Series Hybrid Car Doc - 3

Series Hybridd car
F
Funded
by
Kingg Abdullah II Fuund for Developpment (KAFD)
Superviseed and managged by

King Abdullah II Design & Developmennt Bureau (KADDDB)
Princippal supervisor
Dr. Raanda Herzallah
Mechatroonics Departtment
Studeents Namees
Alaa Al-Sotari-M
A
echatronicss Departmennt
Haneeen Khalil-Meechatronicss Departmennt
Khalil Al- Qruini-Autotronicss Departmennt
Osam
ma Al-Dissi-AAutotronics Department
Laitth azmi-Mecchatronics Department
D
Aymaan Sobhi-Meechatronics Departmennt
Al-BALLQA APPLIED UNIVEERSITY (BAAU)

2010
Acknowledgment
We used to believe before this project that the engineering is a way which keeps your mind
free from wrong, quoted from Ibn Khldoun. But now, Sorry Ibn Khaldoun. We started to
believe that the experience is the real way that set your mind free from any doubt wrong.
We learned also; if you know what you want, then...
Think Big... But keep in mind, not beyond your limits...
Start small... But not alone, great teams has no I
We really want to thank the KADDB & the KAFD for their financial support. This allowed us to
find the real engineers in ourselves.
And we deeply thank each member of our team personally, for being a friend and a brother in
this one and half year of hard working.
Abstract
The hybrid vehicle is a vehicle which in its power train, two or more energy sources are
combined and work in accordance to perform the best operation.
In this project the vehicle is an electrical hybrid vehicle, which mean, the power sources are
electrical source provided by the battery, and the fuel provided by the internal
consumption engine.
The Hybrid vehicle is complicated system consists of many sub-systems systems are, the
mechanical, the electrical, the electronics and the control.
The electrical hybrid in this project is a series electrical HV, was implemented and met the
requirements and objectives of the project.
II
Table number
Table 1.1
List of Tables
Title
Early hybrids in Europe and United States
Table 1.2
Hybrid solutions to urban and global problems
Table 2.1
the result of Z-coordinate experiment
21
Table 2.2
a comparison of chain, belt and gear attributes
36
Table 2.3
tooth factor
37
Table 2.4
adhesion coefficient values
42
Table 2.5
The result of automobile exhausts gas analyzer
50
Table 3.1.
The rated parameters of the traction motor
58
Table 3.2
The results of obtaining the electrical characteristics

experiment
64
Table3.3
The results of obtaining the Mechanical characteristics

experiment
65
Table 3.4
speed regulation by varying Va
66
Table 3.6
The selected battery parameter
73
Table 5.1
The ADC PINs that determine the modes of operation
103
Table5.2
The PICs pins connection diagram between the

Master-PIC and the others PICs
107
Table5.3
The PICs pins connection diagram between the

Calculator and the ADC.
107
page
3
4
III
List of Figures
Figure Number
T i t l e
page
Fig 1.1
The power train of the series hybrid vehicle
Fig 1.2
The power train of the parallel hybrid vehicle
Fig 1.3
The power train of the series/parallel hybrid vehicle
Fig 2.1
force analysis of the vehicle
10
Fig 2.2
components distribution on chassis
14
Fig 2.3
The center of gravity distance to front and rear axle
16
Fig 2.4
the Z coordinate of centre of gravity
18
Fig 2.5
The practical method for measuring centre of

gravity height
19
Fig 2.6
the optimum shear force distribution along the

longitudinal
23
Fig 2.7
The optimum bending moment distributions along

the longitudinal direction of chassis
24
Fig 2.8
cross section area of large tubes
24
Fig 2.9
cross section area of small tube
25
Fig 2.10
cross section area of rectangular tube
26
Fig 2.11
The condition of the roll-over
26
Fig2.12
lateral force at each wheel
28
Fig 2.13
Longitudinal loading case
29
Fig 2.14
rears stand of the chassis
30
Fig 2.15
cross section area of the pin, that effected by force
30
Fig 2.16
equation of motion during climbing a hill
31
Fig 2.17
the degree of the incline
32
Fig 2.18
the chain
35
Fig 2.19
chain power speed rating chart
39
Fig 2.20
Disk brake
40
IV
Fig 2.21
The relation between braking time and deceleration

and velocity
42
Fig 2.22
Braking force acts at center of gravity
43
Fig 2.23
The engine characteristics of power and torque
46
Fig 2.24
The specific fuel consumption SFC
46
Fig2.25
preparing the connection between load and

engine generator
49
Fig 2.26
The connection between prop of gas analyzer and

exhaust pipe
49
Fig 2.27
The gas analyzer shows the results
50
Fig3.1
electrical circuit of the separately excited DC motor
54
Fig 3.2
electromechanical or mechanical characteristics
56
Fig3.3
Speed regulation by supply voltage variation
59
Fig 3.4
Speed regulation magnetic flux reduction
60
Fig 3.5
The connection of the mechanical and electrical

characteristic experiment circuit
61
Capture from obtaining the electrical and

mechanical characteristics experiment shows the
connection between the motor and the load
62
Fig 3.7
Captured from obtaining the electrical and

mechanical characteristics experiment shows the
connection of the measurement tools
62
Fig 3.8
Capture from obtaining the electrical and

mechanical characteristics experiment shows power
supply connection the fixed power supply
connected to a variable resistance serially to the
field. And the variable source to the load.
63
Fig3.9
Designing the mechanical coupling between the

load and the traction motor for experiments
purposes
63
Fig3.10
The traction motor electrical characteristics
64
Fig 3.11
The mechanical characteristics of the traction motor
65
Fig 3.6
Fig 3.12
The changes in motor speed by varying the

supplied voltage.
67
Fig 3.13
The results of obtaining the regulating

characteristics experiment
67
Fig 3. 14
Engine generator set
68
Fig 3.15
discharging
73
Fig 3.16
charging
73
Fig 3.17
the permissible charging power
75
Fig3.18.
the difference in battery voltage according to

change in SOC
76
Fig 3.19
the permissible power during discharge
77
Fig4.1
The power electronics diagram
80
Fig 4.2
The schematic of the diagram motor drive and the

output parameter of the motor.
81
Fig 4.3
The simulation circuit of the buck drives circuit
82
Fig 4.4 A
The rotational speed of the motor versus time
83
Fig 4.4 B
The Armature current of the motor versus time
83
Fig4.5
The field current of the motor versus time, where

it's important to observe the stability of the transient
state operation period.
84
Fig 4.6
The schematic of the MATLAB SIMULINK of the

engine generator, walk-in, power factor corrector,
Boost
86
Fig4.7.
The transient and steady state operation of the

engine generator circuit
87
Fig 4.7.
closer view of the steady state operation of the

engine generator circuit
88
Fig 4.8
The simulation of the battery circuit.
91
Fig4.9
The simulation output of the battery
91
Fig 5.1
The power train of starting off mode
95
Fig5.2
The power train of the low power mode
95
VI
Fig 5.3
The power train of the moderate power mode
96
Fig 5.4
The power train of the maximum needed power

mode
96
Fig 5.5
The power train of the regenerative braking mode
97
Fig 5.6
The power train of the pure electric vehicle
97
Fig 5.7.
The power delivered by each power source in the

main modes
98
Fig5.8
The control algorithm of the control system
99
Fig5.9
The connection of potentiometer to the gas pedal.
102
Fig 5.10
The red cycled button shows the reverse button
102
Fig5.11.
The red cycle shows the regenerative braking limit

switch
103
Fig5.12.
The LCD to display the status of the car
105
Fig5.13
The Simulation diagram of the control system
105
Fig5.14.
The main control unit
106
Fig 6.1
electrical regenerative braking
110
Fig 6.2
Flywheel energy storage
112
Fig 6.3 a
Braking Force because of both generator torque and

friction by brake pads against the rotor disk
114
Fig 6.3 b
fail safe mode
114
Fig 6.4
Regenerative braking efficiency
117
Fig6.5.
the electrical characteristics of the separately

excited DC motor, in motor and RGB modes. At
310 V armature voltage
118
VII
Table of Contents
CHAPTER ONE Introduction of hybrid car....................................................................... 1
1.1 Introduction for hybrid cars....................................................................................... 2
1.2
What is hybrid Vehicle? ....................................................................................... 2
1.3
Historical background .......................................................................................... 3
1.3.1
Renewed interests in hybrid .......................................................................... 3
1.4 Hybrid Vehicle Configurations.................................................................................. 4

1.4.1
Series hybrid vehicle ..................................................................................... 4
1.4.2
Parallel Hybrid Vehicle: ............................................................................... 5
1.4.3
Series/Parallel Drive-trains ........................................................................... 5
1.5
The Project Objectives: ........................................................................................ 6
1.6
Why series hybrid? ........................................................................................... 6
1.7
Research methodology: ........................................................................................ 7
1.8
Conclusion............................................................................................................ 7
Chapter two Mechanical design ........................................................................................ 10

2.1 Equation of motion of the vehicle ............................................................................11
2.2 Centre of gravity calculation ....................................................................................14
2.3 Chassis handling ability and aspects of vibration stability ......................................22
2.3.1 Handling ability for loading force .....................................................................22
2.3.2 Rear stand Handling ability ..............................................................................28
2.3.3 Aspects of vibration stability: ............................................................................29
2.4 Equation of motion of the motor vehicle with grade ...............................................30
2.5 Method to transmit power. .......................................................................................32
2.5.1 Gears ..................................................................................................................32
2.5.2 Chains ................................................................................................................33
2.6 Braking System: .......................................................................................................37
2.7
Internal combustion engine (ICE) .........................................................................41
2.7.1 Engine characteristics ........................................................................................42

2.7.2 ICE gas analysis.................................................................................................43
2.2.4 Gas Analysis Experiment.....44
VIII
CHAPTER THREE Electrical design ............................................................................52

3.1 The electrical motor .................................................................................................... 53
3.1.1 Reasons for selection of DC separately excited motor ......................................53
3.1.2 Separately excited DC motor .............................................................................53
3.1.3 Build up the natural characteristic .....................................................................56
3.1.4 The natural characteristics for the selected motor .............................................57
3.1.5 Speed control of the DC motor ..........................................................................57
3.1.6 Motor Experiments ............................................................................................59
3.2
The Generator ......................................................................................................66
3.3
The Batteries: ......................................................................................................67
3.3.1
Energy storage devices ................................................................................67
3.3.2 Chemical reactions of lead acid batteries ..........................................................70

3.3.3 Battery capacity: ................................................................................................71
3.3.4 Battery selection: ...............................................................................................71
3.3.5 Charging Rate ....................................................................................................72
3.3.6 Discharging Rate ...............................................................................................73
3.4
Summary: ............................................................................................................73
CHAPTER FOUR Electronic circuit design .................................................................... 78

4.1 The Buck- motor drive circuit. .................................................................................82
4.1.1 The simulation diagram of the system ..............................................................82
4.1.2 The operation principle:.....................................................................................83
4.1.3 Component values calculations: ........................................................................85
4.2 Generator conversion circuit. ...................................................................................86
4.2.1 Simulation diagram............................................................................................87
4.2.2 Principle of operation ........................................................................................87
4.2.3 Component values calculations: ........................................................................89
4.3 Batteries conversion circuit.(boost)..........................................................................91
4.3.1 Simulation Diagram...........................................................................................91
4.3.2 Component Value calculations ..........................................................................93
4.4 Conclusion:...............................................................................................................93
IX
CHAPTER FIVE Control design ...................................................................................... 93

5.1 Modes of operation.................................................................................................94
5.1.1 Starting off... ..........................................................................95
5.1.2 Low Power Mode. .........................................................................95
5.1.3 Moderate Power Mode. ........................................................................96
5.1.4 High power Mode. .........................................................................96
5.1.5 Regenerating Braking Mode ..............................................................................97
5.1.6 Pure Electric mode.............................................................................97
5.1.7 Reverse mode ....................................................................................................98
5.2 Control system Operation.......................................................................................98
5.3 Control system Implementation ...........................................................................100
5.3.1 Why using PICs? ..........................................................................................101
5.3.2 The microcontroller used. .............................................................................101
5.3.3
Configuration of the control system. ............................................................102
5.4 Conclusions:...108
CHAPTER SIX Regenerative Braking ........................................................................... 108

6.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................... 109
6.2 Types of Regenerative Braking ............................................................................. 110
6.2.1 Electrical Regenerative Braking: .................................................................... 110
6.2.2 Mechanical regenerative braking systems ...................................................... 112
6.3 Regenerative Braking integrated with conventional hydraulic system ................. 113
6.4 Stored Energy analysis .......................................................................................... 115
6.5 Efficiency of Regenerative Braking ...................................................................... 116
6.6 Comparison of dynamic and regenerative brakes ................................................. 117
6.7 The motor drive in the Regenerative Braking ...................................................... 118
6.8 Summary ............................................................................................................... 120
CHAPTER SEVEN Conclusions and Future work.122

X
Symbols
a: is the acceleration of the vehicle (a = 0.266)
Af: Frontal area of the vehicle in (m2).
Cd: Drag coefficient (depends on vehicle slip through air).
E: battery energy.
: back electromotive force in the armature terminals
Fc: climb resistance.
: is coefficient of friction
g : Gravitational acceleration in (m/s2).
g: gravitational acceleration (m/s2).
g: gravitational acceleration (m/s2).
h: The height of the centrifugal force.
i: gear ratio
Ia: armature current
In: nominal current
K: design constant.
L: Distance between wheel centers.
L: The length of the buggy in m.
L1: The Mass of front dry car is distributed at the length (0.56) m.
L2: The mass of middle dry car is distributed at the length (0.96) m.
L3: The mass of rear dry car is distributed at the length (0.65) m.
Lf: The distance from front wheel to the center.
Lr: The distance from rear wheel to the center.
: The mass of vehicle in (Kg)..
m1: Mass of engine generator (63) kg .
m2: Mass of driver (100) kg.
m3: Mass of battery (60) kg.
m4: Mass of power electronic (18) kg.
m5: Mass of traction motor and gear (84) kg.
m6: Mass of dry chassis (197.5) kg.
nn: nominal rotational speed
XI
no: no-load rotational speed

P2n: nominal power
Pt:Traction power on the driven wheels.
: armature coil resistance
: poles coil resistance
: brushes resistance
R: internal impedance of the battery
R: The radius of the corner.
Ra: armature resistance
Ra: total resistance of the armature which is equal
Rn: nominal resistance
S: is the braking distance (meters)
t :The track.
t: charging time.
tbr: braking time.
tin: is the time for deceleration increase to its maximum value.
Tn: nominal torque
tst: stopping time
V: battery voltage.
V: final velocity (m/s).
V: is the car velocity in (m/s).
V: Speed of the vehicle in (m/s).
V: The forward speed.
V0: initial velocity (m/s).
Va: voltage source
Vb:Vehicle base speed in (m/s).
Vf:Final speed of the vehicle in (m/s).
Vn: nominal voltage
X1: The distance between front wheel and engine generator (0.645) m.
X2: The distance between front wheel and driver (0.75) m.
X3: The distance between front wheel and battery (1.54) m.
XII
X4: The distance between front wheel and power electronic (1.56) m.
X5:The distance between front wheel and traction motor (1.57) m .
X6: The distance between front and rear wheels (1.5) m.
X7: The distance between front of the car and front wheel (0.36) m.
X8: The distance between rear of the car and rear wheel (0.31) m.
Z1: the high of the engine generator
Z2: the high of the driver
Z3: the high of the battery
Z4: the high of the power electronic
Z5: the high of the traction motor and gear .
Z6: the high of the mass of dry car
: the degree of the incline.
: is the mass factor.
: The vehicle Mass factor.
a: Air density was taken as average value (1.18 kg/m3).
: the angular speed for the armature winding .
n: angular speed
o: no-load angular speed
: magnetic flux provided by the field coil.
n : nominal efficiency
: Coefficient of friction will be discussed later.
XIII
ChapteroneIntroduction
1.1 Introduction for hybrid cars

