Incomplete fill: Which answer best matches your assessment of the total
accumulative length and would you accept or reject your findings to the given
acceptance levels?
None observed.
30-50mm.
0-28mm.
d 55-70mm.
,A Accept
CV Reject.
3 Slag inclusions: Which answer best matches your assessment of the total
accumulative length and would you accept or reject your findings to the given
acceptance levels?
.....,_
a 13-19mm.
b 20-30mm.
c None observed.
:@ 8-12mm.
@ Accept.
f Reject.
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4 Undercut: Which answer best matches your assessment of the imperfection and
would you accept or reject your findings to the given acceptance levels?
r ;
n
n
I1
a Smooth intermittent.
b Sharp but less than 1mm deep.
fa-- None observed. .
{g_) Sharp but more than 1mm deep.
e Accept.
(!) Reject.
5 Porosity in the weld: Which answer best matches your assessment of the total
accumulative area and would you accept or reject your findings to the given
acceptance levels?
a
b
c
(cf)
(I
1 1
l
(!)
Area is 10-15mm2
Area 190-210mm2
None observed.
Area 130-160mm2
Accept.
Reject.
6 Cracks: Which answer best matches your assessment of the total accumulative
length and would you accept or reject your findings to the given acceptance
levels?
(
.,
'
i
I
I ;
' -
7 Lack of fusion: Which answer best matches your assessment of the total
accumulative length and would you accept or reject your findings to the given
acceptance levels?
i~
Il ..,
a 70-90mm.
b 30-60mm
c None observed.
@ 5-25mm.
e Accept.
'(D Reject.
!L.
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8 Arc strikes: Which answer best matches your assessment of the total number
and would you accept or reject your findings to the given acceptance levels?
a 3.
b 4.
@ None observed .
d
@
f
1.
Accept.
Reject.
a 4.
b 1.
c None observed.
@2.
\!)
Accept.
Reject.
Weld Root
-11 -Root penetration height (highest individuar point measured): Which answer best
matches your assessment and would you accept or reject your findings to the
given acceptance levels?
(_)
b
c
d
e
Q)
3-5mm.
1-2mm.
None.
Greater than 5mm.
Accept.
Reject.
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12 Lack of root penetration: Which answer best matches your assessment of the
accumulative total length and would you accept or reject your findings to the
given acceptance levels?
a 35-40mm.
b 20-25mm.
@ None observed.
d 0-10mm.
<) Accept.
f Reject.
13 Lack of root fusion: Which answer best matches your assessment of the
accumulative total length and would you accept or. reject your findings to the
given acceptance levels?
a
b
c
d
e
f
28-35mm.
0-10mm.
None observed.
15-23mm.
Accept.
Reject.
14 Root concavity or shrinkage: Which answer best matches your assessment of the
accumulative total 1.ength and would you accept or reject your findings to the
give.n acceptance. ;levels?
..
,..
a
b
c
d
e
f
31-39mm.
5-12mm.
None observed.
40-60mm.
Accept.
Reject.
15 Root undercut: Which answer best matches your assessment of the accumulative
total length and would you accept or reject your findings to the given acceptance
levels?
a
b
c
d
e
f
60-70mm.
71-80mm.
None observed.
1-15mm.
Accept.
Reject.
TWI
A3-5
[7/7/]
71 Training & Examination
vu~
SnrvlccsWor ldwlde
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16 Cracks in the root: Which answer best matches your assessment of the
accumulative total length and would you accept or reject your findings to the
given acceptance levels?
a
b
c
d
e
f
10-17mm.
0-4mm.
None observed.
5-8mm.
Accept.
Reject.
17 Sharp areas of mechanical damage in the root area weld and parent material
(excluding hard stamping): Which answer best matches your assessment of the
accumulative total number of items and would you accept or reject your findings
to the given acceptance levels?
a
b
c
d
e
f
2-3.
1.
None observed.
4-5.
Accept.
Reject.
18 Porosity in the weld root area: Which answer best matches your assessment of
the accumulative total area and would you accept or reject your findings to the
given acceptance levels?
a
b
c
d
e
f
19 Burn through in the root area: Which answer best matches your assessment of
the accumulative total number of areas and would you accept or reject your
findings to the given acceptance levels?
a 1.
b 2.
c None observed.
d 3.
e Accept.
f Reject.
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..,
20 Cluster porosity: Which answer best matches your assessment and would you
accept or reject your findings to the given acceptance levels (measure from the
weld centreline to the plate edge).
a
b
c
d,
3-5mm 2
26-88mm 2
None observed.
1.2-20mm2
Accept.
Reject.
[.
t .
[.
[
l.
TWI
r7f7n
71
Jf../lj..4i11
A3-7
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ServJcesWorldwlde
WI 3.1
EXAM
VERSION
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Maximum excess weld metal height: (highest individual point measured): Which
answer best matches your assessment and would you accept or reject your
findings to the given acceptance levels?
Incomplete fill: Which answer best matches your i;:issessm'ent of the total
accumulative length and would you accept or reject your findings to the gh/en
acceptance !eve.ls?
a None 0,bserved.
30-60mm.
c 0-25mm.
d 100-120mm.
e Accept.
~ Reject.
3 Slag inclusions: .Which answer best matches your assessment of the total
accumulative length and would you accept or reject your findings to the given
acceptance levels?
60-?0mm.
b 20-30mm.
@ None observed.
Cl 8-12mm.
@ Accept.
f Reject.
a
4 Undercut: Which answer best matches your assessment of the imperfection and
would you accept or reject your findings to the given acceptance levels?
a 25mm in length.
b Sharp but less than 1mm deep.
c None observed.
@ Sharp but more than 1mm deep.
e Accept.
'(D Reject.
TWI
r7/7n71
uu~
A3-8
www.twitraining.com
Training & Examination
Services Worldwide
5 Porosity in the weld: Which answer best matches your assessment of the total
accumulative area and would you accept or reject your findings to the given
acceptance levels?
a 10-15mm2
b Greater than 100mm2
c None observed.
@ 40-65mm 2
A Accept.
li) Reject.
ll
n
n
a 40-90mm.
b 30-60mm.
c None observed.
@) 5-10mm.
e Accept.
(!) Reject.
.:
j ,
\
Cracks: Which answer best matches your assessment of the total accumulative
length and would you accept or reject your findings to the given acceptance
levels?
7 Lack of fusion: Which answer best matches your assessment of the total
accumulative length and would you accept or reject your findings to the given
acceptance levels?
!.
...
n
[!
