Machine Design

Basic Fundamentals
Introduction
Machine design is defined as the use of scientific principles, technical information and imagination in the description of a
machine or a mechanical system to perform specific functions with maximum economy and efficiency.
Basic Procedure of Machine Design

Market survey

Define Specifications of
product

Selection of alternative
mechanisms and joining
methods

Prepare general layout of

configuration

Design individual
components

Prepare Assembly and

Detail drawings and modify
after testing prototype

Fatigue and Endurance Limit

When a material is subjected to repeated stresses, it fails at stresses below the yield point stress. Such type of failure is
known fatigue. The fatigue of the material is affected by the size of the component, relative magnitude of static and
fluctuating loads and the number of load reversals.
Stress & Strength
The survival of many products depends on how the designer adjusts the maximum stresses in a component to be less than
the components strength at critical locations. The designer must allow the maximum stress to be less than the strength by
a sufficient margin so that despite the uncertainties, failure is rare. In focusing on the stress-strength comparison at a critical
(controlling) location, we often look for strength in the geometry and condition of use. Strengths are the magnitudes of
stresses at which something of interest occurs, such as the proportional limit, 0.2 percent-offset yielding, or fracture. In many
cases, such events represent the stress level at which loss of function occurs. Strength is a property of a material or of a
mechanical element. The strength of an element depends on the choice, the treatment, and the processing of the material.
Consider, for example, a shipment of springs. We can associate a strength with a specific spring. When this spring is
incorporated into a machine, external forces are applied that result in load-induced stresses in the spring, the magnitudes of
which depend on its geometry and are independent of the material and its processing. If the spring is removed from the
machine unharmed, the stress due to the external forces will return to zero. But the strength remains as one of the properties
of the spring. Remember, then, that strength is an inherent property of a part, a property built into the part because of the
use of a particular material and process. Various metalworking and heat-treating processes, such as forging, rolling, and cold
forming, cause variations in the strength from point to point throughout a part. The spring cited above is quite likely to have
a strength on the outside of the coils different from its strength on the inside because the spring has been formed by a cold
winding process, and the two sides may not have been deformed by the same amount. Remember, too, therefore, that a
strength value given for a part may apply to only a particular point or set of points on the part.
Uncertainty
Uncertainties in machinery design abound. Examples of uncertainties concerning stress and strength include

Composition of material and the effect of variation on properties.

Variations in properties from place to place within a bar of stock.
Effect of processing locally, or nearby, on properties.
Effect of nearby assemblies such as weldments and shrink fits on stress conditions.
Effect of thermomechanical treatment on properties.

Intensity and distribution of loading.

Validity of mathematical models used to represent reality.
Intensity of stress concentrations.
Influence of time on strength and geometry.
Effect of corrosion.
Effect of wear.
Uncertainty as to the length of any list of uncertainties.

Engineers must accommodate uncertainty. Uncertainty always accompanies change. Material properties, load variability,
fabrication fidelity, and validity of mathematical models are among concerns to designers.
Design of Shafts
Introduction
A shaft is a rotating member of circular cross section and is used to transmit power or motion. Apart from transmitting
power, it provides the axis of rotation, or oscillation for elements like gears, pulleys, flywheels, cranks, sprockets.
An axle is a non-rotating member that carries no torque but only perform the function of supporting members like, rotating
wheels, pulleys etc.
A spindle is a short rotating shaft. These are normally used in all machine tools like lathe, spindle of drilling machine.
Ordinary shafts are made of medium carbon steels with a carbon content of 0.15 to 0.40%, like 30C8 or 40C8. For high
strength shafts, high carbon steels like 45C8 or 50C8 are used. Commercial shafts are made from low carbon steels and are
produced by hot-rolling and finished to size by cold-drawing or turning or grinding. Generally speaking, the material used in
a shaft should have the following properties:

High strength
Good machinability
Low notch sensitivity factor
Good heat treatment properties
High wear resistant properties

Standard shaft sizes

The standard shaft sizes are defined by its diameter as:
25 mm to 60 mm with a step of 5mm; 60 mm to 110 mm with a step of 10 mm; 110 mm to 140 mm with a step of 15 mm;
and 140 mm to 500 mm with a step of 20 mm.
The standard shaft lengths are 5 m, 6 m and 7 m.
Shaft design on basis of Strength
Shafts are subjected to axial tensile force, bending moment or torsional moment or a combination of all. Most of the shafts
have a loading conditions of combined bending moment and torsional moment.
While designing shaft, we have to determine the correct diameter of the shaft by considering strength and rigidity criteria.
To design a shaft on the criteria of strength, the following cases might be considered:
1.
2.
3.
4.