Everyone knows the great contributions the automobiles have made in the growth
of the modern societies; they helped satisfying many of its needs for mobility in every
day'sactivities.
The newest developments in automobile technology considering lessening the
fuel consumption, as well as minimizing its environmental disadvantages, become later
important news to hear, and even sometimes, more important than its newest models or
styles.
All that and more made the "Hybrid Electric Vehicle" One of those vital
technologies, worth to be studied, especially, after it has been considered by the biggest
automobiles manufacturers in the world. Not only that, but also it has become a
competitive field among them.
Observing theincreasing importance of this technology and the responsibility of
participating making Jordan a part of this global orientation, this project was presented
with the determination of helping in this one single step.
1.2
What is hybrid Vehicle?
The hybrid vehicle is a vehicle that has in its power train, two or morecombined
energy sources, and they work in accordance to empower the required traction power and
perform the best operation.
In this hybrid vehicle the power sources are the electrical provided by the
rechargeable storage system batteries , and the fuel provided by the "gasoline" from the
engine.
The increased interest in this type of hybrid cars comes from the failure of either
technology to offer an acceptable method for propulsion. Each had its own set of
problems, and combining them seemed to offer a compromise solution.
2
The hybrid vehicle offers many benefits, such examples:
They reduce tailpipe emissions and pollutants that contribute to poor air quality
and global warming.
They improve gas mileage.
These features are translated into fuel saving and improving harmful environment effects.
1.3
Historical background
The technology of thehybrid vehicles is not new, it had been developed years
ago.This section presents a brief history about the hybrid vehicle.
As can be seen from table 1.1 numerous hybrids were designed at the end of the
past century. Some were concept cars for display at the Paris Salon. Others were put into
production, albeit on a small scale.
Early hybrids in Europe and united states
Early hybrid vehicles
Manufacturer of Engineer
Country
year
Pieper
France
1898a
Vendovelli&priestly
France
1899a
Lohner-Porsche
Germany
1903
Auto-Mixie
Germany
1906
Mercedes-Mixie
Germany
1907
Pope
United states
1902b
Baker
United states
1917
Woods
United states
concept vehicle for Paris Automobile salon.
1917
Prototype caught fire and burned on first test run.
Table1.1
EarlyhybridsinEuropeandUnitedStates
3
1.3.1
Renewed interests in hybrid

Global warming and the consumption of fossil fuel sources generated renewed
interest in hybrids. From 90 years since 1900, many new and relevant technologies have
maturedand helped the development of new solutions for those problems. Table 1.2 gives
a summary of those problems.
Table1.2
Hybridsolutionstourbanandglobalproblems
From this table it can be seen that, hybrids offered a way to decrease the emission
of gases, which cause global warming. Pollutants could be reduced by lower gasoline
consumption resulting in less pollution from refineries, from distribution of gasoline, and
during refueling by the customer at the gas station.
1.4 Hybrid Vehicle Configurations

What most distinguishes the hybrid vehicle than the conventional one is its
drive-train. This drive-train differs from hybrid vehicle to another depending on its
configuration. Different available configurations are the series hybrid, the parallel, and
the series- parallel drive-train. Next, the synthesis of each configuration will be
discussed.
1.4.1 Series hybrid vehicle

The construction concept of a series hybrid car comes from the pure electric
vehicle, in which the gasoline engine turns a generator. The generator can then either
charge the batteries or power an electric motor that drives the wheels. Thus, the gasoline
engine never directly powers the vehicle. Fig1.1 shows the power train of the series
vehicle.
Fig 1.1 The power train of the series hybrid vehicle

1.4.2
Parallel Hybrid Vehicle:

With a parallel hybrid electric vehicle, both the engine and the electric motor
generate the power that drives the wheels. Parallel hybrids can use a smaller battery pack
and therefore rely mainly on regenerative braking to keep it recharged. However, when
power demands are low in the parallel hybrids the motor operate as generator to recharge
the batteries, at the same time the engine drives the vehicle. Fig1.2shows the parallel
vehicle power train.
Fig 1.2 The power train of the parallel hybrid vehicle

1.4.3
Series/Parallel Drive-trains
This drive-train combines the advantages and complications of the parallel and
series drive-trains. The engine can both drives the wheels directly (as in the parallel
drive-train) and be effectively disconnected from the wheels so that only the electric
motor powers the wheels (as in the series drive-train).
At lower speeds, it operates more as a series vehicle, while at high speeds, where
the series drive-train is less efficient, the engine takes over and energy loss is minimized.
This system incurs higher costs than a pure parallel hybrid since it needs a generator, a
larger battery pack, and more computing power to control the dual system. However, the
series/parallel drive-train has the potential to perform better than either of the systems
alone. Fig1.3 shows the series/ parallel drive-train.
Fig 1.3 The power train of the series/parallel hybrid vehicle
1.5
The Project Objectives:
The main objective of this project is to develop a working version of a "series

hybrid car" that simulates the actual hybrid car used in the real life.
Through accomplishing the main objective, the project offers the following:
The project offers task that requires stability, and controllability.
Getting involved in building integrated systems such as hybrid cars, offers a

unique educational exercise that provides experience in physics, mechanics,
hardware, and teamwork.
To develop our ability to use engineering tools (e.g. programming languages,

laboratory, instruments, and CAD packages).
1.6
Why series hybrid?

For implementing this project series configuration is adopted. This is due to the
following reasons:
The design of the control system and the mechanical connections are easier to be
constructed in series configuration.
The engine can run at optimum rpm and throttle setting to give minimum fuel
consumption.
The engine and generator is a unit that is not connected to the drive shaft, which
allows locating them anywhere in the car.
1.7
Transmission is not needed.
Research methodology:
The project started by formulating the idea of designing and implementing a
series hybrid vehicle through intensive research and readings about the hybrid systems,
its purposes, importance, and demonstration. This is a cornerstone in building the correct
applicable concept of the project.
7
This research concentrated on the lost energy in the conventional vehicles, where
it is lost, and how to minimize energy losses.
Next, the structures of the hybrid vehicles configurations are studied through the
mechanical and physical analysis. This helped in exploring the best design, that suite the
financial aspects of the project.
After deciding the general structure of the hybrid car in our project which is the
"series configuration," the next step was to specify the electrical and mechanical
components, how to connect them together to ensure the workability, stability and
integrity of the system.
Next the circuits' design of the power electronics are studied. These circuits are
required to do the conversion of the power transferring in the drive train between the
generator, the batteries, and the motor.
The most important task was to design and construct the control system, starting
by determining the control algorithm, which manages the power flow in the drive train to
ensure an overall fuel efficiency.
1.8
Conclusion
Because of the need to save energy and preserve the environments, the world interest in
hybrid technologies have increased the purpose of this project is to design and implement
a series configuration of hybrid cars. This provides a big opportunity for us to develop
such technologies in Jordan through the final year series project.
Chaptertwomeechanicaldeesign
The meechanicall design

T mechaniccal system is one of the hybrid subssystems, whiich was deepply considerred in
The
this project. This ch
hapter discuusses the rellated mechaanical aspectts of the prroject, whichh are
concerneed about: ev
valuating of the tractive power, forces analysis on
o the chasssis of the vehhicle,
determinning the centrre of gravityy of the vehiicle, estimatiing the requiired ratio forr the car to climb
c
up hill, trransmission mechanism that is needded to transm
mit the powerr from the ellectrical mottor to
the axle, and analysiss of the brakke force and its distributiion on the froont and rear wheels.
2 Equatiion of mottion of thee vehicle

2.1
T ensure th
To
he vehicle motion,
m
the equation
e
of motion of thhe vehicle must
m
be donne. In
order too move the vehicle withh constant speed,
s
it muust have forrce equivaleent to the roolling
resistancce, and the aerodynamic
a
c drag. But to
t acceleratee it, a suppleement force should be addded,
called acceleration
a
force. Fig2.1 shows thee forces act on
o the vehiccle when it moves
m
in strraight
line.
In series hybrid
h
cars, the
t traction motor poweer is calculatted as in purre electrical cars.
Here all
a the tractiion power will
w be proviided by the electrical motor.
m
So thee electrical motor
m
powerr should overrcome:
1. The rolling
g resistance (F
( r).
ynamic drag (Fa).
2. The aerody
3. The accelerration of the vehicle (Facc).
Fig 2.11
force analyysis of the vehiclle
1. Rolling
R
ressistance:
U
Under
vehiccle weight thhe tires deforrm while conntacting the road, thus creating
c
a coontact
s
surface.
Thiis surface gives
g
the veehicle adhession necessary for motion. Both tires
10
Chaptertwomechanicaldesign
deformation and road contact consume energy. These energy losses which are used to
overcome the force of rolling resistance are calculated as follows:
. g. f
(2.1)
Where:
: The mass of vehicle (kg).
g: Gravitational acceleration in (m/s2).
fr: Rolling resistance coefficient (for asphalt fr = 0.015).
The power consumed to overcome the rolling resistance is given by:
.
. . .
(2.2)
Where:
V: is the car velocity in (m/s).
2. Aerodynamic resistance:
The load resulted from the aerodynamic pressure at both of the vehicle sides; the low
pressure at the rear side, and the high pressure at the front, during the running of the vehicle at
several speeds is called the aerodynamic drag. That could be calculated according to the
following equation.
F
0.5
.V
(2.3)
Where:
a: Air density was taken as average value (1.18 kg/m3).
Cd: Drag coefficient (depends on vehicle slip through air).
Af: Frontal area of the vehicle in (m2).
V: Speed of the vehicle in (m/s).
11
3. Acceleration of the vehicle:

The acceleration of the vehicle is evaluated according to the time required to accelerate it
from the lowest speed (usually zero) to the highest speed (final speed).
The acceleration time ta, for electrical vehicle is calculated as follows
P
C A V
dV
P
V
M .
C A V
dV
(2.4)
Where:
Vb: Vehicle base speed in (m/s).
"The base speed was obtained by dividing maximum speed to the ratio X"
Vf: Final speed of the vehicle in (m/s).
: The vehicle Mass factor.
Pt: Traction power on the driven wheels.
If the rolling resistance and aerodynamic drag was ignored, the evaluation of acceleration
time versus traction power can be calculated as follows.
(2.5)
To determine the traction power rating accurately the power consumed in overcoming the
rolling resistance and the aerodynamic drag should be considered. So the average drag power
during acceleration can be calculated as follows
0.5
(2.6)
The vehicle speed is expressed using time by the following equation

(2.7)
After substituting and integrating the following equation is obtained:
P
M F gV
(2.8)
The total traction power to accelerate the vehicle from zero the final speed can be finally
obtained by equation 2.9:
P
M gf V
2.9)
12
To take into account the effect of inertia of the rotating parts on the part of the vehicle
acceleration characteristic, a mass factor introduce for passenger cars, the mass factor may be
calculated using the following empirical equation relation
1.04
0.0025i
where :
i: gear ratio
For the car that is used in the project approximately = 1.06
The total mass of the vehicle could be obtained by the summing of the component masses as
illustrated in equation 2.10
M =
(2.10)
Where:
m1: Mass of the engine generator (63 kg).
m2: Mass of driver (100 kg).
m3: Mass of the battery (60 kg).
m4: Mass of the power electronic (18 kg).
m5: Mass of the traction motor and gear (84 kg).
m6: Mass of dry chassis (197.5 kg).
The values for the used components:
M = 63+ 100+ 60+18+ 84+197.5
respectively
M = 520 kg.
= 50 km/hr. (From the catalogue of the chassis it is the car maximum speed.)
= 13.88 m/s
To calculate the base speed of the traction motor Vb, The speed ratio for the DC motor (X) = 2. [2]
Vb= 6.944 m/s
Assuming ta required to reach the maximum speed = 30 sec.
By substituting the previous values in equation 2.9, the rated power of the electrical motor that is
traced the vehicle
= 4.792 kW.
13
2.22 Centre of
o gravity calculation
c
ns
Inn order to maintain
m
the vehicle stabbility and ennsure achievving the car real attitudee; the
distributiion of the components
c
in the car chassis
c
is very importaant, so that it can handlle all
driving conditions.
c
Because
B
of limitation inn the buggyy (chassis) space
s
the diistribution of
o the
componeents was mad
de compellinngly, with cooncentration on position of the centree of gravity.
T vehicle stability,
The
s
the load each wheel
w
is impoosed to, and braking forcce distributioon on
the wheeels are imporrtant to distrribute the coomponents on
o the vehicle chassis, so
s the positioon of
the centeer of gravity of the vehicle must be obtained.
o
T calculate the centre of
To
o gravity of
o the vehiclle, the masss of the com
mponents and the
distance of them from
m the front wheel must be known, Fig2.2 show
ws the structture of the buggy
b
that can be treated as
a a two dim
mensional beeam, the reaaction forcess can be fouund by usinng the
principlee of static which
w
is totaal moment about any point
p
equal zero, and thhe total force in
vertical direction
d
sho
ould be zero..
Fig 2.2
compoonents distributioon on chassis
M abouut front wheeel of the car equal zero.

M
0 CW
(
(2.11)
14
686.7
0.645
0
981
0.75
0.08
588.722
558.7
1.54
0.68
196.2
711.8
1.56
735.75
1.485
1.5
1.57
637.65
The reaction force on the rear wheel is found to be.

3271.678 .
To determine the reaction force on the front wheel, Newtons second law in Y axis was used
(2.12)
0
686.7
981
588.722
196.2
735.75
3271.678
1825.75
Where:
m7: Mass of the front dry chassis (65 kg).
m8: Mass of the middle dry chassis (56 kg).
m9: Mass of the rear dry chassis (72 kg).
m10: Mass of the four wheel (40 kg).
L: The length of the buggy in m.
X1: The distance between the front wheel and the engine generator (0.645 m).
X2: The distance between the front wheel and driver (0.75 m).
X3: The distance between the front wheel and the battery (1.54 m).
X4: The distance between the front wheel and the power electronic (1.56 m).
X5: The distance between the front wheel and the traction motor (1.57 m).
X6: The distance between the front and the rear wheels (1.5 m).
15
X7: The distance

d
betw
ween the froont of the carr and the fronnt wheel (0.336) m.
X8: The distance
d
betw
ween the reaar of the car and the rear wheel (0.311) m.
L1: The Mass
M of fron
nt dry car is distributed
d
a the length (0.56) m.
at
L2: The mass
m of midd
dle dry car iss distributedd at the length (0.96) m.
L3: The mass
m of rear dry car is diistributed at the length (00.65) m.
-
Centtre of gravitty distance to front and

d rear axle:
After the components were distributed
d
b using the static principples, the calcculated frontt axle
by
load
, and
a the rear axle load
0
=
give the tottal weight
of the vehicle:
(N)
182
25.75
327
71.678
509
97.428
Fig 2.33 The center of gravity

g
distance to front and rearr axle
oments arouund
The balaance of mo
in conjunnction with the wheellbase (L) inn the
or
longitudiinal direction
n, gives the centre of graavity distancces Lf to the front, and Lr to the rear axle,
as shownn in Fig 2.3.
(
(2.13)
3271.678
3
5097.428
1.5
0.963
.
1825.75
1
5
5097.428
(
(2.14)
1.5
16
0.537
Where:
d
from
m the front wheel
w
to the center.
c
Lf: The distance
Lr: The distance
d
from
m the rear whheel to the ceenter.
L: Distannce between
n the wheel centers.
c
-
The Z-coordina
ate of the cen
nter of gravvity:
Therre are practiccal and theooretical methhods to deterrmine the heeight of the center of grravity
of the vehhicle, below

w a brief review about each of them
Theoretiical method
d:
T theoretical method iss inaccurate and is used to
The
t estimate the
t Z-coordinnate of the center
c
of gravityy. This coulld be done by
b assumingg the vehiclee stands on its
i front bum
mper as show
wn in
Fig2.4, so
s the reactio
on force actts as distribuuted force onn the bumpeer. The valuue of the reaaction
force waas determineed by using Newtons second law in the vertical directioon. This distance
representts the height of the centeer of gravity..
To determ
mine the disttributed forcce on the fronnt bumper:
Fz=0
=0
70
9.81
9.81
100
195
9.81
9
9.81
1
40
60
9.81
20
9.81
75
5
9.8
81
5493.6
F 2.4 the Z cooordinate of centrre of gravity