'
8 Arc strikes: Which answer best matches your assessment of the total number
and would you accept or reject your findings to the given acceptance levels?
I_:
a 3.
b 4.
c None observed .
1.
Accept.
Reject.
!~
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TWI
VL7/'J71
LJ..41!1
lf_
A3-9
www.twitraining.com
Training & Examination
ServicesWorldwide
9 Sharp areas of mechanical damage: (excluding hard stamping and pop marks):
Which answer best matches your assessment of the total number of areas and
would you accept or reject your findings to the given acceptance levels?
a 4.
1.
c
d
None observed .
3.
(e) Accept.
f Reject.
I\
Il
Weld Root
raJ 1-2mm.
b
3-4mm.
c None observed.
d Greater than 5mm.
e Accept.
R~je'Ct ,
CD
11 Root penetration height: (highest individual point measured): Which answer best
matches your assessment and would you accept or reject your findings to the
given acceptance levels?
3-5mm.
b 1-2mm.
c None.
d Greater than 5mm.
e Accept.
Reject.
CD
12 Lack of root penetration: Which answer best matches your assessment of the
accumulative total length and would you accept or reject your findings to the
given acceptance levels?
(@)
65-75mm.
b 45-60mm.
c None observed.
d 110-135mm.
e Accept.
Reject.
(!)
Sl
TWI
A3-10
f7/7Jh
71 Training & Examination
VU..1
Services Worldwide
(,,1' www.twitraining.com
I
Rev 2 April 2013
Appendix 3
Copyright TWI Ltd 2013
13 Lack of root fusion: Which answer best matches your assessment of the
accumulative tOtal length and would you accept or reject your findings to the
given acceptance levels?
35-55mm.
10-30mm.
c None observed .
d 65-90mm.
e Accept.__,
Reject.
(!)
I
r
f
14 Root concavity or root shrinkage: Which answer best matches your assessment
of the accumulative total length and would you accept or reject your findings to
"
the given acceptance levels.
a 45-55mm.
b 73-90mm.
fc-.. None observed.
'a' 60-?0mm.
@Accept.
f Reject.
15 Root undercut: Which answer best matches your assessment of the accumulative
total length and would you accept or reject your finding$ to the given acceptance
levels?
. .
(
30-40mm .
5-Bmm.
(E) None observed .
d 0-2mm.
Accept.
f Reject.
.A
GJ
16 Cracks in the root: Which answer best matches your assessment of the
accumulative total length and would you accept or reject your findings to the
given acceptance levels?
'
&
d
10-17mm.
0-4mm.
None observed.
5-Bmm.
Accept.
Reject.
TWI
fl/7JA71
vu~
A3-11
www.twitraining.com
Training & Examination
Services Worldwide
17 Sharp areas of mechanical damage in the root area weld and parent material
(excluding hard stamping): Which answer best matches your assessment of the
accumulative total number of areas and would you accept or reject your findings
to the given acceptance levels?
a 2-3.
b 1.
(9. None observed .
a 4-5.
@ Accept.
f Reject.
18 Porosity in the weld root area: Which answer best matches your assessment of
the accumulative total area and would you accept or reject your findings to the
given .acceptance levels'.?
,
/
.\
.j
19_Burn through in the root area: Which answer best matehes your assessment of
the accumulative total number of areas and would you accept or -'reject your
findings to the given acceptance levels? .
.. . .
a 1.
b 2.
None observed .
d 3.
Accept.
Reject.
er
20"Porosity: Which answer best matches your assessment and would you accept or
reject your findings to the given acceptance levels (measure from the weld
~entreline to the plate edge)?
a 35-45mm 2 .
b 60-80mm 2 .
@ None observed .
d 12-22mm2 .
@ Accept.
f Reject.
TWI
f7/7/]71 Training & Exam ination
V"U..41 Services Worldwide
/
A3-12
www.twitraining.com
I'
_.
"
I I I
1234567
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1 Maximum excess weld metal height (highest individual point measured): Which
answer best matches your assessment and would you accept or reject your
a
b
c
d
e
f
2 Incomplete fill: Which answer best matches your assessrrient of the total
[l
\1
f
l'
'
accumulative length and would you accept or reject your findings to the given
acceptance levels?
a None observed.
b 65-BOrnm.
c 10-25mm.
d 10_0-120mm.
e Accept.
f Reject.
3 Slag inclusions: Which answer best matches your assessment of the total
accumulative length and would you accept or reject your findings to the given
acceptance levels?
a
b
c
d
e
f
60-70mm.
20-30mm.
None observed.
5-12mm .
Accept.
Reject.
4 Undercut: Which answer best matches your assessment of the imperfection and
would you accept or reject your findings to the given acceptance levels?
(
I'.
a
b
c
d
e
f
50mm in length.
Sharp but less than 1mm deep.
None observed.
Sharp but more than 1mm deep.
Accept.
Reject.
TWI
VL7J7.i71
J.f_ u~
A3-13
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Tra ining & Examinatio n
Se rvicesWorldwide
Porosity in the weld: Which answer best matches your assessment of the total
accumulative area and would you accept or reject your findings to the given
acceptance levels?
a
b
c
d
e
f
.I
Il
0-5mm2
Greater than 100mm2 .
None observed.
70-90mm 2 .
Accept.
Reject.
'
'
Ii
I i
6 Cracks: Which answer best matches your assessment of the total accumulative
length and would you accept or reject your findings to the given acceptance
levels?
l l
7 Lack of fusion: Which answer best matches your assessment of the total
accumulative length and would you accept or reject your findings to the given
acceptance levels?
a
b
c
d
e
f
68-80mm.
45-60mm.
None observed.
30-40mm.
Accept.
Reject.
8 Arc strikes: Which answer best matches your assessment of the total number
and would you accept or reject your findings to the given acceptance levels?
8'
c
d
e
f
3.
4.
None observed .
1.
Accept.
Reject.
TWl
A3-14
f7/7n7
Examination
VU
.at 1 Training
Services Worldwide
&
www.twitraining.com
(.
r;
marks): Which answer best matches your assessment of the total number of
areas and would you accept or reject your findings to the given acceptance
levels?
a
b
c
d
e
f
More than 2.
1.
None observed.
2.
Accept.
Reject.
Weld Root
a 1-2mm.
b 3-4mm.
c None observed.
d Greater than Smm .
e Accept.
f Reject.
'
11 Root penetration height (Highest individual point measured): Which answer best
matches your assessment and would you accept or reject your findings to the
given acceptance levels?
a
b
c
d
e
f
3-Smm.
1-2mm.
None.