Shafts subjected to twisting moments or torque only

Shafts subjected to bending moment only
Shafts subjected to a combination of twisting moment and bending moment
Shafts subjected to axial loads in addition to combined torsional and bending loads

Shafts subjected to Twisting Moment or Torque only

The torsion equation can be used to determine the diameter of a shaft subjected to a twisting moment of T N-m,

=

Where T = Twisting moment acting upon the shaft (N-m)

J = Polar moment of inertia of shaft about the axis of rotation (mm4) = 4

32
= shear stress developed due to torque application (MPa)
r = radius of the shaft, or distance of the outermost fibre from the neutral axis
= d/2
Substituting the values in the Torsion equation, we get the value of torque transmitted by a solid shaft,

3
16

From the above equation, we can determine the diameter of a solid shaft.
For a hollow shaft, the value of Polar Moment of Inertia will be,
=

[( )4 ( )4 ]
32

Where di and do are the inner and outer diameters respectively, and the torque transmitted by a hollow shaft becomes,
=
Let =

[( )4 ( )4 ]

16

and substitute this in the above equation, which gives the expression for torque transmitted by a hollow shaft,
=

( )3 (1 4 )
16

To calculate the value of torque, we should use the following relations,

=

2
60
, =
60
2

Where T = torque in N-m

P = power transmitted by shaft in Watts (W)
N = speed of shaft in RPM
In case of belt drives, we make use of the following relation,
= ( )
Where T1 = tension in the tight side of the belt
T2 = tension in the slack side of the belt
R = radius of the pulley

Shafts subjected to Bending Moment only:

When the shaft is subjected to a bending moment only, the maximum bending stress developed can be found out by using
the equation,

=

Where M = bending moment in N-m

I = Moment of Inertia of cross section of the shaft about the axis of rotation = 4
64
= Bending stress in MPa
y = distance from the neutral axis to the outer most fibre = d/2
substituting the values in the bending equation gives us the relation, which can be used be to find out the diameter of a solid
shaft,
=

3
32

If the shaft is hollow, then the moment of inertia becomes,

=
Where =

hollow shaft,

[( )4 ( )4 ] =
( )4 ( 1 4 )
64
64

and substitute this in the above equation, which gives the expression for bending moment transmitted by a

( )3 (1 4 )
32

Shafts subjected to combined bending and twisting:

In this case the shaft must be designed on the basis of the two moments simultaneously. The two theories used in this case
are:1.
2.

Maximum shear stress theory or Guests Theory

Maximum normal stress theory or Rankines Theory

Let = shear stress induced due to twisting moment

b = bending stress induced due to bending moment
M = bending moment (N-m)
T = twisting moment (N-m)
According to theory number 1, i.e. maximum shear stress theory, the equivalent torque acting on the shaft is,
= 2 + 2 =

3
16

From the above expression, the shaft diameter may be calculated.

According to theory number 2, i.e. maximum normal stress theory, the equivalent bending moment is,
1

= [ + 2 + 2 ] =
( )
3
2
32
Shafts subjected to Fluctuating loads
In the previous topics, while designing a shaft, we assume that the torque and bending moment acting on the shaft are
constant. But in actual, the shafts are subjected to fluctuating torques and bending moments, for which combined shock and
fatigue factors should be taken into account to calculate twisting moment (T) and bending moment (M), so for a shaft
subjected to combine bending and torsion, the equivalent twisting moment can be expressed as,
= ( . )2 + ( . )2