Fig
z
M abouut the centre of the front wheel of thee car equal zero.
17
M = 0 CW
0
70
9.81
0.26
0.25
195
100
9.81
9.81
0.06
0.30
60
5493.6
9.8
0.69
20
9.81
0.89
75
9.81
= 0.245 m
Where:
Z1: the high of the engine generator (0.25 m).
Z2: the high of the driver (0.30 m).
Z3: the high of the battery (0.69 m).
Z4: the high of the power electronic (0.89 m).
Z5: the high of the traction motor and gear (0.26).
Z6: the high of the mass of dry car (0.06 m).
Practical method:
In this method the front or the rear axle must be lifted as high as possible (by the amount h) using
an elevating mechanism (auto hoist, jack, crane), and the other axle standing on the centre of a
weighbridge as shown in Fig 2.5.
The following should be taken in consideration:
The vehicle must be prevented from falling off by inserting wedges from the outside
on the axle to be raised. The brake must be released. It must be possible to turn the
wheels on the platform easily; otherwise the platform would be distorted and the result
would be imprecise.
The wheels are held still on the centre of the platform. The vehicle forward movement
must be even when the vehicle is raised in order to prevent wrong measured values as
a result of different force application positions on the horizontal surface.
The vehicle should be in the on-road condition
18
To eliminaate tire sprinnging duringg the measuurement, it is recommennded that thee tire
pressure on
n both axles be increasedd.
Fig 2.5 The practical

p
methodd for measuring centre of gravityy height
M
Mathematical
l observation of the meeasurement as
a follows, observing
o
thhe outputs of
o the
experimeent and uses them to do the
t following calculationn,
sin
The anglle is know
wn; but
(2.15)
(where rdynn is the dynaamic wheel radius,

r
in caase of
car that is
i produced in
i this project its equal to
t 0.24m forr front wheeels and 0.2755 for rear whheels)
sought, whereby
w
h
h`
(
(2.16)
To be abble to determ
mine Lr, thee equation of
o moments produced arround the ceentre of the front
axle is seet up:
(22.17)
Eliminatiing
19
(2.18)
Where:
Therefore :
(2.19)
(2.20)
Hence
.
And
(2.21)
(2.22)
The experiment was done and the following data was recorded in table 2.1:
State of car
mLf (kg)
mRf (kg)
mLR (kg)
mRR (kg)
Without lifting
68
78.5
173
158.5
Lifting front wheel
193
185
Lifting rear wheel
113
110.5
Table 2.1 the result of Z-coordinate experiment
This result when lifting front wheel

1.5
41.5
483
The elevation of the front wheels

0.78
1.5
0.78
sin
31.8
= 0.61
20
1.5
483
41.5
0.61
0.211
0.211
0.24
0.451
This result when lifting rear wheel

1.5
77
483
= 0.62
1.5
483
77
0.62
0.385m
0.385
0.24
0.598
There is a small error between practical method and theoretical method in finding the height of
the center of gravity. This confirms the result of experiment.
As a result for previous calculation and experiment, the position of the centre of gravity could be
concluded as following;
The distance between the centre of gravity and the centre of the front wheel in the X
direction is 0.96 m.
In Y direction, the vehicle is assumed to be symmetric and the centre of gravity in taken
to be in the middle of the car 0.55 m.
Finally the height of the centre of gravity equal Z = 0.45 m.
21
2.3 Chassis handling ability and aspects of vibration stability

Dynamic operation of the vehicle, load force that act on the body of the vehicle and extra
additional weights placed on the vehicle are another important things that should be
considered during the construction of the vehicle. To minimize the harm on vehicle
components during the vehicle operation damping material (rubber) was used.
2.3.1 Handling ability for loading force
There are many loads imposed on the chassis or body structure of a vehicle due to normal
running conditions. The most effective and important forces which are recommended to be
considered are:
Bending Forces.
Longitudinal loading forces.
Lateral loading forces.
Bending Case.
The bending conditions depend on the weights of the major components of the vehicle
and the payload. The first consideration is the static condition by determining the load
distribution along the vehicle.
Shear force diagram:
In order to obtain the maximum shear force that the vehicle chassis is imposed to, the
shear forces diagram was established by taking the effect of the components weight and chassis
distributed weight as shown Fig 2.6.
22
Fig 2.6 the optimum shear force

f
distributionn along the longgitudinal
A
After
defining the maxim
mum shear forces
f
actingg on the chaassis , checkking the hanndling
ability off it will be sh
hown below..
Bending moment dia
agram:
A
After
the shear forces diaagram was constructed
c
,the bendingg moment diagram
d
couuld be
built by finding
f
the area
a under thhe shear forcce diagram as
a shown in Fig 2.7. This diagram iss then
used to determine
d
thee maximum moment thee chassis couuld handle.
23
Fig 2.7 Thee optimum bendiing moment disttributions along the longitudinal direction of chaassis
The chasssis that is used

u
in this project connsists of threee types of steel tubes. First type is
i big
diameter tube 32 mm
m in diameteer. The second type is small diametter tube whicch is 16.2 mm
m in
diameter and the thirrd is the rectaangular tubee.
Large diiameter tub
bes:
The first step
s
in checking the handlling ability off the big tubees is to
calculate the area that is imposed too shear force. This circulaar area
could be calculated by
b measuring the dimensiions on the buggy
b
chassis. After
A
that the values of ouuter diameter and inner diaameter
of the tubbe were obtained as shownn in Fig 2.8 to
t Fig2.10, annd the
area that is
i affected by forces is found from equaation (2.13)
Fig 2.88 cross section arrea of large tubees
24
m
do = 32 mm
din = 28 mm
m
(2.23)
Where is the shear strress coefficient of steel tubbes and equall to 200 MPa
(2.24)
This area is shown in figure
f
2.8
0.032
1.89
0.028
10
Assume = 200 MPa
200
10
1.89
9
10
3
37.7
Small tu
ubes:
As made in the previo
ous case the dimensions
d
off the shaft weere measuredd and the folloowing valuess were
obtained.
do = 16.22 mm
din = 12.2 mm
0.0122
0.0162
Fig 2.9
2 cross sectionn area of small tuube.
This area shown in Fig

g 2.9
8.9
200
10
10
8.9
10
17
7.8
25
Rectangu
ular tubes
For the reectangular tub
be the cross seectional area is
i calculated as
a
followingg
0.05
5
2.84
0.025
0.046
0.02
2
10
Since the steel tube = 200 MPa

Fig 2..10 cross sectioon area of rectaangular tube
200
10
2.84
4
10
5
56.8
Afterr these valuees were obtaained, it weree compared to shear forrces values from
f
shear forces
f
diagram, and the resu
ults show thaat the chassiis can operatte safely withh the loads that
t act on it.
Laterral Loading Case.

C
Whenn cornering, lateral loadds are generaated at the tire
t to the grround contaact patches which
w
are balannced by the centrifugal

c
foorce
Where:
: The vehicle mass.
V: The foorward speed
d.
R: The raadius of the corner.
c
Figg 2.11 The condiition of the roll-oover.
T worst po
The
ossible condiition occurs when the wheels
w
reactiions on the inside
i
of thee turn
drop to zero,
z
that iss when the vehicle
v
is about
a
to rolll over. In thhis conditionn the structuure is
subject too bending.
26
The condition of the roll-over is shown in the Fig 2.11, which depends upon the height of
the vehicle centre of gravity and the track. At this condition the resultant of the centrifugal force
and the weight, passes through the outside wheels contact patch (A).
So
(2.25)
Where:
h: The height of the centrifugal force.
t :The track.
Therefore lateral acceleration
(2.26)
.
.
.
17.2
This value represents the maximum curve the car can rollover.
Therefore the lateral force at the centre of gravity
(2.27)
5816
The side forces at the front tires that are shown in Fig 2.12.
(2.28)
YF
YF
.
.
.
.
YF = 2104.245 N
At the rear tires
27
(2.29)
520
9.81 1.1
1 0.96
2 0.48 1.5
3740.88 N
Fig2.12 laateral force at eacch wheel
Longitudiinal Loadingg Case
or inertia forrce is
W
When
the veh
hicle accelerrates or decelerates, the mass
m times acceleration
a
generatedd. As the ceentre of gravvity of the vehicle is above
a
the rooad surface the inertia force
provides a load transsfer from onne axle to annother. Whille acceleratiing, the weigght is transfferred
from the front axle to
t the rear axle
a
and vice versa for the braking or decelerating conditioon. A
t axle posiitions
simplified model thaat can providde useful infoormation aboout the locall loading at the
wn in Fig 2.13. This moddel considers one inertia force
due to traaction and braking forcees, this show
at the cennter of gravity.
28
For rear wheel

w
drive,, the reactionn on the drivving wheels
is
(2.30)
The maximum value of
occurss during the
decelerattion reaches 5.9 m/s2, thiis value will be

discussedd later.
.
Fig 2.13 Longitudinall loading case

.
28
For the braking

b
case,, the reactionns on the axlles are:
(2.31)
2.3.2
Rear sttand Handliing ability
Aftter the distrib

bution of thee componentt was done, the battery and
a power electronic waas put
on the reear stand of the
t chassis, this
t cause hiigh weight on
o it. To enssure stabilityy of the standd and
its abilitty to handlle this weiight, the foorces
should bee analyzed.
Fig 2.14 shows forcces analysis on the reaar
stand,
and the pins
p on which
h the forces concerned,
0
9.81
85
833.85
0
0
833.85
0.24
0.11
0.2
24
Fig 2.14 rear

r stand of the chassis
29
571
1.8
Then
= 262.05 N
N
Now
this vaalue must bee compared with forcess the stand can
c handle, to calculatee this
force sim
mple method
d was used depend
d
on the
t propertiees of chassiss material by
b using stanndard
stress vallue.
(2.32)
Fo
or steel whicch is used inn chassis eqqual
(200 Mpaa).
The crosss sectional area
a (A), is shown
s
in Figg 2.15
(2.33)
2
3
0.005
4.19
Fig 2.155 cross sectionn area of the pin,, that

effectedd by force
0.004
0
10
So
(2.344)
2
200
10
4.19
10
83
380
T value sh
This
hows the abiility of this stand
s
to hanndle the battery and the power electtronic
unit withh margin.
2.3.3 Asp
pects of vibrration stability:
V
Vibration
is an importannt issue to be
b taken in account duuring the connstruction of
o the
vehicle. Internal
I
com
mbustion enggine and roaad conditionns cause vibrration to whhole car, so good
fixing annd damping material muust be used.. To reduce the transferr of vibratioon for the enngine
generatorr set to the body
b
of the car
c and speciial type of ruubber was ussed.
30
O course thee engine gennerator vibrattions couldnnt be reduceed to zero, annd this affeccts on
Of
the otherr componentts especiallyy the power electronic unit.
u
Therefoore, a speciaal type of ruubber
was placeed under thee power electtronic unit.
2.4 Equ
uation of motion
m
of the motorr vehicle with
w gradee
T power off the vehiclee is dividedd in
The
torque annd speed. In order to obtain the torqque
the vehiccle needs, the equationn of motion of
the motoor vehicle is considerred. After the
t
required torque is ob
btained a suittable gear raatio
will be seelected. Fig 2.16 shows the forces thhat
act on thee vehicle,
Fig 2.16 equation of mootion during clim

mbing a hill
Where:
Fc: climbb resistance.
Aerodynamic resistan
nce could bee ignored in low speed, so
s
0.
Rolling resistance:
r
cos
Where anngle
(2.35)
is thee degree of incline and is a design value couldd be assumedd (4.34), will be
discussedd later.
: is coeefficient of frriction.
600
9.81
0.012
0.997
70.4
43
Acceleraation force:
(
(2.36)
Where
31
: is the mass
m factor.
a: is the acceleration
a
of the vehiccle (a = 0.2666)
169.2
Climb resistance
mbs a hill, thhe additionaal force is:
When thee vehicle clim
(2.337)
Where:
m: vehiclle mass (kg)).
g: gravitaational accelleration (m/ss2).
: the deggree of the incline.
Fig 2.17 thee degree of the inncline
A shown in Fig2.17 deggree of incline can be caalculated froom dividing the rise distance
As
by the ruun distance, and
a by usingg degree of inncline couuld be calculaated.
1%
(2.38)
tan
N
Notice
that siin varies from 0 at no incline
i
(no effect)
e
to 1 at
a 90 degreess; in other words,
w
the full weight
w
of thee vehicle is trrying to pulll it back dow
wn the inclinne,
is considerred as a deesign factor, for the buuggy that is produced in
i this projeect is
assumed to has the degree of inclline about 8%
%.
600
0
9.81
400 .34
The totall force that reesists the vehicle motionn is given byy:
32
(2.39)
169.2
70.43
400.34
639.97
The total torque must be delivered to the wheels is given by:
(2.40)
Where:
rw : is the wheel radius = 0.275 m
640.17
0.275
176.05 .
The motor torque is
14 .
so the ratio of wheels torque to the motor torque gear
ratio (i)"
12.5
2.5 Method to transmit power.

Many power producing machines, or prime movers, such as internal combustion (IC)
engines, industrial gas turbine engines and electric motors produce power in the form of rotary
motion. The operating characteristics of prime movers vary according to their type and size, and
a change of speed is often necessary to transform the torque speed characteristic of a prime
mover to a useful output characteristic. When transmitting power from a source to the required
point of application, a series of devices is available including gears, belts, pulleys, and chains.
To transmit the power from the electrical motor to the axle shaft a mechanical
transmission mechanism is used. This mechanism consists of gear box and chain drive set. In
33
general cases one of them (gears or chain drive) is used, but because of the limitation of the
space on car chassis, this mechanism was involved.
2.5.1 Gears
Gears are toothed cylindrical wheels used for transmitting mechanical power from one
rotating shaft to another. The DC motor that is used to tract the vehicle gives limited torque, that
couldnt move the car. At the same time the motor with the selected gear ratio (i=12.5) reduced
the original speed provided by the motor
Generally if the distances of power transmission are large, gears are not suitable, chains and
belts can be considered. However, when a compact efficient or high-speed drive is required gear
trains offer a competitive and suitable solution. Additional benefits of gear drives include
reversibility, configuration at almost any angle between input and output and their suitability to
operate in arduous conditions.
A speed change can be achieved by running discs of different diameter together, or
alternatively cones for turning corners as well. However, the torque capacity of disc or cone
drives is limited by the frictional properties of the surfaces.
In addition the velocity ratio is not constant and changes as the teeth go through the
meshing cycle cause noise and vibration problems at elevated speeds. The solution to this
problem can be achieved by using a profile on the gear teeth, which gives a constant velocity
ratio throughout the meshing cycle.
2.5.2 Chains
A chain is a power transmission device consisting of a series of pin-connected links; it
transmits Power between two rotating shafts by meshing with toothed sprockets as illustrated in
Fig 2.18.
34
Fig 2.18 the

t chain
C
Chain
drives are usually manufacturred using higgh strength steel, and foor this reasoon are
capable of
o transmitting high torqque, and widde range of powers
p
for shhaft speeds up to about 6000
rpm.
A higher speeeds the cycllic impact beetween the chains
At
c
links and
a the sprocket teeth, on
o the
high noisse and difficu
ulties in provviding lubriccation, limit the applicattion of chainn drives.
A the belt and
As
a the gear drives, the chain drive has high effficiency up to 98.9 per cent,
and it has advantagess over the geear drive succh as large center
c
distannce, wear ressistance, andd ease
of mainteenance. Chaain drive is better
b
than belt
b drive byy its heat ressistance, cheemical resisttance,
and oil reesistance, altthough, the belt drive coould be usedd in higher speed ranges. Table2.2 shows
a comparrison of chaiin, belt and gear
g attributees.
35
Feature
Chain driver
Belt driver
Gear drive
Efficiency
Positive
Large centre distance
Wear resistance
Multiple drive
Heat resistance
Chemical resistance
Oil resistance
Power range
Speed range
Ease of maintenance
Environment
Aausingasynchronousbeltdrive
Table 2.2 a comparison of chain, belt and gear attributes
Chain drives are principally used for power transmission, conveyors and for supporting
or lifting loads. Applications range from motorcycle and bicycle transmission, and automotive
camshaft drives.
Chain design is based on ensuring that the power transmission capacity is within limits
for three modes of failure: fatigue, impact and galling. Chains are designed so that the maximum
tensile stress is below the fatigue endurance limit for finite life of the material meshing. The
power rating charts for chain drives limit the selection of the drive so that these modes of failure
should not occur assuming proper installation, operation and lubrication.
The next step is the design of the chain drive layout and selection of the standard
components available from chain manufacturers. The method outlined here is for roller chains
that will be used in this project.
The method is based upon the use of power rating charts for the chain drive, which ensure 15
000 hours operation assuming proper installation, operation and lubrication. The steps for the
method are itemized below:
36
The power that will be transmitted was determined. For the vehicle the chain must be
able to transmit (5.5kW).
The speeds of the driving and driven shafts were obtained, the maximum speed the chain
will operate at is 6000 RPM (electrical motor maximum speed)
The characteristics of the driving and driven shaft, e.g. type of running, whether smooth
or shock loadings, etc. is defined.
The approximate centre distance is measured. For the chain which is used in this project
the distance between the two gears is (30 cm).
The speed ratio was selected, here the chain is not used to give speed ratio, but used only
to transmit power; so the speed ratio is 1.
Establish the application and tooth factors; Table2.3 gives values for the application
factor f1. In case of electrical motor and smooth load the application factor is selected to
be 1.4. The tooth factor f2 for the chain that is used in this vehicle to be equal to 1 because
the number of drive tooth is equal to the number of driven tooth.
Table 2.3 tooth factor
The selection power could be calculated by:

(2.41)
6
1.4
8.4
37
By using power speed rating charts as supplied by chain manufacturers as illustrated by

Fig2.19, the chain drive pitch was selected. The smallest pitch of a simple chain should
be used as this normally gives the most economical drive. The optimal selection to be
used in this vehicle is P(18.05 mm)
The chain length could be calculated from equation 2.32, this equation gives the chain
length as a function of the number of pitches. Note that the value for the length should be
rounded up to the nearest even integer.
(2.42)
.
1.17
The exact centre distance was calculated using Eq. 2.31

2
(2.43)
The lubrication method was specified, and will be done by using spray.
The angle of contact (in radians) between the chain and the sprockets is obtained from4:
2 sin
2 sin
(2.44)
0
38
Fig 2.19 chainn power speed raating chart
2.6 Braaking Systeem:

In order to underrstand the beehavior of a braking system it is usseful to definne three sepparate
functionss that must be
b fulfilled att all times:
T braking system
The
s
mustt decelerate a vehicle inn a controlledd and repeattable fashionn and
w
when
approprriate cause thhe vehicle too stop.
T braking system shouuld permit thhe vehicle to maintain a constant

The
c
speeed when
trravelling dow
wnhill.
T braking system musst hold the vehicle stattionary wheen on a flat surface or on a
The
grradient surfaace.
A braake is a dev
vice which inhibits
i
motion. Most commonly brrakes use frriction to coonvert
kinetic energy
e
into heat, thoughh other metthods of eneergy conversion may be employedd. For
example regenerativee braking coonverts mucch of the eneergy to elecctrical energyy, which maay be
s
stored foor later use. Other methods convert kinetic eneergy into pottential energgy in such stored
forms as pressurized air or pressuurized oil.
39
Frictiion brakes on
o automobiles store brraking heat in the drum
m brake or disc brake while
w
braking then
t
conductt it to the airr gradually.
The braking
b
systtem that is used in serries hybrid project
p
is coombination between friiction
brakes ddisk brake, and electrom
magnetic braake regenerrative brakinng, below a brief view about
a
each typee.
T disc bra
The
ake
wing or stoppping the rottation of a wheel

w
Disk brake as shown in Fig 2.20 is a device for slow
n. A brake diisc or rotor is
i connectedd to the wheeel and/or the axle. To stoop the
while it is in motion
b
pads
wheel, friction matterial in thee form of brake
b
caliperr) is forced
(mounteed on a device called a brake
mechaniically,
hy
ydraulically,
pneumatically
or
electrom
magnetically against botth sides of the
t disc, in
case of brake
b
that iss used in the vehicle the brake pads
forced hydraulicallly. Friction causes thee disc and
attachedd wheel to slow or stop.
Fig 2.220 Disk brake
Eleectrical Regenerative Braking

B
The common
c
usee of this system in elecctrical hybriid vehicle iss to collect some of thee lost
kinetic. Hybrid
H
vehiicles can reeuse kinetic energy by using its electric motoors to regennerate
electricityy. Normally
y, electric motors
m
are turned by passing an electric currrent througgh it.
Howeverr, if some ou
utside force is
i used to turrn the electrric motors, itt functions as
a a generatoor and
producess electricity. This makess it possible to employ the rotationaal force of thhe driving axxle to
turn the electric motors,
m
thus regeneratinng electric energy
e
for storage in the batteryy and
simultaneeously slow
wing the carr with the regenerative resistance of
o the electtric motors. This
stored ennergy can be reused to giive an electrical assist while
w
driving at high speeeds.
There aree three criterria to estimatte the perforrmance and behavior
b
of the
t braking system:
40
B
Braking
distaance
B
Braking
time
D
Deceleration
Below brrief views ab

bout each off them.
B
Braking
distaance
The braking
b
distaance is the braking
b
path s in meters. It is very im
mportant facctor which shhould
be takenn in accountt during thee design of a braking system.
s
Thee braking distance coulld be
estimatedd from equattion 2.35
(
(2.45)
13.89
2 9.81
0
0
0.6
S = 16.389 m
Where:
S: is the braking
b
distaance (meterss)
V0: initiaal velocity (m
m/s).
V: final velocity
v
(m/ss).
: Coeffficient of fricction will bee discussed laater.
g: gravitaational accelleration (m/ss2).
B
Braking
timee
Is thee time the veehicle needs to brake or to

t stop, and this time conntain several times, Fig 2.21
tr : reaction time: is th
he time for which
w
the drriver decide
to apply the
t brake an
nd shifting hiis leg from thhe
accelerattion pedal to the brake peedal
41
tdr: the brake drive operation time. From the moment the pedal brake depressed to appearance of
deceleration.
tin: is the time for deceleration increase to its maximum value.
tbr: braking time.
Fig 2.21 the relation between braking time
tst: stopping time
and deceleration and velocity
(2.46)
Deceleration:
The deceleration can be equated to the coefficient of friction multiplied by gravity

acceleration, the adhesion or friction coefficient depends on several factors such as road
conditions and wheels, as shown in table 2.4, this value was taken as design factor, and supposed
to be at wet good road.
(2.47)
Braking force
Pavement condition
Good, dry
0.80
Good, wet
0.60
Poor, dry
0.55
Poor, wet
0.30
Packed snow and Ice
0.10
Table 2.4 adhesion coefficient values
42
T equivalen
The
nt braking foorce acts as a reaction foorce at the ceentre of gravvity of the veehicle
as a whoole as shown
n in Fig 2.222. Given the calculationss in section 2.2 the reacction force on
o the
front wheeel F1 is foun
nd to be 20221.8 N and on
o the rear wheel
w
F2= 34771.74. Thereefore, the braaking
force cann be calculated as follow
ws
2.22 braking force acts at center of gravvity
t stop the vehicle,

v
the following
f
eqquation couldd be used:
To find thhe total forcce is needed to
(2.48)
0.6
54
493.6
3296.2
Inn order to obtain

o
the brake force each
e
wheel needs, firstly the shift of the centter of
gravity, which
w
causee various in load
l
distribuution on the wheels musst be taken inn account, so
s the
force shifft from the rear
r axle to front
f
axle F
F was found as follows:
(
(2.49)
h: center of gravity high

h
L: wheel base
l
is the (uundesirable)) load
The loweer the centree of gravity and the longger the wheelbase, the less
transfer.
0.6
54993.6
.
.
1054.77
43
After that braking force on front axle
0.6
2021.8
(2.50)
1054.4
1845.9
Braking force on the rear axle:
0.6
3471.76
(2.51)
1054.47
1456.37
Practical, these forces will be collected from the braking system on the buggy chassis and
the generator on regenerative braking mode.
2.7 Internal combustion engine (ICE)

The Internal Combustion engine (I.C.E) is a heat engine that converts chemical energy
(the fuel), to mechanical energy (rotating shaft). Internal combustion engines can be classified
according to many constraints such as
Basic design:
-
Reciprocating: piston cylinder arrangement
Rotary: rotor-stator arrangement
Type of ignition:
-
Spark ignition S.I
Compression ignition C.I
Engine cycle:
44
Four stroke cycle
T stroke cy
Tow
ycle
Type of cooling:
c
-
A cooled
Air
L
Liquid
cooled
d
Fuel usedd:
-
G
Gasoline
(Ben
nzene)
D
Diesel
O
Other
(Gas, Alcohol,
A
etc)
And manny other classifications

In this prroject a gaso
oline ICE, S.I, reciprocatting (one cyllinder), fourr stroke and air
a cooled enngine
is used.
2.7.1
E
Engine
chara
acteristics
Fig 2.23 shows
s
the enngine characcteristics reggarding the power
p
and torque
t
versuus the
engine sppeed. The torque initiallly increases with the speed

s
of thee engine, unntil it reachees its
maximum
m value. At high speedss the torquees of the enggine decreasses since the cylinder in the
intake sttroke will not
n be totallyy filled in with
w
the miixture. This is due to the
t reduced time
accompliishing this process at higgh speeds.
T Brake po
The
ower also staarts to decreease at high speeds, beccause of the increasing of
o the
friction loosses, which
h becomes thhe dominant factor. Fig 2.24
2
shows the
t specific fuel
f consum
mption
45
SFC. The SFC initially decreases with increasing speed due to the relative decrease of heat
losses. It reaches its minimum value then it starts to increase as the brake power starts to drop
due to friction losses.
Fig 2.23 The engine characteristics of power and torque
Fig 2.24 The specific fuel consumption SFC
In this hybrid project the aim is to operate the ICE at the range of minimum SFC, which
is indicated at the moderate speeds. This can guarantee power efficiency and lower emissions
from the ICE. Thus when low power is needed the ICE additional power caused by operating it
at its moderate speed, will be used to charge a set of batteries and operate the vehicle at the
required low speeds. When high power is required the ICE remains at this range of speeds and
the charged batteries will assist the engine with the extra needed power.
2.7.2
ICE gas analysis
One of the important objectives of the hybrid car project is to minimize harmful
emissions from the ICE. Therefore the gases of the ICE is calculated and analyzed.
Good combustion:
The combustion chamber of the engine contains a mixture of gasoline symbolized as
HC for hydrocarbons, and air which is represented by oxygen, symbolized as O2. It is very
important to properly burn up all the gasoline and not to have any unburned particles. The used
atmosphere air consists of about 20.7% oxygen and about 78% nitrogen which dont burn. It just
expands with the heat, helping to push down the piston, and if a good combustion occurs all
nitrogen in the chamber put out.
After the explosion, carbon dioxide, water and nitrogen come out of the combustion
chamber. Carbon dioxide CO2 is not very harmful to the environment; it can be used by the
plants, not forgetting that having above normal values of it will badly contribute to the global
warming
Good combustion can be simplified as:
46
HC + O2 + N2 = H2O + CO2 + N2.

Bad combustion:
In bad combustions the byproducts of the combustion produce gases, which contribute to
air pollution or other problems. The main pollutants of the bad combustion are:
The unburned fuel hydrocarbons "HC". Some hydrocarbons considered to be harmful for
health.
Nitrous oxide NO is colorless, odorless and tasteless. When combining with atmospheric
oxygen it is quickly transformed into nitrogen dioxide NO2 having a red-brown color and
emitting a pungent odors. It provokes a very bad irritation of respiratory organs. Even
the nitrogen dioxide is harmful for health because it destroys the pulmonary tissue.
Carbon monoxide CO is colorless, odorless and tasteless. Therefore it is very dangerous:

it reduces the oxygen absorption capacity of blood, provoking in this manner a decrease
of oxygen content in blood. Even a CO percentage of 0.3% in the breathed air can be
lethal in 30 minutes. This is the reason why an engine must not run in closed rooms
without gas extracting system
2.2.4 Gas Analysis Experiment

In order to obtain the gases of the ICE used, we performed an experiment of gas analysis using
"AUTOMOBILE EXHAUST GAS ANALYZER"
MODEL: ZKE24 :( CO/HC/CO2/O2)
The main results of the exhaust gases that were determined in this experiment are:
HC: Misfire or bad burn
CO: Too rich mixture
CO2: Engine efficiency
O2: Too lean mixture or just air
NOx: Too hot or too lean
47
An exhaust gas analysis experiment

A
e
h taken plaace, to ensurre that the Innternal
has
Combusttion Engine ICE-Genera
I
tor unit is fuunctional forr the purposees of the projject. This
experimeent is illustraated here.
Equipmeents:
The equipments that were neededd to perform
m this experim
ment are Auttomobile Exxhaust Gas
Analyzerrs, Engine geenerator, andd electrical looad
Procedurre:
The tools of experiment
T
e
w prepareed and constrructed togethher as shownn in Fig 2.255, the
were
probe of automobile exhaust gas analyzer waas connectedd to Exhaust pipe as show
wn in Fig 2.226,
engine geenerator wass left to reachh rated tempperature. Thee result was taken of the analyzer shown
in Fig 2.227; table 2.5 shows the result
r
of the analyzer.
Fig
g 2.25
prepparing the connecction between looad and engine generator

g
48
Fiig 2.26 The connnection betweenn prop of gas anaalyzer and exhauust pipe
Fig 2.27 The gas analyzeer shows the resuults
Exha
aust gas
Staander value
Results
HC
C ppm
50-200
44
49
CO%
Less than 3
2.51
CO2%
9-12
8.4
O2%
2-5
8.88
NO ppm
100-200
68
Lambda
0.9-1.2
1.3
RPM
------
3200
T oil
------
30 Co
Table 2.5 the result of automobile exhausts gas analyzer
Discussion of the results

The pervious results represent very good manner for one cylinder four stroke engine, and
below each value will be discussed:
HC: 44 part per million. This value represents the amount of the hydrocarbons in the
exhaust gas, and shows that there is a complete combustion, most of the entered fuel
burned.
CO: 2.51%. This represents the percentage of carbon mono oxide in the exhaust gas, in
ordinary case, four cylinders engines. The value is very high, but in case of one cylinder
engines, these results supposed to be a good value.
O2: 8.88 % the oxygen percent in output gases .This high value supports that the engine
operates at lean mixture and this means low fuel consumption.
NO: 68 part per million, as shown in the table the allowable value of nitrous oxides 100
200 ppm, in case of engine will be used in this project the 68 ppm is an acceptable value
Lambda : 1.3, this value gives an indication about the amount of oxygen in exhaust gas.
50
It may be less than, equal, or more than 1, to obtain the mixture type rich, homogeneous, or
lean. The engine will be used in the project operate at = 1.3 lean mixture, this makes fuel
consumption low.
Summary:
There are many loads imposed on the chassis or body structure of a vehicle due to normal
running conditions. The most effective and important forces which are recommended to be
considered are, bending forces, longitudinal loading, and lateral loading. The ICE that is used is a
gasoline S.I, reciprocating (one cylinder), four stroke and air cooled engine, and it is the optimal
choice for the project objectives as the results of the gas analyzer indicate.
51
ChapterthreeElectricalDesign
Electrical design
This chapter discusses the main electrical components in the series hybrid vehicles, the
electrical motor, generator and batteries. Also; this chapter explains all kinds of each component
and the selected ones and why, then the experiments which applied on each of them.
3.1 The electrical motor

The Electric traction motor is a key component of hybrid and the electric vehicles. Its rule
mainly concentrated on delivering the power or torque to the wheels. There are two conventional
types of electrical motors; AC (alternating current) and DC (direct current) motors.
The selected motor in this project is DC motor because its ease to control, near linear
performance than AC motors, and its deliver high starting torque. The type of DC motor which is
selected is separately excited DC motor.
3.1.1 Reasons for selection of DC separately excited motor
There are a lot of options in the motors selection, each of them have advantages and
disadvantages. The motor that is selected in the series hybrid car project is a DC separately
excited motor, because of the following reasons:
The control of a separately excited DC motor can be achieved more easily.
It has a number of features acting in their favors, including high efficiency in the cruise
mode and a readily adjustable field, plus the practical.
When using separately excited motor we have a wider range of control regarding the field
current.
More efficient in recapturing power in the regenerative braking.
53
Chapterthree EllectricalDessign
3.1.2
Separately ex
xcited DC motor
m
Fig 3.1 shows the electrical

e
cirrcuit of the separately
excited DC motor,, in which the field winding
w
is
separateed from thee armature, and is fedd from an
indepenndent sourcee. In speciall case wheree the field
windingg and the armature
a
aree fed from the same
source, then the mo
otor called shunt
s
field DC
D motor.
The shuunt DC moto
or has similaar characterisstics to the
separateely excited DC
D motor.
T field win
The
nding is usedd to excite thhe field flux,
Fig3.1 electrrical circuit of thhe separately exccited DC motor
and the armature

a
currrent are suppplied to thee rotor via brrush and com
mmutator foor the mechaanical
work. Intteraction bettween field flux
f
and arm
mature currennt in the rotor produces torque.
W
When
a sepaarately excited motor is excited by a field currrent of
current of
o
, and an arm
mature
flows in
n the circuitt, the motor develop a back EMF annd torque to balance thee load
torque att a particularr speed.