Greater than Smm .
Accept.
Reject.
\
l"
L_
I
! "
12 Lack of root penetration: Which answer best matches your assessment of the
accumulative total length and would you accept or reject your findings to the
given acceptance levels?
a 40-60mm.
b 20-35mm.
c None observed .
d 0-10mm .
e Accept.
f Reject.
TWI
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71
vu~
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Training & Examination
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13 Lack of root fusion: Which answer best matches your assessment of the
accumulative total length and 'would you accept or reject your findings to the
given acceptance levels?
a
b
c
d
e
f
28-35mm.
0-15mm.
None observed.
15-23mm.
Accept.
Reject.
14 Root concavity or root shrinkage: Which answer best matches your assessment
of the accumulative total length and would you accept or reject your findings to
the given acceptance levels.
a
b
c
d
e
f
31-39mm.
8-16mm.
None observed .
40-60mm.
Accept.
Reject.
15 Root undercut: Which answer best matches your assessment of the accumulative
total length and would you accept or reject your findings to the given acceptance
levels?
a
b
c
d
e
f
15-30mm.
5-8mm.
None observed.
0-2mm.
Accept.
Reject.
16 Cracks in the root: Which answer best matches your assessment of the
accumulative total length and would you accept or reject your findings to the
given acceptance levels?
a
b
c
d
e
f
10-17mm.
0-4mm.
None observed .
5-Bmm.
Accept.
Reject.
TWI
17nn71
vu~
A3-16
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Training & Examination
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17 Sharp areas of mechanical damage in the root area weld and parent material
r
r
(excluding hard stamping): Which answer best matches your assessment of the
accumulative total and would you accept or reject your findings to the given
acceptance levels?
a
b
c
d
e
f
18 Porosity in the weld root area: Which of the following answers best matches your
fI
assessment of the accumulative total area and would you accept or reject your
19 _Burn through in the root area: Which answer best matches your assessment of
1
\
I_
I. .'
I
the accumulative total number of areas and would you accept or .reject your
findings to the given acceptance levels?
a
b
c
d
1.
2.
None observed.
3.
e Accept.
f Reject.
20 Porosity: Which answer best matches your assessment and would you accept or
reject your findings to the given acceptance levels (measure from the weld
centreline to the plate edge)?
a
b
c
d
e
f
30-50mm 2 .
60-80mm 2 .
None observed.
10-20mm 2
Accept.
Reject.
j
L
TWI
unn
71
vu~
A3-17
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Training & Examination
Services Worldwide
WI 3.1
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Weld Face
1 Maximum excess weld metal height (highest individual point measured): Which
answer best matches your assessment and would you accept or reject your
findings to the given acceptance levels?
a Equal to or less than Omm.
3-4mm.
c 5-6mm.
d 7-Bmm .
/
e Accept.
Reject.
(!)
2 Incomplete fill: Which answer best matches your assessment of the total
accumulative length and would you accept or reject your findings to the given
acceptance levels?
a None observed.
@ 80-100mm.
c 135-150mm.
d 110-130mm.
e Accept.
(D Reject.
3 Slag inclusions: Which answer best matches your assessment of the total
accumulative length and would you accept or reject your findings to the given
acceptance levels?
a 60-?0mm.
b 20-50mm.
c None observed.
(11) 2-6mm.
./
Accept.
f Reject.
. 4
Undercut: Which answer best matches your assessment of the imperfection and
would you accept or reject your findings to the given acceptance levels?
a 20-30mm in length.
b Sharp but less than 1mm deep.
c None observed.
@ Sharp but more than 1mm deep.
e Accept.
(D Reject.
TWI
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A3-18
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Training & Examination
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5 Porosity in the weld: Which answer best matches your assessment of the total
accumulative area and would you accept or reject your findings to the given
acceptance levels?
35-45mm 2
@ Greater than 55-80mm 2 .
c None observed .
2
~
d 20-30mm .
e Accept.
Reject.
a
CD
j'
6 Cracks: Which answer best matches your assessment of the total accumulative
length and would you accept or .reject your findings to the given acceptance
levels?
a 2-3mm transverse crack.
b 15mm longitudinal crack.
() None observed.
d 9-14mm longitudinal crack.
e
Accept.
--\
f,> Reject.
I
I
f
Lack of fusion: Which answer best matches your assessment of the total
accumulative length and would you accept or reject your findings to the given
acceptance levels?
' 1
(a') 110-130mm.
95-105mm.
c None observed.
d 65-85mm.
e Accept.
Reject.
(!)
8
1
I.
Arc strikes: Which answer best matches your assessment of the total number
and would you accept or reject your findings to the given acceptance levels?
a(bl
b
c
d
e
(D
3.
None observed.
1.
Accept.
Reject.
TWI
unn71
vu~
A3-19
Examinatlo~
Training &
ServicesWorJdwJde
www.twitraining.com
9 Sharp areas of mechanical damage (excluding hard stamping and pop marks):
Which answer best matches your assessment of the total number of areas and
would you accept or reject your findings to the given acceptance levels.
a 4.
b 2.
(C) None observed .
'cf 3.
@ Accept.
f Reject.
Weld Root
10 Misalignment: Which answer best matches your assessment of the maximum
value and would you accept or reject your findings to the given acceptance
levels?
a
b
c
d
e
f
1-2mm.
3-4mm.
None observed.
Greater than 5mm .
Accept.
Reject
11 Root penetration height (highest individual point measured): Which answer best
matches your assessment and would you accept or reject y9ur findings to the
given acceptance levels?
a
b
c
d
e
f
3-Smm.
1-2mm.
None.
Greater than 5mm .
Accept.
Reject.
12 Lack of root penetration: Which answer best matches your assessment of the
accumulative total length and would you accept or reject your findings to the
given acceptance levels?
a
b
c
d
e
f
35-40mm.
20-25mm.
None observed .
0-10mm.
Accept.
Reject.
TWI
f7nn71
.
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A3-20
Training & Examinatio n
Services Worldwide
www.twitraining.com
I
Rev 2 April 2013
Appendix 3
Copyright TWI Ltd 2013
13 Lack of root fusion: Which answer best matches your assessment of the
accumulative total length and would you accept or reject your findings to the
given acceptance levels?
11
n
n
n
a
b
c
d
e
f
28-35mm.
0-10mm.
None observed.
15-23mm.
Accept.
Reject.
14 Root concavity or root shrinkage: Which answer best matches your assessment
of the accumulative total and would you. accept or reject your findings to the given
acceptance levels?
a
b
c
d
e
f
8-12mm.