And the value of equivalent bending moment is expressed as,

1
= [( . ) + ( . )2 + ( . )2 ]
2
Where Km = combine shock and fatigue factor for bending
Kt = combined shock and fatigue factor for torsion
Some commonly used values for the above mentioned factors are;
Nature of load on the shaft
1. Stationary shafts
(a) Gradually applied loads
(b) Suddenly applied loads
2. Rotating shafts
(a) Gradually applied loads
(b) Suddenly applied loads
with minor shock loads
(c) Suddenly applied loads with heavy
shock loads

Km

Kt

1.0
1.5 to 2.0

1.0
1.5 to 2.0

1.5

1.0

1.5 to 2.0

1.5 to 2.0

2.0 to 3.0

1.5 to 3.0

Shafts subjected to axial load in combination to combined torsion and bending loads
When the shaft is subjected to an axial load (F) in addition to the torsion and bending loads, like in propeller shafts of ships,
then we must add the stress due to axial load to the bending stress. The resultant stress then becomes,
1 =

32 4
32

321
+
=
( + ) =
,
3 2 3
8
3

1 = +

The above formula is applicable for solid shafts, in case of hollow shafts, the formula becomes,
1 =

321
,
3 (1 4 )

1 = +

(1 + 2 )

=
8

In case of long shafts subjected to compressive loads, we make use of a parameter known as column factor () to take the
column effect into account. The stress developed due to compressive load is,
=
=

4
,
2

4
,
2 (1 2 )

The value of the column factor for compressive loads is calculated from the formula,
=

1 0.0044 ( )

The above formula is used when the slenderness ration < 115.
When the value of slenderness ratio > 115, the formula for column factor becomes,

2
( ( ) )

L = length of the shaft between the bearings

K = least radius of gyration
Y = compressive yield stress for shaft material
C = coefficient of Eulers formula depending upon end conditions
= 1, for hinged ends
= 2.25 for fixed ends
= 1.6 for ends that are partly restrained in the bearings
Shaft design on the basis of rigidity
There are two types of rigidity that we consider, while designing a shaft on the basis of rigidity.
1. Torsional Rigidity: The torsional rigidity may be obtained by using the formula,
()
=
,

.
.

Where = torsional rigidity or angle of twist in radians

T = twisting moment on the shaft
J = Polar Moment of Inertia of the cross sectional area about the axis of rotation

= 4

32

= [4 4 ]
32
G = Modulus of rigidity of the shaft material
L = length of shaft
2. Lateral Rigidity: This is an important consideration in the case of shafts running at high speed, where small lateral
deflection would cause huge out-of balance forces. Then the focus on lateral rigidity is an important factor for maintaining
proper bearing clearances and for correct gear teeth alignment.
Design of Welded and Riveted Joints
Welded Joints
A welded joint is a permanent joint which is obtained by the fusion of two parts to be joined, with or without the application
of pressure and a filler material. The heat required for the fusion of the material may be obtained from the combustion of
gas (for gas welding) or by an electric arc (in case of electric arc welding).
Types of welded joints

From subject point of view, the following are the types of joints:
1. Lap joint: It is obtained by joining two overlapping plates via welding process. The cross section of the weld is a triangular
fillet. This kind of joint, may be further classified as,
a)

Single transverse fillet weld

b)

Double transverse fillet

c)

Parallel fillet weld

2. Butt Joint: It is obtained by placing the plates edge to edge, and then welding them at the edge. In butt welds, the plate
edge do not require bevelling, if the thickness of the plate is less than 5 mm. If the plate thickness is 5 mm to 12.5 mm, then
edges should be bevelled to V or U-groove on both sides.