T
The
is independent off the . Eachh winding iss supplied seeparately, annd any channge in
the armatture current has no effecct on the fieldd current.

By applyying second Kirchhoffs
K
law in armature electrical circuits:
(
(3.1)
Where:
Va: voltaage source
Ia: armatuure current
Ra: total resistance off the armature which is equal
e
54
(3.2)
Where:
: Armature coil resistance
: Poles coil resistance
: brushes resistance
: Back electromotive force in the armature terminals, which is generated according to the
electromagnetic induced law in the armature coil in magnetic flux and with speed :
(3.3)
Where:
: Magnetic flux provided by the field coil.
: the angular speed for the armature winding.
K: design constant.
And the angular speed is equal:
[rad/s]
(3.4)
Where n is the rotational speed measured by revolution per minute (rpm)

Electromagnetic torque law for the motor:
[N.m]
(3.5)
From equations (3.1) and (3.2):
(3.6)
The electromechanical characteristic for the separately excited DC motor ( = f (Ia)) is:
(3.7)
Equation (3.7) is linear since the value K is constant, and the characteristics being natural when
(V=Vn) and (=n).
55
Substitutting equation
n (3.5) in (3.7), the mathhematical reelation for thhe mechaniccal characterristics
could be obtained
(3.8)
From equatio
on (3.7) andd (3.8) the ellectromechaanical and mechanical
m
c
characteristic
cs for
the separrately excited
d DC motorr are represennted by a strraight line thhat decreases with increasing
current or
o torque, therefore
t
beecause of (K=constan
(
nt) for this motor the mechanicall and
electromechanical ch
haracteristicss are similar as in Fig3.22.
Fig 3.22 electromechannical or mechaniccal characteristiccs
A
According
to
o the mechaanical characcteristics, thhe operation point couldd be obtaineed as
shown inn Fig3.2, at point
p
A no- load mode at
a B short ciircuit mode,, between A and B are called
c
motoringg mode whicch included point
p
C in noominal valuees, pluggingg mode in D and regenerrating
mode in E.
E
3.1.3
B
Build
up the natural chaaracteristic
In this section the natuural characterristics of thee DC motor will be discussed in adddition
to the caalculations of
o its parameeters to ensurre its workabbility.
B
Because
of th
he mechaniccal and electtrical characcteristics of separately
s
excited DC motor
m
are lineaar two poin
nts would bee enough to build up thhe natural chharacteristicss. The first point
found easily from the
t name plaate of the motor
m
and ussually determ
mined by thee nominal power
p
56
(P2n), nominal voltage source (Vn), nominal rotational speed (nn) and nominal current (Ian) and
sometimes add the nominal efficiency (n). From these specifications the point in coordinates
(nn Ian) on the natural electromechanical characteristic could be found, but in mechanical (nn ,Tn)
which represents point C in Fig 3.2, Therefore, the second point can be encountered to no-load
angular speed (o) of which the current or the torque is equal zero, and this point represent point
A in Fig 3.2.
The following are some of mathematical expressions used to build up the natural characteristics,
are
(3.9)
(3.10)
0.5 1
(3.11)
(3.12)
(3.13)
(3.14)
(3.15)
Where:
Rn: nominal resistance
Vn: nominal voltage
In: nominal current
n: nominal efficiency
P2n: nominal power
Ra: armature resistance
no: no-load rotational speed
57
nn: nominal rotational speed

n: nominal angular speed
o: no-load angular speed
Tn: nominal torque
3.1.4 The natural characteristics for the selected motor
Table 3.1 illustrates the parameters of the DC traction motor which is selected in this project.
Parameters
The value
VF (field voltage)
190V
If (field current)
0.65 Amp
V (armature voltage)
170V, 240V,310 V
Ia (armature current)
18 Amp
Maximum power
4.7 kW
Minimum Efficiency
0.86
Temperature class
F 155 c
Table 3.1 the rated parameters of the traction motor.
Now with calculation that is used to build up the natural characteristics for the selected motor
using the expressions in section 3.1.3.
,
Rtot =
0.85
= 17.2
Ra= 0.5( 1- ) Rtot = 1.356

no =
wn =
V
V
= 3690.57 rpm
= 356.02
58
Tn =
K =
= 0.818
= 13.20 N.m
m
3.1.5 Speed control

c
of th
he DC motoor
The usedd speed regullation methoods selected for this project are
v
variation
of supplied
s
voltage
D
Decreasing
th
he magnetic flux
Why thoose methods were seleccted? How they

t
will bee achieved? This sectioon answers those
questionss
Variation
V
of supplied
s
volttage speed reegulation.
The brushed
b
DC motor can be
b very easilyy controlled, if the supplly voltage iss reduced. Fiig 3.3
illustrates this regulaation methodd. The maxiimum torquee falls in prooportion, whhere the sloppe of
the torquue/speed grap
ph remains unchanged.
u
So any torque and speedd can be achiieved below
w the maxim
mum voltage value, wherre the
voltage can
c be contrrolled simplyy and efficieently, and according to smooth volltage changees the
speed will be regulatted smoothlyy which is veery importannt to the tracttion operatioon.
Fig33.3 Speed regulattion by supply voltage

v
variation
59
Reducing th
he magnetic flux
In coontrolling by
y changing the magnettic flux, if the magnetiic flux is reeduced, thenn the
maximum
m torque fallls, but the sllope of the toorque/speed graph becom
mes flatter. Fig
F 3.4 illusttrates
this mechhanism. The motor can work
w
at a widde range of torque
t
and speed.
s
The control
c
by ch
hanging the magnetic fluux was useed in this prooject in somee cases wherre the
load is loow and high speed requirred. So if the magnetic flux
f
is reducced then the maximum toorque
falls, but the slope off the torque/sspeed graph becomes flaatter.
mply using voltage conttrol, especiaally at high speed
s
This method is sometimes beetter than sim
low torquue operation
n, which is quite
q
commoon in electriic vehicles cruising
c
nearr their maxiimum
speed. Thhe reason for
fo this is thhat the iron losses, which are assocciated with high speedss and
strong magnetic
m
field
ds, can be suubstantially reduced.
r
So the brushed DC motor is
i very flexibble to
control method,
m
espeecially if the magnetic fluux can be varied.
v
Fig 3.4 Speedd regulation maggnetic flux reducction
60
3.1.6 Motor Exp

periments
T section explains
This
e
thee experimentts which havve done, firsstly, the motor was exam
mined
to evaluuate its natu
ural mechannical and electromech
e
anical charracteristics, and the seecond
experimeents examineed the speed regulation for
f the motorr.
T "semicon
The
nductor drivve" laboratorry was usedd to perform
m the experiments whichh are
required to evaluate the motor characteristiics. Fig 3.5 illustrates the
t equipments used and the
wiring between
b
diff
fferent compponents. Thhere are Varriable DC Power suppply type RZ
Z/02,
measurem
ment tools (voltmeterr, ammeterrs), Variablle resistancce, mechannical load and
Tachogennerator.
T draw the normal
To
n
charaacteristic currve of DC motor,
m
variabble load musst be used which
w
is AC mootor that turn
ns on opposiite direction to the tractiion motor unntil AC motoor behave ass load
for traction motor. Th
he variation of the load value was done
d
by channging the vooltage sourcee, and
speed waas recorded by
b using the tachogeneraator.
The circuuit show in Fig
F 3.7:
Fig 3.5 th
he connection off the mechanical and electrical chharacteristic expperiment circuit
3 3.7 and 3.8

3 are captuured after coonnecting thee circuit.
Figures 3.6,
61
Fig 3.6 Capturre from obtaining the electrical and

a mechanical characteristics
c
exxperiment show
ws the
connectionn between the mootor and the loadd.
Fig 3.7 Captu

ured from obtainiing the electrical and mechanicaal characteristics experiment shoows the connectioon
of the measurement tools
62
Fig 3.8 Capturre from obtaining the electrical and

a mechanical characteristics
c
exxperiment show
ws power
supply connnection the fixeed power supplyy connected to a variable
v
resistannce serially
to the fieldd. And the variabble source to thee load.
Becau
use of the diifference bettween the motor
m
shaft diameter
d
andd the diametter of
thhe load shafft an approprriate mechannical couplinng was desiggned. The dimensions
d
o the
of
m
motors
shaft and the loadd were taken and the coouple was designed
d
as shown
s
in Fiig3.9.
T
The
manufaccturing proccess was accomplished
a
d in AL-Baalqa Univerrsity, mechaanical
department work
w
shop.
Fig3.9 Desig
gning the mechannical coupling beetween the load and the traction motor for experriments
purposess.
63
T
Table
3.2 illu
ustrates the values
v
obtainned from the experimennt by varyingg the load toorque
and inspeecting the cu
urrent of the armature "Ia, and the sppeed "n".
Fig 3.10 show
ws the relatioonship betweeen w and Ia.
Fig3.10 The traction

t
motor ellectrical characteeristics
Ia (Amp)
n (rpm)
w (raad/s)
1813
1.7899096
1812
2.7811503
1805
3.7600314
1.22
1794
6.0977859
1.44
1783
8.7977456
2.445
1694
27.677534
3.22
1657
38.155356
3.88
1613
47.755198
4.445
1575
56.811588
5.22
1531
64.9665
5.88
1498
72.922695
6.44
1469
79.566865
6.99
1455
84.55536
7.44
1451
92.277598
Table 3.2 the reesults of obtaining the electriccal

characteristics experiment
64
V
Varying
the load
l
appliedd on the motor, repeatinng step 4, annd observingg the torquee, the
table 3.3
3 was consstructed to giive the mechhanical charaacteristics.
Figure 3.11 sh
hows the rellationship beetween andd T.
Fig 3.11 The mechanicall characteristics of

o the traction motor
m
TL
0.099
1813
189.84429
0.144
18122
189.73382
0.199
1805
189.00052
0.31
17944
187.85534
0.45
1783
186.70016
1.499
16944
177.38822
2.1
1657
173.50079
2.7
1613
168.90005
3.299
1575
164.92215
3.877
1531
160.31141
4.444
1498
156.85586
4.944
14699
153.8222
5.3
1455
152.3556
5.8
1451
151.93372
Table3.3 The results

r
of obtainiing the Mechanical characteristiccs
experimennt
65
Part two (motor speed control)

After determining the best speed regulation method it was necessary to indicate those
regulation methods by applying them on the used motor and observe the power consumed, the
max corresponding speed, the efficiency, the speed and the linear velocity.
The circuit was constructed as shown in Fig 3.7 the results of the regulation by varying
Va are illustrated in table3.4.
Va (V)
Ia (Amp)
n (rpm)
w (rad/s)
P out(w)
P in (w)
Velocity (m/s)
45.5
3.8
477
49.94764
144.8482
172.9
0.887757
1.248691
68.5
4.8
731.8
76.62827
289.6549
328.8
0.880945
1.915707
101
5.8
1098
114.9738
521.9812
585.8
0.891057
2.874346
119.8
6.1
1304
136.5445
619.912
730.78
0.848288
3.413613
125
6.4088
1363.302
142.7541
694.6987
801.1
0.867181
3.568853
150
7.1863
1642.127
171.9505
933.5019
1077.945
0.866001
4.298762
175
7.9638
1920.952
201.1468
1205.151
1393.665
0.864735
5.02867
200
8.7413
2199.777
230.3431
1509.646
1748.26
0.863513
5.758579
225
9.5188
2478.602
259.5395
1846.987
2141.73
0.862381
6.488487
250
10.2963
2757.427
288.7358
2217.173
2574.075
0.861348
7.218395
275
11.0738
3036.252
317.9321
2620.206
3045.295
0.860411
7.948304
300
11.8513
3315.077
347.1285
3056.084
3555.39
0.859564
8.678212
310
12.1623
3426.607
358.807
3239.633
3770.313
0.859248
8.970175
66
A
According
to the experim
ment perform
med on the motor
m
and the data show
wn in table3.44, the
two reguulation metho
ods are illusttrated in Fig3.12, and Fig3.13.
Fig 3.12 the changees in motor speedd by varying the supplied voltage.
Fig 3.13 The
resultss of obtainingg the regulatinng characterisstics experimeent
T correspon
The
nding speedd to increase Va to its nom
minal value is 358rad/s which is equual to
8.9 m/s which
w
is the maximum speed
s
that can
c be obtainned by the first
f
regulatioon method. After
that the flux will bee reduced att high speedd low torque operation to increase the speed to
t its
m 15m/s whiich correspoonds to 610.55 rad/s.
maximum
67
3.2
The Generator
G
r
T generato
The
or that is ussed in this project
p
is paart of an enngine generaator. The ennginegeneratorr as shown in
i Fig 3.14 is
i the combinnation of ann electrical generator
g
andd gasoline enngine
(prime mover)
m
- thaat was discuussed previoously, connected togetheer to form a single piecce of
equipmennt.
The engiine generato
or unit is coontrolled intternally to maintain
m
connstant frequuency and varied
v
current will
w simulate the load preesent at its teerminal.
The geneerator param
meter: 4kW, 220
2 V AC.
Fig 3.14 Engine generrator set
3.3
The Batteries:
B
T most imp
The
portant challlenge in hybrids is the baattery. Its voolume, weighht, efficiencyy and
the amouunt of energy
y stored in it must be takken in to accoount when thhe selection is made.
68
3.3.1
Energy storage devices
Is a device that store energy, accepts energy from outside (charging) and delivers energy
outside (discharging). There are three electrochemical devices used in hybrid felid:
Fuel cells (FC)
Super capacitors.
Batteries.
The battery and capacitor store energy, but the fuel cell converts energy. Storage of energy is
essential for regenerative braking.
A Fuel cell
The fuel cell is similar to a battery, in that it is an electrochemical device. A FC differs in that
it cannot store energy. (Conceivably, the FC could be reversed for the electrolysis of water; the
H2 and O2 represent stored energy.) Its system has a fuel tank and stores energy in the form of
hydrogen. It cannot be used for regenerative braking. A FC can be used for electric-only
propulsion. The FC is more like an ICE than a battery. So long as the fuel flows, electricity is
generated.
Super capacitors
Advances in the Super capacitor or Ultra capacitor will be the key to the success of the
hybrid electric vehicle. The Super capacitor is an electrochemical capacitor that has a usually
high energy density compared to common capacitors. General Electric developed the first super
capacitor in 1957 using a porous carbon electrode.
Super capacitors can quickly store large amounts of electricity and discharge the electricity
on demand to batteries, or electric motor which can propel vehicles. Traditional rechargeable
batteries require recharge times, hundreds of time longer than super capacitors. Also super
capacitors have very high charge-discharge cycles compared to rechargeable batteries. The
charge-discharge cycles for a super capacitor can be in the millions compared to the best
69
rechargeable battery cycle of 1000. The super capacitor has no disposable parts during it long
life cycle making it environmentally friendly.
The Super capacitors disadvantages are the amount of energy stored per unit weight is lower
than that of a battery. The voltage varies with the amount of stored energy. Recovery of energy
in a Super capacitor would require advanced electronic controls.
The Super capacitor could store energy produced from generator or brakes. When batteries
require recharging or additional electricity is required for electric motors in a hybrid electric
vehicle the Super capacitor can release this stored electricity.
Super capacitors are currently used in electric racing cars that need a large amount of energy
in a short period of time. [4]
Electrochemical batteries:
Electrochemical batteries convert electrical energy to chemical energy during charging and
convert chemical energy to electrical energy during discharging.
There are different types of batteries used for hybrid vehicle such as:
Li- Ions battery,
NiMH (Nickel metal battery) battery.
Lead acid battery
The battery is combined from several cells stacked together; each cell consists of three
elements: positive electrode, negative electrode, and electrolyte.
The positive electrode represents the anode that is lead in lead acid batteries, for Li- Ions
batteries is lithium within an atomic lattice of graphite or tin oxide, and for NiMH the anode is a
metal hydride.
70
The Negative electrode that represents the cathode for lead acid batteries the cathode is lead
dioxide, for Li- Ions is manganese, cobalt, or nickel oxide, and for NiMH batteries is nickel
hydroxide.
The Electrolyte in which the electrode immersed, that may be acid or KOH.
Lithium-Ions Batteries
Lithium is the lightest of all metals and presents very interesting characteristics from an
electrochemical point of view. Indeed, it allows high cell voltage, which results in a high specific
energy and specific power. There are two major technologies of lithium-based batteries: lithium
polymer and lithium-ion. There are some advantages of Li-Ions batteries such as; the battery can
be made into a wide variety of sizes and shapes, and the Li-ion battery offers high specific
energy.
The main disadvantages of this type of batteries are cost, durability, safety.
Nickel Metal Hybrid batteries
In this type of batteries the anode complex is a metal hydride, the cathode is nickel
hydroxide, the electrolyte is potassium hydroxide (KOH). NiMH batteries provide reasonably
good power and energy for HEV applications. Battery life is approximately 600 cycles with
DOD 80%. Recharge time is 35 min from DOD 80%. Cooling helps fast recharge. Improvements
in NiMH batteries leading to greater specific power or power density mean smaller weight and
volume. In turn, this means increased cooling requirements. The necessity for increased cooling
capability increases volume, cost, and noise from cooling fans. The comments above apply
equally well to other battery types.
Lead-Acid Batteries
The lead-acid battery has been a successful commercial product for over a century and is still
widely used as electrical energy storage in the automotive field and other applications. It has
several advantages such as its low cost, mature technology, relative high power capability, and
71
good cycle. These advantages are attractive for its application in HEVs where high power is the
first consideration.
Here the anode is lead dioxide, cathode is lead, with sulfuric acid electrolyte, and these
materials are rather low in cost when compared to their more advanced counterparts.
There are some disadvantages of lead acid batteries; the energy density of lead-acid batteries
is low, mostly because of the high molecular weight of lead. The temperature characteristics are
poor below 10C; its specific power and specific energy are greatly reduced.
3.3.2 Chemical reactions of lead acid batteries
The lead acid battery has sulfuric acid (H2SO4) as electrolyte and anode made of lead with
cathode made of lead dioxide.
fully charged battery:
In case of fully charged battery the positive plates are covered by PbO2, negative plates are
covered by Pb and electrolyte consist H2O and H2SO4.
Discharging:
As current flow in the cell from negative plate to positive plates through load, during this process
the electrolyte separates into H2O & SO4, the free sulfate so4 combines with Pb in positive and
negative plates this forms pbso4 on the plates as shown in Fig 3.15.
The free H2 combine with O2 to form more H2O
PbO2 + 4H + SO4 PbSO4 + 2H2O + 2e
72
Fig 3.15 dischargingg
fuully discharg
ged:
The posittive plates an