18-22mm.
None observed.
20-40mm.
Accept.
Reject.
15 Root undercut: Which answer best matches your assessment of the accumulative
total I and would you accept or reject your findings to the given acceptance
levels?
..
a 15-25mm.
b 35-45mm.
c None observed.
d 50-60mm.
e Accept.
f Reject.
16 Cracks in the root: Which answer best matches your assessment of the
accumulative total length and would you accept or reject your findings to the
given acceptance levels?
a
b
c
d
e
f
10-17mm.
0-4mm.
None observed .
5-8mm.
Accept.
Reject.
l ,
TWI
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Training & Examination
ServlcesWorldwlde
17 Sharp areas of mechanical damage in the root area weld and parent material
(exduding hard stamping): Which answer best matches your assessment of the
accumulative total number of items and would you accept or reject your findings
to the given acceptance levels?
a 2-3.
b
c
d
e
f
1 item.
None observed.
More than 4 items.
Accept.
Reject.
18 Porosity in the weld root area: Which answer best matches your as:;;essment of
the accumulative total area and would you accept or reject your findings to the
given .acceptance levels,?
a
b
c
d
e
f
None observed.
, lndi":idual pore diameter greater than 3mm.
Accept.
Reject.
fg Burn ,through in the root area: Which answer best matches your assessment of
the accumulatb1e total number of areas and would you accept or reject your
linqirjgs to 'the given acceptance levels?
a
'b
c
d
e
f
1.
2.
None observed.
r~
...;
3.
Accept.
Reject.
20 Cluster porosity: Which answer best matches you'r assessment and would you
accept or reject your findings to the given acceptance levels. (measure from the
:weld centreline to the plate edge)?
a 3-5mm 2 .
b
c
d
e
f
6-8mm 2 .
None observed.
1-2mm2 .
Accept.
Reject.
TWI
f7/7n
71
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A3-22
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Training & Examination
Services Worldwide
l--
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r
CSWIP 3.1 Training Questions for Pipe Butt Weld 5
r
Weld Face
1 Excess weld metal height (highest individual point measured): Which answer best
matches your assessment and would you accept or reject your findings to the
Q.
40-osn:im.
c 30-40mm.
: d .~ 60-?0mm.
Accept.
.f.J Reject.
3 Slag inclusions: Which answer best matches your . assessment of the total
accumulative length and would you accept or reject your' findings to the given
acceptance levels?
a 60-?0mm.
b 20-SOmm.
c None observed.
@ 5-12mm.
@ Accept.
f Reject.
4 Undercut: Which answer best matches your assessment of the imperfection and
would you accept or reject your findings to the given acceptance levels?
a Smooth intermittent.
b Sharp but less than 1mm deep.
c None observed.
@ Sharp but-more than 1mm deep.
e Accept.
(!) Reject.
TWI
fl/7JA71
vu~
/
If 11111
A323
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Training & Examination
Services Worldwide
Porosity in the weld: Which answer best matches your assessment of the total
accumulative area and would you accept or reject your findings to the given
acceptance levels?
a
@
c
cf
@
f
0-20mm 2 .
Greater than 30-50mm 2 .
None observed.
60-70mm 2
Accept.
Reject.
6 Cracks: Which answer best matches your assessment of the total accumulative
.I
length and would you accept or reject your findings to the given acceptance
levels?
a
b
J.
7 Lack of fusion: Which answer best matches your assessment of the total
accumulative length and would you accept or reject your findings to the given
acceptance levels?
a
c
r'd
e
30-40mm.
45-55mm.
None observed .
60-70mm.
Accept.
Reject.
\ I
;. I
. ,I
8 Arc strikes: Which answer best matches your assessment of the total number
and would you accept or reject your findings to the given acceptance levels?
(0
2.
b 4.
c
None observed .
1.
Accept.
CD_Reject.
TWI
l7/7n71
VLJ..4111
A3-24
www.twitraining.com
Training & Examination
Services Worldwide
'
I
Rev 2 April 2013
Appendix 3
Copyright TWI Ltd 2013
l~
a 4.
()
1-2.
c None observed.
d 3.
.e ' Accept.
{f) Reject.
Ii'
n~
Weld Root
n
n
'
r--
1-2mm.
b 3-4mm.
c None observed.
d Greater than 5mm.
Accept.
f Reject.
11 Root penetration- height (highest individual point measured): Which answer best
matches your assessment and would you accept or reject your findings to the
given acceptance levels?
a
b
c
:d
e
f
!.
3-5mm.
1-2mm.
None.
Greater than 5mm.
Accept.
Reject.
12 Lack of root penetration: Which answer best matches your assessment of the
accumulative total length and would you accept or reject your findings to the
given acceptance levels?
30-40mm.
b 21-29mm.
c None observed.
d 41-50mm.
e Accept.
Reject.
"-~/
')
] ()
:, 4,
~ 1-
Q)
TWI
fl/7/]71
VU...tl
A3-25
www.twitraining.com
Training & Examination
Services Worldwide
13 Lack of root fusion: Which answer best matches your assessment of the
accumulative total length and would you accept or reject your findings to the
given acceptance levels?
l
I
.I
@ 28-35mm.
b
c
d
e
U)
0-10mm.
None observed.
15-26mm.
Accept.
Reject.
14 Root concavity or mot shrinkage: Which answer best matches your assessment
of the accumulative total and would you accept or reject your findings to the given
acceptance levels?
a 31-39mm.
b 18-22mm.
@ None observed.
d 40-60mm.
~ Accept.
f Reject.
15 Root undercut: Which answer be.st matches your assessment of the accumulative
total and would you accept or reject your finui11y~ to the given acceptance levels?
@
b
c
d
e
CD
35-45mm.
20-30rnm.
None observed.
50-60mm.
Accept.
Reject.
16 Cracks in the root: Which answer best matches your assessment of the
accumu.lative total length and would you accept or reject yow findings to the
given acceptance levels?
a 10-17mm.
b 0-4mm.
None observed.
5-Bmm.
Accept.
f Reject.
. t
J
l
TWI
7!17/]i71
~ v~
A3-26
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Training & Examination
ServicesWorldwide
17 Sharp indications of mechanical damage in the root area weld and parent
material (excluding hard stamping): Which answer best matches your
assessment of the accumulative total number of items and would you accept or
reject your findings to the given acceptance levels?
a 2-3.
b 1.
c None observed.
@4-5.
e Accept.
Reject.
{f)
18 Porosity in the weld root area: Which of the following answers best matches your
assessment of the accumulative total area and would you accept or reject your
findings to the given acceptance levels?