3. Other types of joints: Some joints, other than ones already described are,

Corner joint:
Locations of weld symbols

Edge joint:

T-Joint:

Strength of transverse Fillet Welded Joints

It is assumed that the section of fillet is a right angled triangle ABC with hypotenuse AC making equal angles with other two
sides AB and BC, as illustrated in the figure below,

Length of each side is known as leg or size of the weld and perpendicular BD is known as throat thickness of the weld. At
throat, we obtain the minimum area of the weld.
=
=
=
= 0.707
The minimum area at throat is then given as,
= = 0.707
Let is the allowable tensile stress for the weld. The tensile strength of the joint for single fillet weld is given by the formula,
= = 0.707
The value of tensile strength for a double fillet weld is given by the expression,
= 2 0.707 = 1.414

Due to welding defects, like blow holes and slag, the weld is weaker than the plate. To strengthen the weld,
reinforcement is provided, about 10% of the plate thickness

Strength of parallel fillet welded joints

These kind of joints are designed for shear strength. The figure illustrates a double parallel fillet weld.

The shear strength for a double parallel fillet weld is given as,
= 1.414
Let us consider a combination of single transverse and double parallel fillet welds as illustrated in the figure below,

The strength of above weld is combination shear strength of double parallel fillet weld and single transverse fillet weld
= (0.707 1 ) + (1.414 2 )

To allow for starting and stopping of the weld bead, an allowance of 12.5 mm is added to the length of each weld,
as obtained from the above expression

Some special cases

1. Circular fillet weld subjected to torsion:

The shear stress in the material can be calculated from the formula,
=

2
2

The maximum shear stress is given by the formula,

=

2.83
2

2. Circular fillet weld subjected to bending moment:

The bending stress developed can be expressed by the formula,

=

4
2

The above mentioned bending occurs in a horizontal plane along the leg of the fillet weld. The maximum value of bending
stress occurs on the throat of the weld which is inclined at 450 to the horizontal.
5.66
(max) =
2
3. Long fillet weld subject to torsion:

The effect of applied torque is to rotate the vertical plate about the z-axis. This rotation is resisted by the shear stress
developed between two fillet welds and the horizontal plate.
=
=

3
2
4.242
2

Riveted joints
A rivet is a short cylindrical bar with a head as an integral part of it. The cylindrical part of the rivet is called shank or body.

The lower portion of the shank is known as tail. The rivets are used to make permanent fastening joints, like in structural
work, ship building etc.

The material of the rivets should be tough and ductile, usually made of low carbon steel or nickel steel.
As per IS, the material for rivets must have a tensile strength of at least 40MPa and elongation not less than 26%.
Types of Riveted joints
There are mainly two types of riveted joints:
1.
2.

Lap joint: In this kind of joint one plate overlaps the other and then the two plates are riveted together.
Butt joint: In this, the plates are kept in alignment butting each other and a cover plate (strap) is put on either side
(single strap) or on both sides (double strap) of the main plate.

Single riveted lap joint

Double riveted lap joint (Chain riveting)

Double riveted lap joint (Zig-Zag riveting)

Some important terms

Pitch: It is the distance between centres of adjacent rivets, measured parallel to the seam. It is denoted by p.
Back pitch: It is the perpendicular distance between the centre lines of the successive rows of rivets. It is denoted by pb.
Diagonal pitch: It is the distance between the centres of rivets in adjacent rows of zig-zag riveted joint. It is denoted by pd.
Margin: It is the distance between the centre of rivet hole to the nearest edge of the plate. It is denoted by letter m.
Riveted joint failures
1.

Tearing off the plate at an edge: This failure can be avoided by keeping the value of m = 1.5 d, where d is the
diameter of the rivet hole.

2.

Tearing off the plate across a row of rivets: This failure occurs due to tensile stresses in the main plates, and the
tearing takes place as illustrated in the figure below,

The tearing resistance should be greater than the applied load, to avoid this kind of failure, and it is mathematically
expressed as,
= ( ).
3.

Shearing of the rivets: If the rivets, joining the plates are not able to resist the tensile stress applied on the plates,
the rivets shear off as illustrated in the figure below,

The shearing resistance can be calculated by using the expression below,

2 .
4

= 2

2
4

Where n = number of rivets per pitch length

This kind of failure is avoided, if the shearing resistance is greater than the applied load P.
4.