nd negative plates are coovered by pbbso4 and eleectrolyte to mostly
m
waterr.
C
Charging
:
As currennt applying to battery thhe sulfate leaaves positivee and negatiive plates annd combines with
H2O to foorm H2SO4. Also O2 com
mbines withh Pb and form
m PbO2 on positive
p
platees. This show
wn in
Fig 3.16
PbSO4 + 2e SO4-2 + Pb
.. NE
EGATIVE
PbSO4 + 2H2 PbO2 + 4H+ 2ee POSITIVE

P
Fig 3.16 charging
73
3.3.3 Battery capacity:

In general terms, the capacity of battery is the amount of charge available expressed in
ampere- hours (Ah). The capacity of a cell battery is related to the quantity of active materials in
it, the amount of electrolyte, and surface area plates. The capacity of battery cell is measured by
discharging at constant current until it reaches its terminal voltage. This is usually done at
constant temperature under stander conditions. The capacity is calculated by multiplying the
discharge current by the time required to reach terminal voltage.
(3.16)
Battery capacity varies with the discharge rate. The higher the discharge rate the lower
the cell capacity. Lower discharge rates results in higher capacity.
3.3.4 Battery selection:
After viewing the main types of electrical energy storage systems and batteries, the lead acid was
the optimum choice with all of its advantages and disadvantages.
The battery selected parameters are shown in table 3.6.
Type
Capacity of charge
12A.h
Total voltage
285 V
Total weight
60 kg
Table 3.6 The selected battery parameter
3.3.5 Charging Rate

Long battery life depends on an optimum charge/ discharge (C/D) cycle. The charging
rate of a lead acid battery is limited by excessive gassing and excessive battery temperature.
There is a connection between charge rate and battery life as dependent on battery temperature.
74
Battery heating
h
=
(3.17)
Where:
E: batteryy energy.
V: batterry voltage.
t: charginng time.
R: internnal impedancce of the batttery.
Typical safe
s
charge rate
r is I = C/5
C for 5 h where
w
I is cuurrent and C is capacity. The chargee rate
varies according to
r = C/5iff the SOC off the battery is between 0 and 80%.. Charging rate
r =
Start chharging ate rate
C/10 if SOC
S
is greateer than 80%.
Specific energy for the
t lead acidd battery is inn the range of
o 2535 W h/kg. Speciific power iss near
150 W/kgg.
L of a lead
Life
d acid batterry is approxiimately 1000 cycles at 80% DOD, which is about 3
years serrvice in an EV
E or HEV
V. Life can be
b extended to 5 years by
b precisionn controlled C/D.
This empphasizes the importance of proper coontrolled C/D
D.
O
Overcharging
g of a lead acid battery may
m cause electrolysis of
o the electroolyte. The H2 and
O2 can explode.
e
Forr the same reeason, mainntenance-freee lead acid batteries
b
cann also explode in
spite of being
b
sealed..
Sometimes charge
c
and discharge
d
raates are statted in termss of capacitty. Overcharging
causes baattery damag
ge. The grapph in the following figuure 3.17 shoows the perm
missible charging
power. As
A SOC increeases the chaarging poweer falls from 4.4 to 0.3 kW
W.
Fig 3.17
3
the permiissible charging power
75
3.3.6 Disscharging Rate

R
A high disch
harge rate caauses droop of terminal voltage, whhen terminall voltage droops,
efficiencyy also falls. The perfectt battery durring dischargge has consttant voltage at the termiinals.
When deepth of disch
harge (DOD
D) is 100%, the voltage drops preciipitously to zero. The figure
f
3.19 has a perfect baattery curve.. The curvess A, B, and C give term
minal voltagee as the batteery is
being disscharged. Cu
urve A has a modest cuurrent with curve
c
B at higher value that means more
load thann A. Curve C is for a veery large currrent and verry rapid disccharge. As thhe voltage cuurves
droop inn Fig3.19, th
he useful staate of chargge (SOC) iss decreased. The curvess decline mainly
m
because of
o battery in
nternal impeddance.
Fig3.18
8 the differennce in batterry voltage acccording to change
c
in SO
OC.
The grapph in next Fig
g 3.20 shows the permisssible power during dischharge. As SO
OC increases, the
dischargiing power in
ncreases from
m 0.3 to 2.3 kW.
k
76
Figg 3.19 the permisssible power durring discharge
3.4 Summary
S
:
There are tw
wo importantt constrains for selectingg the motor:
a. Th
he rated mottor power.
b. Th
he speed reggulation methhods.
The used speed regulation methods selected for this project are:
c. Vaariation of suupplied voltaage

d. Deecreasing the magnetic flux
f
The most im
mportant chhallenge in hybrids
h
is thhe battery, its volume, weight,
w
efficiiency
annd the amou
unt of energyy stored in it must be takken in accounnt when seleection made.
lead acid
a
battery has several advantages such as its low cost, maature technoology,
p
capabbility, and good
g
cycle. These advaantages are attractive foor its
rellative high power
appplication in HEVs where high poweer is the first consideratioon.
77
Chapterfourelectroniccircuitdesign
As mentioned in the previous chapter, the "DC-traction motor" should be fed by 310 volt
DC, and this voltage will be smoothly varied, to demonstrate the selected speed regulation
method which is the "input voltage regulation" this variation of input voltage should be
controlled in the simplest way.
The required power electronic circuits to drive the motor should offers the smoothness,
controllability, and a down-convertor to the supplied dc power.
The selected circuit to drive the traction motor was the "Buck convertor".
The DC power should feed the traction motor supplied from two sources
The set of battery supplies 300V DC.
The Internal Combustion Engine ICE-Generator supplies 220V AC.
So 300V from the battery should be converted up, to be compatible with the motor rated
parameters. And the output voltage of this conversion will be controlled to maintain constant
through the batteries dissipation operation.
The required power electronic circuits to convert the batteries power should be an up-convertor
voltage. The selected circuit is a "Boost convertor".
The Engine-Generator unit supplies a 220V AC, this power should be firstly converted to
a DC form then it will be amplified to meet the traction motor power. So firstly a "Single Phase
Full Wave Rectifier was" used then a "Boost convertor". But because of the non-resistive load of
the power conversion units, a "power factor corrector" is required to correct the current attitude
and produce a near to 1.0 power factor value. [1]
After the power converted from the power sources to the required form and parameter,
they are summed in a way to not affect each others, and offer the controllability of power sharing
from the two sources according to the modes of operation. This will be obtained by the
Differential power supply".
Figure 4.1 shows the general schematic of the power flow in the unit from the sources to
the traction motor.
79
Figure 4.1 The power electronics diagram
80
4.1 The Buck- motor drive circuit.

As explained before in the traction motor section, the adopted method of motor drive is
the "input voltage regulation", in other words we need to construct a circuit that has the ability to
decrease and increase the voltage supplied to the motor gradually. This is necessary to indicate
the smoothness operation of the vehicle during the speed regulation.
Figure 4.2 shows the schematic of the motor drive simulation and the output parameter of the
motor.
The step-down dc-dc converter commonly known as a buck converter. It consists of dc
input voltage source, controlled switch, which is MOSFET transistor in the project. Diode D,
filter inductor L, filter capacitor C. these values will be calculated later in this chapter,
Assuming that the inductor current is always positive this is indicated by the continuous
mode operation.
4.1.1 The simulation diagram of the system
Figure 4.2 the schematic of the diagram motor drive and the output parameter of the motor.
81
Figure 4.3 the drive buck circuit.
Figure 4.3 The simulation circuit of the buck drives circuit
4.2.1 The operation principle:

The current through the inductor increases with the switch in on state. As the current
through the inductor increases, the energy stored in the inductor increases. When the switch
changes to off state, the current through the load resistor decreases as the energy stored in the
inductor decreases. The rise and fall of current through the load resistor is linear if the time
constant due to the LR combination is relatively large compared with the on- and off-time of the
switch.
A capacitor is added in parallel with the load resistor to reduce further the ripple content
in the output voltage. The combination of the inductor and capacitor reduces the output voltage
ripple to very low levels.
A practical model of the switch is designed using a diode and power semiconductor
switch. A freewheeling diode is used with the switch in off state since the inductor current
freewheels through the switch. The switch is controlled by a scheme such as pulse width or
frequency modulation. [6]
82
This circuit is used in the armature and field side but in different parameter values. The
calculation of each will be presented later in this chapter.
Figures
4.4A and 4.4B
shows the output of simulation diagram of the motor
Figure 4.4 A The rotational speed of the motor versus time
Figure 4.4 B The Armature current of the motor versus time
83
Figure4.5 The field current of the motor versus time, where it's important to
observe the stability of the transient state operation period.
4.1.3
Component values calculations:
Referring to many books and sheets that specialized in the switching mode power
electronic circuits calculation , you can find that the key of solving and calculating the values of
the circuit components was firstly deals with the circuit as ideal, in other words without voltage
or current ripple, then add the inductors and capacitors.
The circuit that models the basic operation of the buck converter with an ideal switch and
a purely resistive load with an average output voltage Vo is given in terms of the duty ratio and
the input voltage VI by
(4.1)
The input and output for this design are the required values
Where: Vo= 310
Vi= 335
= 0.925
84
The average inductor current at the boundary point is calculated using equation 4.2
(4.2)
The practical used value is 300H.

Capacitor value by equation 4.3
(4.3)
Assuming the ripple voltage = 5 V
The value that is used in this project 120 f
4.2 Generator conversion circuit.

(Rectifier power factor corrector boost first part of differential power supply)
As mentioned previously that the generator is an AC voltage generator, this means that it
should be rectified to be used in supplying the DC motor.
A common single phase full wave Rectifier used[6] . Then a power factor corrector followed by a
boost up convertor. And before the switch on there is the walk in circuit as shown in Figure 4.6.
85
4.2.1
Simulation diagram
Figure 4.6 The schematic of the MATLAB SIMULINK of the engine generator, walk-in, power factor
corrector, Boost.
As shown in figure 4.7below the voltage should be amplified from the rectifier 311V to
335V to be compatible with the motor rated parameters.
The Dc-Dc up- convertor, the boost is used for this operation,
4.2.2
Principle of operation
A boost converter regulates the average output voltage at a level higher than the input or
source voltage. For this reason the boost converter referred to as a step-up converter or regulator.
The DC input voltage is in series with a large inductor acting as a current source. A
switch in parallel with the current source and the output is turned off periodically, providing
energy from the inductor and the source to increase the average output voltage. The boost
86
converter is commonly used in regulated DC power supplies and regenerative braking of DC

motors.
The continuous-conduction mode of operation occurs when the current through the
inductor in the circuit is continuous with the inductor current always greater than zero. The
operation of the circuit in steady state consists of two states. The first state with the switch closed
has current charging the inductor from the voltage source. The switch opens at the end of the ontime and the inductor discharges current to the load with the input voltage source still connected.
This results in an output voltage across the capacitor larger than the input voltage. The output
voltage remains constant if the RC time constant is significantly larger than the on-time of the
switch. A representative set of inductor voltage and current waveforms for the continuous
conduction mode.
Figures 4.7and 4.8 illustrate the output of the simulation of the mentioned circuit which is
shown in diagram figure 4.6. We can observe the effect of the walk-in circuit. Which is
responsible of charging the capacitor initially before the motor start sinks power from the
generator. This effect obvious in the first 0.4 sec of the operation
Figure 4.7 The transient and steady state operation of the engine generator circuit.
87
Figure 4.7 closer view of the steady state operation of the engine generator circuit.
4.2.3
Component values calculations:
The engine-generator power electronics circuit consists of:
The boost circuit:

For the ideal boost the voltage ratio is equivalent to the ratio of the switching period to the offtime of the switch this relation is expressed by equation 4.4
(4.4)
D = 0.06
88
The boundary point between continuous- and discontinuous-current conduction occurs

when the average inductor current over one switching period is half the peak value. The average
inductor current at the boundary point is calculated using equation 4.5.
(4.5)
Where:
The practical selected value 150 H

The output current at the boundary condition is derived by using the current ratio shown
in equation4.6
(4.6)
The output voltage Vo is generally kept constant while the duty ratio D varies in response
to changes in the input voltage Vi.
The duty ratio is defined as a function of the output current for various values of the
voltage ratio according to equation 4.7
(4.7)
D at max current = 0.23
When calculating the capacitor value, at worst case assuming R equal 3, voltage ripple = 5V
(4.8)
89
= 200f
the practice used value is 176f
The boost of the power factor correction

The power factor corrector is used because of the dangerous capacitive load at the engine
generator. That led to a very high overshooting of the current and the phase shift between the
voltage and the current .So to minimize this effect making the current shape more flat and
eliminating or reducing the P.F to make it near as possible to 1.
There are many methods used to reduce the P.F, the one used in this project is the Boost
circuit. Because it is the simplest compatible with other circuit and easy to control.
The main constrain to be considered when calculating the P.F.C parameter depend mainly
on the worst case condition which is in our project at the maximum generated duty cycle which
equal to 50%. Back to equation 4.5.
Using equation 4.6 the inductor value
Calculating the capacitor value assuming at worst case R= 2 and ripple, voltage =2V
Back to equation 4.8 the capacitor = 3.15mf the practical used value= 4 mf
4.3 Batteries conversion circuit.(boost)

As mentioned before in order to use the selected set of batteries 300 V a boost circuit is
constructed. The operation principle of the boost was discussed in the previous section.
4.3.1
Simulation Diagram
Figure 4.8and4.9 show the circuit simulation, Note that when simulating those diagrams a low
pass filter may be required.
90
Figure 4.8
Figure 4.9
The simulation of the battery circuit.
The simulation output of the battery
91
4.3.2
Component Value calculations
Now we calculate the parameter of boost for battery