@.)
-V:-
19 Burn through in the root area: Which answer best matches your assessment of
the accumulative total number of areas and would you accept or reject your
findings to the given acceptance levels?
a 1.
b 2.
None observed .
@
d
3.
Reject.
Accept. .
20 Cluster porosity: Which answer best matches your assessment and would you
accept or reject your findings to the given acceptance levels (measure from the
weld centreline to the plate edge)?
I
a 30-50mm 2 .
b 60-80mm 2 .
(2) None observed .
12-22mm 2 .
(:)Accept.
f Reject.
er
TWI
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vu~
A3-27
www.twitraining.com
Trai ning & Examination
Services Worldwide
WI 3.1
EXAM
VERSION
GENERAL THEORY
A
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
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Acceptance
levels
macro only
a.
c
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0
Excess weld
metal
Slag/silica
inclusions
Remarks
At no point shall the excess weld
metal fall below the outside
surface of the parent material. All
weld runs shall blend smoothly.
Slag inclusions are defined as
non-metallic Inclusions tra ppe,d I
the weld metal or between th!1
weld metal and the parent
material.
Undercut
Porosity or
G;;is Cavities
Cracks or
Laminations
Lack of fusion
Laps
Cold lap
Arc strikes
Maximum allowance
.:~
Remarks
No sharp indications
Smooth blend required
Not permitted
Not permitted
Not permitted
Not permitted
Not permitted
Not permitted
Max H = 1.5mm
Max H S 3mm
Lack of root
penetration
Not permitted
Not permitted
12
Lack of root
fusion
Not permitted
13
Burn through
Not permitted
Not permitted
Angular
distortion
Root
conc avity
Accept
Accept
Mechanical
damage
Misalignment
10
Penetration
11
14
TWI
A3-28
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71 Trai ning & Examination
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) \
( !
'1
Rev 2 April 2013
Appendix 3
Copyright TWI Ltd 2013
_ /,_S_._\t---'1__
1..
11
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V"U..41
Toe blend=
A3-38
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Visual Inspection Pipe Report
I
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Code/Specification used
Welding position
,,
ll
Misalignment =
Weld width =
Toe blend=
[l
[I
11
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Toe blend=
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l
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A3-39
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Toe blend=
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Notes: Excess penetration height =
T WI
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vu~
Toe blend=
A3-40
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..
I
I
Appendix 4
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Appendix 5
11
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Appendix 5
Macro and Micro Visual Inspection
Macro-examination
Macro-etching a specimen is etched and evaluated macrostructurally at low
magnifications, is frequently used for evaluating carbon and low alloy steel
products such as billets, bars, blooms and forgings as well as welds. There
are. several procedures for rating a steel specimen by a graded series of
photographs showing the incidence of certain conditions and is applicable to
carbon and low alloy steels. A number of different etching reagents may be
used depending .upon the type of examination. Steels react differently to
etching reagents because of variations in chemical composition, method of
manufacture, heat treatment and many other variables.
, 1
Micro-examination
Performed on samples either cut to size or mounted in a resin mould. The
samples are polished to a fine finish, normally one micron diamond paste
and usually etched in an appropriate chemical solution prior to examination
on a metallurgical microsco e. Micro-examination is erformed for a number
of purposes, assess the structure of the material and examine for
metallurgical an anoma 1es sue as ir phase precipitates, excessive
grain growth, etc. Many routine tests such as phase counting or grain size
determinations are performed in conjunction with micro-examinations.
Metallographic weld evaluations can take many forms. In its most simplest,
a weld deposit can be visually examined for large scale defects such as
porosity or lack of fusion defects. On a microscale, it can be phase balance
assessments from weld cap to weld root or a check for non-metallic or third
phase precipitates. Examination of weld growth patterns is also used to
determine reasons for poor mechanical test results. For example, an
extensive central columnar grain pattern can cause a plane of weakness
giving poor Charpy results.
l
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Photomacrographs
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Training.
Macroscopic
11
'
'~I
'i
'
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r1
AS-3
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I
Training Macro 1
r1
fI
I
[l
I,
I
,I
II
T WI
AS-4
ServJcesWorldwlde
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1 What is the indication at position 1 and would you accept or reject the indication
to the given acceptance levels?
a Slag inclusions.
Porosity.
c Excessive grain size.
d Tungsten inclusions.
e Accept.
(D Reject.
id.entifie~
at position 3 is the?
a Fusion boundary.
b Acid marks.
c Polished area.
Heat affected zone.
@)
4 What is the indication at position 4 and would you accept or reject the indication
to the given acceptance levels?
a Lack of inter-run fusion.
b Fusion boundary.
@ Lack of sidewall fusion.
d Linear crack.
A Accept.
l!) Reject.
5 What is the indication at position 5 and would you accept or reject the indication
to the given acceptance levels?
a Gas cavity.
b Lack of sidewall fusion.
c Slag trapped at the toes of the weld .
@ Lack of inter-run fusion and slag.
e Accept.
(!) Reject.
TWI
AS-5
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6 What is the indication at position 6 and would you accept or reject the indication
to the given acceptance levels?
a Slag inclusion.
b
t)
0
fl
7 What is the indication at position 7 and would you accept or reject the indication
to the given acceptance levels?
[l
8 What is the indication at position 8 and would you accept or reject the indication
to the given acceptance levels?
a Lamellar tearing.
b Hydrogen cracks.
@ Laminations.
d Stress cracks.
e Accept.
f Reject.
I
L;
9 What is the indication at position 9 and would you accept or reject the indication
to the given acceptance levels?
I'
a Overlap.
b Toe of the weld with good transition.
Toe of the weld with poor transition.
d Undercut at the toe of the weld.
e Accept.
Reject.
l'
C!J
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Training Macro 2
l:
II '
t
TWI
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A5-7
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1 What is the indication at position 1 and would you accept or reject the indication
to the given acceptance levels?
r.
I
a
b
c
d
e
f
2 What is the indication at position 2 and would you accept or reject the indication
to the given acceptance levels?
a
b
c
d
e
f
Undercut.
Poor toe blend.
Underfill.
. Lack of sidewall fusion.
Accept.
Reject.
3 What is the indication at position 3 and would you accept or reje~t the :indi~tion
to the given acceptance levels?
.. ..
a
b
c
d
e
f
Lamellar tearing.
Corrosion crack.
Hydrogen crack.
Lamination.
Accept.
Reject.
4 What is the indication at position 4 and would you accept or reject the indication
to the given acceptance levels?
a
b
c
d
e
f
TWI
AS-8
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What is the indication at position 5 and would you accept or reject the indication
to the given acceptance levels?
a
b
c
d
e
f
Toe crack.
Hydrogen crack.
Overlap.
Lamellar tear.
Accept.
Reject.
What is the indication at position 6 and would you accept or reject the indication
to the given acceptance levels?
a
b
c
d
e
f
. I
Spatter.
Lap.
Overlap.
Hydrogen crack.
Accept.
Reject.
7 What is the indication at position 7 and would you accept or reject the indication
to the given acceptance levels?
a
b
c
d
e
f
8
Gas cavity.
Silicon inclusion.
Slag inclusion.
Copper inclusion.
Accept.
Reject.
r~
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10 What is the indication at position 10 and would you accept or reject the indication
to the given acceptance levels?
a Slag line.
b Overlap.
c Lamination.
d Lamellar tear.
e Accept
f Reject
11
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unn71
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AS-10
Training & Examination
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Training Macro 3
Welding process used MIG/MAG (GMAW)
,I
-~
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r
These questions to be used with training macro 3
1 What is the indication at position 1 and would you accept or reject the indication
to the given acceptance levels?
f.
a Linear crack.
b Overspill.
@) Overlap.
d Lamination.
e Accept.
f Reject .
2 What is the indication at position 2 and would you accept or reject the indication
to the given acceptance levels?
a Saw marks.
b Lamellar tear.
c Segregation bands.
@ Laminations.
e Accept.
f Reject.
3 What is the indication at position 3 and would you accept or reject the indication
to the given acceptance levels?
Mechanical damage.
Lap.
c Arc strike.
d Lamellar tear.
e Accept.
f Reject.
4 What is the indication at position 4 and would you accept or reject the indication
to the given acceptance levels?
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5 What is the indication at position 5 and would you accept or reject the indication
to the given acceptance levels?
a Slag.
@ Silicon.
c
d
e
f
Spatter.
Copper.
Accept.
Reject.
6 What is the indication at position 6 and would you accept or reject the indication
to th~ given accepta.nce levels?
Overlap.
b Crack.
c Incomplete root penetration.
d Incomplete root fusion.
e Accept.
f Reject.
.,
7 What is the indication at position 7 and would you accept or reject the indication
~o the given acceptance levels?
a Transverse crack.
b Transverse hydrogen crack.
~ Lack of inter-run fusion.
'cf Shrinkage crack.
e Accept.
f Reject.
. I
8 What is the indication at position 8 and would you accept or reject the indication
to the given acceptance levels?
9 What is the indication at position 9 and would you accept or reject the indication
to the given acceptance levels?
a Slag inclusion.
b Silicon inclusion.
@ Gas cavity.
d Shrinkage defect.
e Accept.
f Reject.
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I;
r)
10 What is the indication at position 10 and would you accept or reject the indication
to the given acceptance levels?
,
a
b
c
d
Porosity.
Slag inclusion in weld metal.
Silicon inclusions in weld metal.
Tungsten inclusions in weld metal.
Accept.
Reject.
!I
,;
.\:
(,
AS-14
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Training Macro 4
Welding process used MMA (SMAW)
- 1
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I
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a
b
c
d
2 What is the indication at. position 2 and would you accept or reject the indication
to the given acceptance levels?
a
b
c
d
e
f
Overlap.
Toe of the weld with good transition.
Toe of the weld with poor transition.
Undercut at the toe of the weld.
Accept.
Reject.
3 VVhat is the indicqtion at position 3 and would you accept or reject the indication
to the given acceptance levels?
a
b
c
d
e
f
Undercut.
Poor toe blend.
Underfill.
Lack of sidewall fusion.
Accept.
Reject.
4 What is the indication at position 4 and would you accept or reject the indication
to the given acceptance levels?
a
b
c
d
e
f
5 What is the indication at position 5 and would you accept or reject the indication
to the given acceptance levels?
a
b
c
d
e
f
Silicon inclusion.
Slag inclusion, lack of sidewall fusion and lack of inter-run fusion .
Gas cavity.
Gas cavity and lack of sidewall penetration.
Accept.
Reject.
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Shrinkage.
Linear distortion.
Short transverse/distortion.
Angular distortiq'n.
Accept.
Reject.
7 What is 'the indication at positlCm 7 and would you accept or reject the indication
to the given acceptance levels?
a
b
c
d
e
f
8
Silicon inclusion.
Slag inclusion.
Slag inclusion, lack of inter-run fusion arid lack of sidew.all fusion.
Whaf is the indication at position 8 and would yo'u accept or reject the indication
Crack.
Lack of inter-run fusion .
Lack of sidewall fusion .
Fusion boundary line.
Accept.
Reject.
a
b
c
d
as the?
10 What is the indication at position 10 and would you accept or reje'ct the indication
to the given acceptance levels?
a
b
c
d
e
f
Lamellar tearing.
Hydrogen cracks.
Laminations.
Stress cracks.
Accept.
Reject.
TWI
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Training Macro 5
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1 What is the indication at position 1 and would you accept or reject the indication
to the given acceptance levels?
a
b
c
d
e
f
Mechanical damage.
Lap.
Arc strike.
Lamellar tear.
Accept.
Reject.
2 What is the indication at position 2 and would you accept or reject the indication
to the given acceptance levels?
a
b
c
d
e
f
Lamellar tearing.
Hydrogen cracks.
Laminations.
Stress cracks.
Accept.
Reject
3 What is the indication at position 3 and would you accept or reject the indication
to the given acceptance level.s?
a
b
c
d
e
f
Undercut.
Poor toe blend.
Underfill.
Lack of sidewall fusion.
Accept.
Reject.
J.
4 What is the indication at position 4 and would you accept or reject the indication
to the given acceptance levels?
a
b
c
d
e
f
Undercut.
Poor toe blend.
Umdertill.
Lack of sidewall fusion.
Accept.
Reject.
T WI
A5-19
17/7/']71
Training Examination
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What is the indication at position 5 and would you accept or reject the indication
to the given acceptance levels?
a
b
c
d
e
f
,~
What is the indication at position 6 and would you accept or reject the indication
to the given acceptance levels?
a
b
c
d
e
f
l.
a
b
c
d
e
f
Shrinkage.
Linear misalignment.
Short transverse distortion.
Transition weld set-up.
Accept.
Reject.
a
b
c
d
Fusion boundary.
Acid marks.
Polished area.
Heat affected zone.
\,
a
b
c
d
a
b
c
d
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1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
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Vision Access:
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Flexible tape, steei rule.