According to equations 4.1, 4.2, 4.3 we obtain.
D= 0.34
L= 200H the practical used 150H
IOB= 6.6A
And duty cycle for max current is according equation 4.4
D=0.56
Assuming R= 10 and ripple voltage equal 5V according to equation 4.5
C= 150f
the practical used value = 176f
4.4 Conclusion:
The selected power circuit to drive the traction motor was the "Buck convertor" because
it insures simplicity, controllability, and smoothness, and the required power electronics circuit to
convert the batteries power should be an up-convertor voltage. The selected circuit is a "Boost
convertor" for the same reasons buck was chosen. To convert the AC form of the generator to dc
a Rectifier Bridge is used, then it will be amplified to meet the traction motor power using a
boost circuit. The non-resistive load of the power conversion units and the generator the "power
factor corrector" is required to correct the current attitude and produce a near to power factor.
Finally the selected power electronic selected circuits are tested by simulation, and expected
outputs obtained.
92
Chapterfivecontrolsystem
93
chapterfivecontrolsystem
Control System
Because the hybrid vehicle should react with the road conditions, the operation status,
and the desire of the driver, taking in account the need of increasing the fuel efficiency, the
control system was designed to work in more than one mode of operation, to provide
comprehensive controlling on the power exchanging between the system components.
Table 5.1 illustrates the state of the vehicle motion and the main system components, at the
different modes of operation.
Operational mode
Engine
Generator M/G
Battery
Vehicle motion
Starting
on
on
Off
Charging
At rest
Low speed cruising
on
on
On
M -mode
Charging
Moving
Moderate speed cruising
on
on
On
M -mode
Off
Moving
Max needed power and

acceleration
Pure Electrical vehicle
on
on
on
Discharging
Discharging
Moving
off
On
M-mode
On
M-mode
Regenerative baking
on
on
On
G- mode
Charging
Moving
Slowing down
Table 5.1 illustrates the state of the vehicle motion and the main system components, at the different modes
of operation
The modes of operation adopted in this hybrid car, will be discussed below
94
chaptterfivecon
ntrolsysttem
5
5.1
Modess of operation
Where the en
W
ngine power will be connsumed afterr conversionn at differentt status? How
w the
vehicle will
w react in
n different conditions?
c
T
This
will bee discussed after explaiining this hybrid
modes off operation, those
t
modess are:
1- Startinng off
2- Low speed cruisin
ng
3- Moderrate speed crruising
4- Maxim
mum needed
d power and accelerationn
5- Regennerating brak
king mode
6- Pure Electric
E
mod
de
5.1.1
Startiing off:
At starting off, the engine operates

o
at minimum
m
avvailable speeed (within thhe ideal operrating
conditionn), and the output
o
poweer will be used to recharrge the batteery. Fig5.1 shows
s
the poowertrain of thhe starting off
o mode.
Note: thee battery
Fiig5.1 The power train of startingg off mode
95
chaptterfivecon
ntrolsysttem
considereed not full, in

n case it's fuull the powerr will be disssipated.
5.1.2
Low Speeds
S
Cruising:
When the driiver presses the gas peddal, the geneerated poweer will be spplit by the power
W
p
electronics. Part of the
t output poower is routted by the power electroonics to the M/G in M-m
mode
ount of gas pedal,
p
and thhe remainderr of the pow
wer goes to thhe battery. Figure
F
accordingg to the amo
5.2 show
ws the power--train of the low speed cruising
c
modde.
Fig5.2 The pow

wer Moderate sppeeds cruising. trrain of the low speeds
s
mode
5.1.3
Modeerate Speedss Cruising
At normal cru
A
uising the enngine will woork at its ideeal operatingg condition at
a different RPMs
R
to providde the needed
d power to the
t traction motor,
m
and thhe battery iss essentially bypassed. Fig5.3
F
shows the power-traiin of the
96
chaptterfivecon
ntrolsysttem
Fig5.3 The power traain of the moderaate speeds mode
5.1.4
Maxim
mum Needeed Power an
nd Acceleration
At acceleratio
A
on or going uphill, bothh the batteryy and generaator powers are compound to
supply thhe needed power.
p
Wherre this poweer supplyingg will keep increasing until
u
reachees the
"base vellocity" of the vehicle whhich is the velocity
v
correesponds to the maximum
m power givven to
the wheeel. Fig5.4 sho
ows the pow
wer-train of thhe Maximum
m power andd accelerationn mode.
Fig5.4 The
T power train of
o the maximum
m needed power mode
m
5.1.5
Regeenerating Braking
B
Mod
de
Additional feeature of hyybrid is the ability to recapturing

A
r
s
some
of thee energy useed to
acceleratte the vehiclee. This is known as "regenerative braaking"; in thhis mode the M/G is in thhe Gmode. Annd the torqu
ue slows the wheels oppooses shaft motion
m
of thee M/G whichh removes ennergy
97
chaptterfivecon
ntrolsysttem
of vehiclle motion and

a generatees electrical power. Figg5.5 shows the
t power-trrain regenerrative
braking mode.
m
Fig 5.5 Thee power train of the

t regenerative braking mode
5.1.6
Pure Ellectric modee
In thhis mode thee hybrid will work as an electric vehiicle which means,
m
all thee traction poower
will be suupplied from
m the batteriees. And the engine
e
will be
b off. The power
p
will bee delivered as
a
shown inn Fig5.6.
Fig 5..6 The power traain of the pure ellectric vehicle
98
chaptterfivecon
ntrolsysttem
5.2 Control system

m Operatioon.
Inn the control system thee main inputt is the gas pedal
p
that iss connected to potentiom
meter
reads a voltage
v
from 0V to 5V. As
A the pedall compressedd the outputt voltage increases, this value
v
used to determine
d
an
ny mode of operation
o
is required,
r
and then determ
mine the power needed to be
transferreed to the tracction motor from each power supplyy.
Fig5.7 shhows the power suppliedd by the enggine throughh the generaator and the electrical stoorage
system too the final traaction motorr.
Fig5.7 The pow

wer delivered byy each power souurce in the main modes.
Figg5.7 shows th
he power coontribution frrom each off the power sources,
s
andd the sum of them
which deelivered to th
he motor- veersus the varriation of thee gas pedal output
o
as thee voltage chaanges
accordingg to the driver desires.
The amouunt of the po
ower supplieed by each soource was deetermined inn order to obbtain a 55%
Hybridneess percent H.
H [4]
99
chaptterfivecon
ntrolsysttem
5
5
100
0%
55%
A main consttrain is very important too be consideered in the control

c
systeem, is the staate of
charge SO
OC of the batteries. Sincce experiencce has demonstrated thatt battery lifee can be exteended
by restriccting deep discharge.
d
Thhe control syystem designned to mainttain the SOC
C of 75% (D
DOD,
25%). Frrom this valu
ue, the batteery can proviide 25% forr motor assisst. Also from
m this value, 25%
[4]
of batteryy is availablee to store energy from reegenerative braking,
b
or engine.
e
The channge in the po
ower supplied, and splitting amountss, will determ
mine the corrresponding mode
m
of operattion, which will lead the control syystem to a ceertain requirred behaviorr according to its
main algoorithm.
Fig5.8 shhows the con
ntrol algorithhm that illusttrates the seqquence of thhe modes opeerations.
Figure 5.8
The control algorithm

m of the control system
V: the pedal
p
output..
a b: Represent a values of V
Limit swiitch 1/2: represent two brake
b
pedal ranges.
100
5.4 Control system Implementation

To achieve the operation sequence we mentioned in this chapter's previous
sections, in accordance, the best choice to implement the control system was to use the
"programmable interface controller" PIC.
5.4.1 Why using PICs?
The reason behind selecting the PICs to design our hybrid vehicle control system
is the features that distinguish the PIC over the other controllers and suites us more. PICs
consider being the first widely available device for us as students, which makes it ideal
for our experimental work nature. Its flash memory allows the program to be replaced
quickly and easily with new programs versions. Its programming software becomes lately
very commonplace and easy to be learned with the availability of teaching references of
more than high level programming language. The Cheap price gives the opportunity for
us not freight of making mistakes! which is the key of learning. Small instruction set,
only 35 instructions makes controlling the programming easily, plus that, the ability of
[2]
ignoring the innards of it, and treat it as a black box in some case.
5.4.2 The microcontroller used.

The PIC we used in our project is the "PIC16f877A" and next we list its most important
features:
1. High-performance RISC CPU
a. Operating speed:20Mhz, 200ns instruction cycle
b. Operating voltage:4.0-5.5volts
c. Industrial temperature range(-40 to +85 degrees)
d. 15 Interrupt sources
e. 35 single word instructions
f. All single-cycle instructions except for program branches
2. Special Microcontroller Features
a. Flash memory:14.3KB(8192 words)
b. Data SRAM:368 bytes
c. Data EEPROM:256 bytes
d. Self-reprogrammable under software control
e. In-circuit serial programming via two pins
f. Watchdog timer with on-chip RC oscillator
g. Programmable code protection
h. Power-saving code protection
i. Selectable oscillator options
101
3. Peripheral Features
a. 33 I/O pins : 5 I/O ports
b. Timer0:8-bit timer/counter with 8-bit prescaler
c. Timer1:16-bit timer/counter with prescaler
d. Timer2:8-bit timer/counter with 8-bit period register, prescaler and postscaler
e. Two capture, compare, PWM modules
f. Synchronous serial port with two modes
g. USART/SCI with 9-bit address detection
h. Parallel slave port
i. Brown-out detection circuitry for brown-out reset
4. Analog Features
a. 10-bit, 8-channel A/D converter
b. Brown-out reset
c. Analog comparable module. [3]
5.4.3
Configuration of control system.
The control system consists of four PICs:

1.
2.
3.
4.
The master PIC

The analog to digital ADC.
The pulse width modulation PWM generator.
The mode selector.
The master PIC:

This controller mainly in charge of sensing the gas pedal from the ADC PIC, and
selecting the correspond mode of operation then give the order to the "mode selector PIC" to take
the actions required in the current mode.
This PIC also should sense the reverse and perform by itself the required reactions by giving the
orders to the PWM PIC.
Also in the master PIC we perform the braking mechanism, the deceleration by Regenerative
braking, or by the dissipation through observing the SOC state of charge of the battery.
102
The mode selector PIC:

This PIC is responsible for sensing the various parameters and feedbacks, during the car
operation in a certain mode. Gives the orders to the power electronics to take the corresponds
actions, like delivering specific amount of power to the traction motor, charging or dischargingsinking from the battery and according to the mode of control algorithm explained before.
The Pulse Width Modulation PIC:
As we mentioned in the feature of the PIC16f77a section, it support only two PWM
channel with its library, and because most of our dealing with the power electronics is using the
PWM, if we depend on that then we should use more than 4 PICs, only for this purpose, so
instead of that we use one PIC only to do this operation of PWM generating,
The input of this PIC are, the channel number, the duty cycle value and the enable, and gives a
steady 8 PWM channel of a frequency on the oscilloscope of 250 Hz.
The Analog to Digital Conversion PIC:
This PIC reads the gas pedal, the brake pedal and other feedbacks signals, to be read from
the master and the mode selector.
The input of this PIC is the number of channel to be read, and the enable line, it gives a digital
value from 0 to 255 on 8 channels to read analog value.
Those PICs were programmed in order to obtain the mentioned modes of operation, using
Mikrobasic programming language. Refer to appendix B to check the corresponding PIC.
Fig5.9 shows the simulation results of the control system were we used the potentiometers to
represent the analog inputs value, and the oscilloscope to reads the output of the PWM to control
103
chaptterfivecon
ntrolsysttem
Fig5.9 The
T approximatee schematic diaggram of the contrrol system
5.5 Summa
ary:
1. M
Modes of opeeration were selected to demonstrate
d
e the hybrid.
2. The
T control sy
ystem main input will bee the gas peddal.
3. A main consttrain that is very
v
importaant to be connsidered in thhe control syystem, is thee state
of charge SOC of the battteries.
4. The
T best choiice to implem
ment the conntrol system
m was to use the "program
mmable inteerface
coontroller" PIIC.
5. The
T control system wass set up to insure the safety of thhe vehicle due
d to proteection
m
methods.
6. The
T control sy
ystem is testted in simulaation and givves the requiired output.
104
ChaptersixRegenerativeBraking
108
Regenerative Braking
As a supporting point in hybrid, the regenerative braking increase the hybrid
efficiency and collect some of the energy that is lost during vehicle motion. In this
chapter the regenerative braking will be discussed deeply. After introducing it in section
6.1, section 6.2 shows the type of regenerative braking systems. The interaction between
conventional braking is illustrated in section 6.3. The energy that will be collected and
stored in batteries analysis is discussed in section 6.4. In section 6.5 the efficiency of the
regenerative braking is considered. Finally the comparison between regenerative braking
and dynamic braking is provided.
6.1 Introduction
As mentioned before the obvious function of braking is to stop or reduce vehicle
speed. For regenerative braking, the goal is to recover as much vehicle kinetic energy
(KE) as possible. Many efforts have been made in modern researches to solve the energy
losses problem in the vehicles, one of those important losses is the energy wasted during
the braking process. This occurs when a driver is driving at a particular speed and wants
to reduce this speed, so he tramples on the braking pedal. During this process, the
difference in the kinetic energy (K.E) is wasted in friction through the braking process.
So in order to save this power, an alternative braking tool is to be used to store this K.E
and regenerate it when required.
As mentioned above, when brake is applied a great amount of kinetic energy is lost,
so the purpose of regenerative braking is to store this energy which is normally lost
during braking, and regenerate it to be used when more speed is needed.
If regenerative braking were 100% efficient, friction brakes would be unnecessary.
During normal driving, much of the braking load is carried by regenerative braking;
hence, friction brakes should last very long.
109
Chap
ptersix RegenerativeBraking
g
6 Types of
6.2
o Regenerrative Braaking
M
Many
system
ms were estabblished to coollect brakinng wasted ennergy such as
a mechanicaal
regennerative systtem and elecctrical regennerative systeem that willl be deeply considered
c
i
in
this chapter,
c
since it is the tyype that is ussed in this prroject. After the energy is collected it
will be
b stored in different
d
stoorage devicess.
6.2.1 Electrical Regenerativ
R
ve Braking:
Fig 6.1 eleectrical regeneraative braking
T system common
This
c
usees in electriccal hybrid vehicle to collect some of
o lost kinetiic
energgy. Hybrid vehicles caan reuse kiinetic energgy by usingg its electriic motors to
t
regennerate electriicity in whatt is called "rregenerative braking". Fig 6.1 showss this system
m,
norm
mally, electricc motors aree turned by passing
p
an ellectric currennt through itt. However, if
somee outside forrce is used to turn the electric mottors, it funcctions as a generator
g
annd
produuces electriccity. This maakes it possiible to emplooy the rotatiional force of
o the drivinng
axle to
t turn the ellectric motorrs, thus regeenerating eleectric energyy for storage in the batterry
and simultaneou
usly slowingg the car with
w
the reggenerative reesistance off the electriic
c
be reuused to start the vehicle, operate it at low speeed
motors, this storeed energy could
rangees, and in electrical
e
asssist at highh speed. Reegenerative braking reqquires speciaal
sensoors and other equipmentt. This equippment, with slight modiification, cann be used foor
the trraction contrrol, stability control, andd brake forcee distributionn by the autoomatic controol
of braaking forcess at each of thhe four wheeels.
11
10
Two factors limit the recovery of the vehicle KE in electrical systems. First, the
battery may not be able to accept the energy because of very high state of charge (SOC)
or excessive temperature. Second, as the vehicle slows, the generator cannot provide
enough voltage to exceed the battery voltage. After this point, KE cannot be stored in the
battery. A new DCDC converter is being developed that is positioned between M/G and
energy storage. It provides a better matching between the M/G and the battery, greater
efficiency, and better hybrid packaging. In addition to greater energy to be recovered
from regenerative braking, the converter provides better acceleration in motor assist, this
will be discussed later.
Advantages of electrical regenerative braking
In hybrid and electrical vehicles there is no need for extra components, because of
the ability of the traction motor to act as a generator and the batteries already
exist.
The electrical response is usually higher than the mechanical (more efficient).
Disadvantages of electrical regenerative braking
Low efficiency of this system caused by low efficiency of the generator and
batteries.
The regenerative braking effect drops off at lower speeds; therefore the friction
brake is still required in order to bring the vehicle to a complete halt. Physical
locking of the rotor is also required to prevent vehicles from rolling down hills.
Most road vehicles with regenerative braking only have power on some wheels
(as in a two-wheel drive car) and regenerative braking power only applies to such
wheels, so in order to provide controlled braking under difficult conditions (such
as in wet roads) friction based braking is necessary on the other wheels.
6.2.2 Mechanical regenerative braking systems