Temperature Indicating crayons.
Walding gauges.
Voltmeter.
Ammeter.
Magnifying glass
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Multi-meter capable o
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Welding Process(es)
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Welding Parameters
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Che'ck all docum entallon.
Check all consumables,
Check materials, dimensions and condition .
Preheating, method and temperature.
Check fit and set-up.
Ensure no undue stress is applied to the joint.
Chock welding equipment.
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Excessive welding current.
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Ex'l:essllfa weave.
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Assessing resistance toward brlllle fracture.
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Location and orientation of notch.
Testing temperature.
Tensile Testing
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All-weld metal tensile test.
Cruciform tensile test.
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Specimen Preparation
Macro/Micro Examination
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Full thickness slice taken from the weld (typically -10mm thick).
Width of slice sufficient to show all the weld and HAZ on both
sides plus some unaffected base material.
Ono faco g und to a progressively fine finish (grit sizes 120 to llQO).
lilro ~co fa<;.o'heavlly etched to show all weld runs & all HAZ.
pfopo(ect.faco examined at up to x10 (&usually photographed for
- records).
P r~p ared foco may also be used for a hardness survey.
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Macro/Micro Examination
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Macro
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Wold soundness.
Distribution of lnclusiOris.
Number of weld passes.
Metallurgical structuro of weld, fusion zone and HAZ.
' Location and dopth of ponotratlon of wold.
Fiiiet weld leg and throat dimensions.
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Material type.
Etch ing solullon.
t , ~enitic;!Jllop.
o;;,roln size.
'n) ':1!/PP~fexamlned area.
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4-9
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Bend Testing
tupto12mm
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be unnccoplnblo.
Acceptance for
minor ruptures on
tension surface
depends upon code
requirements.
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4.-10
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4-11
Location of fracture.
Appearance of joint after fracture.
Depth of penetration.
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Lack'of root
penetration or fusion
Inclusions on fracture
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4-12
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Width of specimen.
Location of fracture.
Appearance of joint after fracture.
Depth of penetration.
pefects p resent on fracture surfaces.
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Macro tests
Band tests
OucUllty/Elongntlon (E'lo)
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Hydrostatic Test
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Non-Destructive Testing
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Radl~graphy (RT).
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Penetrant Testing
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reverse capillary action to take place.
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Penetrant Testing
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Inexpensive.
Quick results.
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Portability.
' .: 1 Lo~ opora~or. -!l klll
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A crack like
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Eleclromagnet (yoke) DC or AC
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Surface o &lfgl)t i;
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Rapid results.
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Much quicker than PT.
Instant results.
Can .d etect near-surface imperfections (by currerjt "o\Y
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Less surface preparation needed.
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Ultrasonic Testing
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Safe.
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CRT Display
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Ultrasonic Testing
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Advnnfllgos
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Good for thick sections.
Instant ro.sults.
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No permanent record (with standard oqulpmonl .
Not suitable for very thlnJoinls <8mm.
Reliant on operator Interpretation.
Not good for sizing Porosity.
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Radiographic Testing
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Identification.
Unique Identification.
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Radiograph
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Identification.
Unique identification.
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Cobalt60
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Slow results.
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Ol~pot lrilage of impenections.
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Welding Procedures
Answer:
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design requirements (flt for purpose).
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Welding process.
Post Weld Heat Treatment (PWHT).
Material type.
Electrode type, filler wire type (classification).
Material thickness.
Polari'ty (AC, OC+ve/DC-ve).
Pre-he~~ temperature.
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6-2
~elding
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Procedures
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Example codes :
AWS 0.1.1 : Structural Steel Welding Code.
BS 2633: Class 1 welding of Steel Pipe Work.
API 1104: Welding of Pipelines.
BS 4515: Welding of Pipelines over 7 Bar.
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'a ~oi:IUt'Jj lluJmny contain information thal may be used In
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Welding Procedures
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PC
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Horizontal
PD
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Horizontal-Vertical (bverhead)
PE
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Overhead
Horizontal-Vertical
PF
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Vertical-Up
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Covors Aro and Gas Woldlng
Nlckel 'nnd Nickel Alloys.
111-MMA
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RANGE OF APPROVAL
OTHER QUIRKS
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Welder Qualification
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Welder Qualification
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Welder Approval
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Certification
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Pinto, pipe.
Examples
Pryssuro vos sels.
Brldgns.
Plpnllno.s.
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9-2
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Resistance Welding.
MIG/MAG (GMAW).
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TIG (GTAW).
Sub-arc (SAW).
Electro-slag (ESW).
Laser Beam (LBW).
Electron-Beam (EBW).
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Reactive metals
(Aluminium Ttlanlum).
Nickel-based alloys
Copper-based alloys
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2. The welding process must be capable of removing any
oxide and contamination from the Joint.
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Friction Welding
Very demanding properties.- ;> TIG usually best.
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Welding Position
, T IG, f;ll&)MAG.
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All positions.
Mainly flat but Is used for girth
seams on large diameter
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11-14-1
Approx 35A er
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Typical Defects:
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Hydrogen control (flux).
Stop/start problems.
Low productivity.
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Cellulosic Electrodes
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TIG Welding
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MIG/MAG Welding
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welding-basics.
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More complex and expensive power source.
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Alltloug l tho arc length remains the same, the current wlll decrease
duo to tho lncrensod resistance of lengthening the CTWD.
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11-14-16
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Contact Tip to Nozzle Distance
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High productivity
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All positional (dip and
pulse)
Material thickness range
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Complex equipment
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Clo., wO'urfd<sl;lli\lj!ll
SIOOI Sprfng'wlro llnor
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11-14-19
SAW FILMS
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11-14-20
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11-14-21
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Current type and polarity.
Welding voltage.
Travel speed.
Extension bars
Electrode size. -- - - - - . .
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identical joint
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11-14-22
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Different types of fuel gases may be used for Iha pre-heating flame In
oxy fuel gas cutting: la "celylene, hydrogen, propane etc.
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Slo~ proc.e~s.
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Plasma cutting
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15-3
Welding Consumables
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High In hydrogen.
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Low strength.
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High toughness values.
Low hydrogen contents.
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horl~o 11 l I fillet
Flat butUnllot
Flat bull/fillet,
horlzontal fillet,
vertical down
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MMA Welding Consumables
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EXX12
EXX13
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EXX15
EXX16
EXX18
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16-5
&!!!.!.!!.: flux-ends in 2 - 3 - 4
Examples: E5011, E6011,
E601~.
E601!
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Electrode Efficiency
.
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Heated quivers:
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2: Covering
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Filler wires of dlffororit materials composition and varlablo
dlnmoters ovallablo In s tandard longlhs, wllh appllcablo code
~lnm pod for ldenllllcatlon.
TIG Consumables
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Fusible Inserts
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After Welding
Other terms used Include:
EB Inserts (Electric Boat Company).
Consumable socket rings (CSR).
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16-7
Radius
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co
For tJ!c sai:ne ore current pro.duce more heat than argon ' ll'lf.~ea~9!i pli}\,elralion, welding of metals with high melting
I! I 9; "(iJol;jJ!al conductivity.
,~....."o"""'lfe ~aml}J,!rc curronl produce less heat than helium ,e, Cf~ !Jiefrallon, wider HAZ.
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16-8
MIG/MAG Consumables
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16-9
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Group R-Ar
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Group M Ar+
Group C -co,.
(<50/15%)
(<30%)
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co,10,
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16-10
Welding Consumables
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sheath:
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SetV'eii as 'our.fen!
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Good roslstanco to
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mo is ture plckllp.
molllurn plckUJ>.
Can ho copper
caotad..
CanJ1at
Thick ohoalh..
Dlmcult lo seal Tho
shonlh.
Thin sheal h.
bo copper
coatod.
E"'yla
manuf,pclUre.
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.
Elccttodc usablllty (polarlly, shielding
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Woldlng position (0 F/H only; 1- all - - - positions)
Designates an electrode
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SAW Consumables
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SAW Consumables
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us~d,
agglomerated or mixed.
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16-13
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Musi be kept wami and dry,
Handllng and s tacking requires care.
Fused fluxes are normally not hygroscopic but pa rtlclns can
hold surface moisture.
Only drying.
Agglomoratod fluxes contain chemically bonded water.
1 SlmJlar Ire Q'hont as basic oloctrodos.
~ p,;lgl);!ju;illfy, agglomerated fluxes can be recycled with
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IW! ,..... _
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FlaRy l1 PPil11ra)ice.
Lower weld quality.
Low moisture Intake.
Low dust tendency.
Good re-cycllng.
Very smooth weld profile.
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Gi:11111.1l11te(I ppeamncQ.
High weld quality.
Addition of alloys.
Lower consumption.
Easy slag removal.
Smooth weld profile
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16-14
SAW Consumables
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; ..
Components are
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;.:... :,
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SAW Consumables
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Welding Consumable
Inspection and Validation
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16-15
..
Inspection of Consumables
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How?
Non-specific Inspection
Specific Inspection
Carried out before delivery In
accordance to product
specification.
Name: Declaration of
compllance with the order.
10
1natl'1ffuc~ror lO-spoctlon
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16-16
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Carbon (C):
'
Sulphur (S):
mojhr
Influence on HAZ hardness. Decreases weldablllty. typically < - 0.25%
Manganese (Mn):
Aluminium (Al):
Dooxldont and grain size control. typically - 0.02 to - 0.05%.
Secondary only to
c~ rbon
dtt-o:ic ldlsor ilnd :i l:e o rencl.!i w ith su lphu r to forrn mnnganoso sulph ftlos.
'-1.
typiGnlly<
-0.8Wla .IC.ldual from steel de-oxidation.
.
.t.c111;~inium
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Rasldual olcmont from steel 110-oxldll n. typlcally to - 0.3So/.
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17-1
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Mo
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Plain carbon steels.
Alloy Steels.
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17-2
Classification of Steels
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Examples -13% Cr (ferritic) 13%Cr +4%Ni.
Ferritic grades have ferrite as main phase and so can be
magnetised.
Martonsltrc grades l'lave 1nartens itlc as main phase
I 1pihar .i;:haracterlst lcs to C and Mn steels but w ith
, fmp ovoi;t s:orrosion resis tance.
l\lo ti liable for very low temperatures but some rorrltlc
6radli~ use,d forgood roslsta 11ce to scalfng at high
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17-3
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Classification of Steels
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Occurs in:
Carbon steels
Carbon-manganese
Low, medium and high alloy steels :
- Mainly in ferritic or martensitic steels .
..Ji..:J / Very ra~ly,Jfl duplex stainless steels,
eve In 1;1fcl<0I or copper alloys .
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17-4
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Location:
HAZ (longitudinal) weld metal (transverse).
Steel types:
All hardenable steels.
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II
Temperature:
i.iL E!.el~w 30 ~
Su fl~" tlbh1M1crostructure:
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Greater
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Hydrogen,enters tho weld vra the l)rc.
Source of hydrogen mainly from moist re plck"up on
tho electrodes coating, welding fluxes or from he
consumable gas.
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17-5
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10ml - 15 ml
5 ml -1 0ml
3 ml - Sml
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MIG
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17-7
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17-8
Combined Thickness
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Crack type:
Solldlficatlon cracking.
Location:
Weld centreline (longitudinal).
Steel types:
High sulpl)ur and phosphor concentration in steels.
Susc~ll ble Microstructure:
eo Ii illaJI grains In direction of solldlflcatlon.
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Solidification Cracking
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On solldlflcatlon the
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crack may result
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17-11
Solidification Cracking
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Lamellar Tearing
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Ca~ry out <;ruCifo"rhl welded tens lie test.
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The use of buttering runs.
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Weld Decay
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Occurs when:
An area In the HAZ has been sensitised by the formation
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17-14
Inter-Granular Corrosion
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Weld Decay
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Analysis of the defect types may be carried out by the Q/C
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(material/process or skill related).
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Authorization and procedure for repair.
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If the defect Is lack of sidewall fusion this can be apportioned to
t110 fai;k ots klll of the welder.
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Documentation
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Parent material properties.
Amount of restrain.
Joint design.
Fit-up.
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Amount of restrain:
Thickness - as thickness increases, so do the stresses.
High.level of restrain lead to high stress11s.
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Tronsvorso shrfnkago
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Heat Treatment
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Cliange mlcrostructure.
Reduce residual stress level.
Change chemical composition,
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Flame oven.
Electric ovon/oleclrlc heatlngblankets.
1 Jnduclf wftf hoallng elements.
Disadvantages:
Elements may burn out or
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DIGadvontogoo:
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parts.
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Equipment Is as specified.
Temperature control equipment Is in good
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Disadvantages:
High equipment cost.
Large equipment, less
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Rate of heating and cooling.
Maximum temperature.
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Soak Temperature depends on steel type usually specified by code (-550
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1~ ~ltE".1:
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processes.
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