As an example for mechanical regenerative braking systems, a flywheel energy
storage system that will be discussed below.
111
Chap
g
Flywheell energy stoorage (FES)) works by acceleratingg a rotor (fllywheel) to a

very high speed and
a maintainning the enerrgy in the syystem as a rootational eneergy as show
wn
in Figg 6.2. When
n the energy is extractedd from the syystem, the flyywheel's rottational speeed
is redduced as a co
onsequence of the princciple of consservation of energy; addding energy to
t
the syystem corresspondingly results
r
in an increase in the
t speed off the flywheeel.
Flywheelss store energgy mechaniccally in the form of kineetic energy. As shown in
i
Fig 6.2
6 a typicaal design off flywheels is a mass spinning
s
aroound an axiis. Flywheells
conveert electricall energy to mechanical
m
e
energy
and back
b
easily with
w reported efficienciees
closee to 98%. Friction
F
in thhe mechaniccal device can
c be reduuced significcantly by thhe
installlation of th
he system inn a sealed vaacuum cham
mber with magnetic
m
susspension. Thhe
chargge/discharge cycle rate of flywheeels is usuallyy quite rapiid with reported journaal
articlle values from
m seconds too a few minuutes.
Fig 6.2 Flyywheel energy sttorage
Most FES
S systems use
u electricityy to accelerrate and deccelerate the flywheel, buut
devicces that direcctly use mechanical enerrgy are beingg developed..
Advanced
d FES systeems have rootors made of high strrength carboon filaments,
suspeended by maagnetic beariings, and spiinning at speeeds from 200,000 to oveer 50,000 rpm
m
11
12
in a vacuum enclosure. Such flywheels can come up to speed in a matter of minutes

much quicker than some other forms of energy storage.
Advantages of fly wheels:
It can provide power levels as high as the engine.
Flywheels are not affected by temperature changes.
A simple measurement of the rotation speed is sufficient to estimate the exact

amount of energy stored.
Disadvantages of fly wheels:
The danger of explosive shattering of the massive wheel due to overload.
Traditional flywheel systems require strong containment vessels as a safety

precaution, which increases the total mass of the device.
Very high cost.
Limited by the capacity of the mechanical drive
6.3 Regenerative Braking integrated with conventional hydraulic system

As mentioned before, the electrical regenerative braking only couldnt perform
the sufficient braking behavior, according to that it must be combined with conventional
braking system, Fig 6.3 shows an example.
Regardless of how regenerative braking is implemented, the key problem is the
smooth split between friction and regenerative brakes. Each component is discussed
along with its function (Fig 6.3 a, and b). To avoid confusion, only the braking for a front
wheel is shown. Please note at the direction of vehicle motion and the direction of
generator torque. Generator torque opposes the vehicle motion.
113
Chap
g
Fig 6.3 a Brakin

ng Force because of both generaator torque and friction
fr
by brake pads against thee rotor disk
Fig 6.33 b fail safe modde
11
14
In Fig 6.3a the regenerative braking only is used to decelerate the vehicle,
generator torque acts against the wheel torque and reduce the vehicle speed. In this case
the brake pedal slightly depressed, and the hydraulic pressure sensor sends signal to the
controller to activate generator only. In series hybrid project the hydraulic pressure sensor
is replaced by limit switch that is placed under the brake pedal, if the pedal depressed
more and the vehicle needs more deceleration, the friction brake acts against the rotor
disk and reduce the vehicle speed. In Fig 6.3 b the friction brake is increased to safe short
stopping distance.
6.4 Stored Energy analysis

As stated above the electrical motor acts as generator and collects some of vehicle
kinetic energy, this energy will be converted to electrical energy and then transmitted to
the batteries and stored in them. The amount of KE the vehicle has could be found by
using the following equation.
.
(6.1)
Where:
mv: vehicle mass (kg).
V: vehicle velocity (m/s).
Assume the vehicle is speeding at 30 km/hr (8.33 m/s), according to equation 6.1,
it will have K.E that is equal to 18 kJ.
In this project if the electrical regenerative braking only is used to decelerate the
vehicle it will collect and store about 600 W and dissipate about 2kW as maximum value
in the dissipation unit. So the DC generates needs 7sec to stop the vehicle when speeding
at 30km/hr. This will be proved below.
30
0
/
/
600
2000
= 2600 w
115
Where Pt is the power could be consumed by batteries and dissipation unit.

.
1
2
520
8.33
= 18 kJ
.
.
18000
2600
6.5 Efficiency of Regenerative Braking

As noted above, only a fraction of the KE can be returned to the battery. The
bigger power of the M/G in G-mode than larger the recovery of the KE. Since the
batteries that are used in this project required about 600 W for charging the efficiency of
the regenerative braking varies from speed to another according to the percent of power
that is stored in the batteries. As shown in Fig 6.4 the efficiency of the regenerative
braking 50% in the series hybrid car project is at low speeds. At moderate speed the
efficiency will be 24%, and at high speeds its reaches about 12%. These efficiencies can
be achieved at normal operating braking conditions gentle braking, but at suddenly
braking panic braking the efficiency in Fig is not applicable, the dissipation unit and
the mechanical friction braking consume the larger part of energy.
,
116
Chap
g
Fig 6.4 Regeneerative braking efficiency

e
6.6 Compariso
C
on of dynaamic and regenerati
r
ive brakess
Regenerattive brakingg is not the same as dyynamic brakiing, which dissipates
d
thhe
electrrical energy as heat and does not maaintain energgy in a usablee form.
In this prroject these two principples of brakiing are usedd by storingg some of thhe
energgy in lead acid batteries and
a sending the remindeer to the disssipation unit.
The main
n disadvantaage of the regenerative brakes when
w
compared with thhe
dynam
mic brakes is the needd to closelyy match the generated current withh the supplly
charaacteristics an
nd the increaase of the maaintenance coost of the linnes.
Dynamic brakes, unliike regeneraative brakes, dissipate thhe electric ennergy as heaat
by paassing the cu
urrent througgh large bannks of variabble resistors. The dissipaation unit thaat
is useed in this project
p
is a fixed
f
thermaal resistancee. Vehicles that use dynnamic brakees
dissippate this heaat externally to ambient air. Dynamic braking caan be used when
w
the neeed
to dissipate regeenerative eneergy is on an
a occasional or perioddic basis. Inn general, thhe
o
motor power ratting, speed,, torque, annd details regarding thhe regenerattive mode of
11
17
Chap
g
operaation will be
b needed inn order to estimate
e
whhat dynamicc brake resiistor value is
i
needeed.
6.7 The motor driive in the Regeneraative Brak

king
As mentio
oned before the motor in
i this projecct, is a separrately exciteed DC motor,
in mootor mode, any
a variationn in the inpuut voltage caause a linear response in the angulaar
speedd, as shown in Fig 6.5. This shows the electriccal characterristic of the motor that is
i
repreesented by the relationsship betweenn the armatture current and angulaar speed. Thhe
questtion her whaat will happen to the mottor in RGB (Regenerativ
(
ve Braking )m
mode?
Figg6.5 the electricaal characteristics of the separatelyy excited DC mootor, in motor annd RGB modes. At 310 V
armature vo
oltage.
RG
GB mode in
n the seriess hybrid carr project wiith respect to the motoor ;when thhe
contrroller send th
he control signal
s
to thee motor drivve circuit wiill disconneccted the maiin
sourcce, then the terminal of the motor will
w be connnected to thee power elecctronics RGB
B
circuit that will transfer
t
the power
p
that is saved inside the motoor , a specifi
fic part of thiis
poweer to the batteries charger ,and the reemained pow
wer pass to thhe dissipation circuit .
11
18
In regenerative braking mode; the motor will change to generator mode in the second
quarter, the current direction will bereversed, and the voltage still in the same polarity .
The magnitude of the power in generator mode depend on the speed of the car and the
time in which the car drove in this speed, then the power will be decreased to reach zero
power as shown in the Fig6.5 in RGB mode.
The calculation:
In the motor mode the equation which describe the relation ship between the armature
current and the angular speed is
.
V
(6.2)
Where:
: the angular speed of the motor.
V : the armature voltage(0-310 V).
I : the armature current(0-18 A).
k: field excited in th motor(0.818).
R : the total armature current(17.2).
Assume armature voltage equal 310 V, so the equation
I
.
.
.
and the current varying according to the load 0-18 A; the result is liner as shown in the
right side of the Fig6.5.
In the RGB mode in the same equation could be applied, but the armature voltage equal
zero.
0
0.818
17.2
0.818
and the current varying according to the load 18-0 A; the current is decreasing in the same time
the angular speed decrease similar to the armature voltage in generator mode. Ea will be
decreased linearly according equation 6.3.
(6.3)
119
As the angular speed decrease, the car speed decrease to point, if the car needs more
braking force, then the mechanical brake will be operated
6.8 Summary
Regenerative braking recovers KE to enhance mpg. Brakes, either friction or
regenerative braking, must avoid unsafe conditions such as locked wheels. Fail-safe
mode for regenerative braking requires full-size, 100%, friction brakes.
Braking forces are transmitted to the road via the tires. To understand braking, tire
behavior must be understood. Regenerative coasting from high speed or going downhill
recovers a much greater amount of energy compared to that recovered by regenerative
braking. Coasting recovers kinetic energy while going downhill recovers potential
energy. Stopping distances for friction and regenerative brakes are presented. An
important parameter for regenerative braking is the generator power to vehicle mass ratio,
120
Chapter seven
Conclusions and Future work
121
Chapter seven

The world interests towards the hybrid technologies are increasing. Therefore, the
series hybrid car project is implemented along to satisfy the need for keeping up with this
approach. The series hybrid project is complicated integrated systems which represents a
good challenge for a final year students project.
There are many loads imposed on the chassis or body structure of a vehicle due to
normal running conditions. Most effective and important forces which are recommended
to be considered
a. Bending Case.
b. Longitudinal loading Case.
c. Lateral loading case.
Those were calculated and mainly effect the motor power selection.
The Internal Combustion Engine ICE we used is a gasoline S.I, reciprocating (one
cylinder), four stroke and air cooled engine. The engine is the optimal choice for this
project objective as the result of the gas analysis indicates.
There are two important constraints when selecting the motor:

a. The rated motor power.
b. The speed regulation methods.
To determine the traction power rating accurately the powers consumed in the following
are calculated and summed to give 4.792kw:
c. Overcoming the rolling resistance.
d. Overcoming the aerodynamic drag.
e. Accelerate the vehicle.
122
Chapter seven
The used speed regulations method which is the most efficient and the simplest method
was decided to be as follows:
f. Variation of supplied voltage
g. Decrease of the magnetic flux
The most important challenge in hybrids way is the battery, its volume, weight,
efficiency and the amount of energy stored in it are all taken into account when the
selection is made. The selected battery was a lead acid battery. It has several advantages
including its low cost, mature technology, relative high power capability, and good life
cycle. These advantages are attractive for HEVs applications where operating in high
power is required.
The selected power circuit to drive the traction motor was the "Buck convertor"
because it ensures simplicity, controllability, and smoothness. The required power
electronics circuit to convert the batteries power is designed to be an up-convertor
voltage Boost. The AC form of the generator is converted to dc by a Rectifier Bridge
which is then amplified to meet the traction motor power using a boost circuit.
The modes of operation were selected to demonstrate the hybrid. The control
system main input was the gas pedal and the main constraint that is considered is the state
of charge SOC of the batteries. The chosen controller to implement the control system
was the "programmable interface controller" PIC. The control system was set up to
ensure the safety of the vehicle due through the protection methods.
The control system was tested and the required output was obtained. The hybrid
vehicle main component was successfully implemented. And the implemented part of the
hybrid car was tested and it ensured the target requirements.
As a future work we aim to:
1. Do intensive researches and experiments on how to improve the fuel efficiency of
the designed vehicle.
2. Improve the response of the implemented control system.
123
Chapter seven
3. Carry intensive analysis on the overall response of the designed series hybrid
vehicle
4. Deep study of the advantages accomplished from our design of a series hybrid
vehicle.
124
The references
[1]
Muhammad H. Rashid. Power Electronics handbook, 2ndEdn.
ACADEMIC PRESS (2001).
[2]
Mehrdad Ehsani. Modern Electric, Hybrid Electric and Fuel
Cell Vehicle Fundamentals Theory and Design, 2nd Edn. CRC Press
LLC(2005).
[3]
Martin Bates. Interfacing PIC Microcontrollers Embedded
Design by Interactive Simulation, Elsevie1r (2006).
[4]
Allen E. Fuhs. Hybrid Vehicles and the Future of Personal
Transportation Taylor & Francis Group, LLC CRC ,Taylor &
Informa,(2009).
[5]
James Larminie. Electric Vehicle Technology Explained, John
wiley & sons Ltd,(2003).England
[6]
Seth Leitman Bob Brant. Build Your Own Electric Vehicle.
2nd Edn. McGraw-Hill Companies,(2009).
[7]
Jrnsen Reimpell. The Automotive Chassis Engineering
Principles, 2nd Edn. Reed Elsevier and Professional Publishing Ltd 2001
[8]
Iqbal Husain. Electric and Hybrid Vehicles Design
Fundamentals, 2nd Edn. Boca Raton (2002). London.
[9]
Ron Hodkinson and John Fenton. Lightweight Electric/Hybrid
Vehicle Design, Reed Educational and Professional Publishing Ltd
(2001). New York.
[10] Julian happian-Smith. An Introduction to Modern Vehicle

Design. Reed Educational and Professional Publishing Ltd (2002).
[11]
Kaushik Rajashekara. Power Electronics Devices, Alex Q.
Huang (2003).
[12]
MikroBASIC making it simple . MikroElektronika.
Development tools - Books Compilers, mikrobasic 2003-2005

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Series Hybridd car

Superviseed and managged by

Al-BALLQA APPLIED UNIVEERSITY (BAAU)

Hybrid solutions to urban and global problems

the result of Z-coordinate experiment

a comparison of chain, belt and gear attributes

adhesion coefficient values

The result of automobile exhausts gas analyzer

The rated parameters of the traction motor

The results of obtaining the electrical characteristics

The results of obtaining the Mechanical characteristics

speed regulation by varying Va

The selected battery parameter

The ADC PINs that determine the modes of operation

The PICs pins connection diagram between the

The PICs pins connection diagram between the

The power train of the series hybrid vehicle

The power train of the parallel hybrid vehicle

The power train of the series/parallel hybrid vehicle

force analysis of the vehicle

components distribution on chassis

The center of gravity distance to front and rear axle

the Z coordinate of centre of gravity

The practical method for measuring centre of

the optimum shear force distribution along the

The optimum bending moment distributions along

cross section area of large tubes

cross section area of small tube

cross section area of rectangular tube

The condition of the roll-over

lateral force at each wheel

Longitudinal loading case

rears stand of the chassis

cross section area of the pin, that effected by force

equation of motion during climbing a hill

the degree of the incline

chain power speed rating chart

The relation between braking time and deceleration

Braking force acts at center of gravity

The engine characteristics of power and torque

The specific fuel consumption SFC

preparing the connection between load and

The connection between prop of gas analyzer and

The gas analyzer shows the results

electrical circuit of the separately excited DC motor

electromechanical or mechanical characteristics

Speed regulation by supply voltage variation

Speed regulation magnetic flux reduction

The connection of the mechanical and electrical

Capture from obtaining the electrical and

Captured from obtaining the electrical and

Capture from obtaining the electrical and

Designing the mechanical coupling between the

The traction motor electrical characteristics

The mechanical characteristics of the traction motor

The changes in motor speed by varying the

The results of obtaining the regulating

Engine generator set

the permissible charging power

the difference in battery voltage according to

the permissible power during discharge

The power electronics diagram