Crushing of the plate or rivets: The rivets can crush as shown in the diagram below,

The crushing resistance is then mathematically expressed as,

= . . .
This kind of failure is prevented if the crushing resistance is greater than the applied load.
Strength of a Riveted joint
It is defined as the maximum force which the riveted joint can transmit, without failure. It is the value among the least value
of Pt, Ps or Pc.
Efficiency of a riveted joint
It is defined as the ratio of the strength of riveted joint to the strength of the un-riveted or solid plate to the strength of the
un-riveted or solid plate.
Strength of a riveted plate,
,
Strength of an un-riveted plate,
=
=

Design of Rolling bearings

Rolling Contact bearings
The term rolling-contact bearings, antifriction bearings and rolling bearings are all used to describe the class of bearings in
which the main load is transferred through elements in rolling contact rather than in sliding contact.
In a rolling bearing the static friction is twice the running friction, but still it is negligible as compared to friction of a sleeve
bearing.
The figure below illustrates a bearing with all the components marked,

Type of roller contact bearings

There are two types of roller bearings:1.
2.

Ball bearings
Roller bearings

The roller contact bearings, depending upon the load to be carried are classified as:
1.
2.

Radial bearings
Thrust bearings

Bearing Life
Contact stresses are developed on the inner ring, the rolling element and the outer ring, when ball or roller bearings roll.
If a bearing is clean and properly lubricated its mounting and is sealed against dust and dirt and is operated at reasonable
temperatures, the metal fatigue will be the only case of failure. Some common life measures are:

Number of revolutions of the inner ring (with outer ring stationary) till the first signs of fatigue are visible
Number of hours of use at a standard angular speed until the first signs of fatigue appear

The rating life of a group of identical ball or roller bearings is defined as the number of revolutions that 90% of a group of
bearings will achieve or exceed before the failure criterion develops. It is designated by L10.
The median life is the 50th percentile life of a group of bearings.
= 4 5 10

The most commonly used life rating is 106 revolutions

Basic Static Load rating of rolling contact bearings

Static load is defined as the load carried by a non-rotating bearing.
The basic static load rating is defined as the static radial load or axial load which corresponds to a total permanent
deformation of the ball and race, at the most heavily stressed contact, equal to 0.0001 times the ball (or roller) diameter.

The permanent deformation of balls and race ways under static loads of moderate magnitude, increases gradually
with increasing load
A total permanent deformation of 0.0001 times the ball or roller diameter occurring at the most heavily loaded
ball and race can be tolerated without hampering bearing operation

The basic static load rating (C0) in Newtons for ball and roller bearings are:
1.

For radial ball bearings,

0 = 0 . . . 2 . cos
Where i = number of rows of balls in any one bearing
Z = number of balls per row
D = diameter of balls in mm
= nominal angle between the line of action of the ball load and a plane
axis of bearing
f0 = 3.33 for self-aligning ball bearings
= 12.3 for radial contact and angular contact groove ball bearings

2.

perpendicular to the

For radial roller bearings,

0 = 0 . . . . . cos
Where le = effective contact length between one roller and washer (or any ring) where the contact is shortest
f0 = 21.6 for bearings made of hardened steetl

3.

For thrust ball bearings, the basic static axial load rating is given by
0 = 0 . . 2 . sin

4.

Where f0 = 49 for bearings made of hardened steel

For thrust roller bearings the basic static axial load rating is given by,
0 = 0 . . . . sin
Where Z = number of rollers carrying thrust in one direction
f0 = 98.1 for bearings made of hardened steel

Static Equivalent Load for Rolling Contact bearings

The static equivalent load (WOR) may be defined as the static radial load (in case of radial ball or roller bearings) or axial load
(in case of thrust ball or roller bearings) which, if applied, would cause the same total permanent deformation at the most
heavily stressed ball (or roller) and race contact as that which occurs under the actual conditions of loading.
= 0 . + 0 .
Where WR = radial load
WA = axial load
X0 = radial load factor
Y0 = axial load factor

The static equivalent radial load is always greater than or equal to the radial load
The static equivalent radial load for all cylindrical roller bearings is equal to the radial load

Dynamic Equivalent Load for Rolling Contact bearings

The dynamic equivalent load (W) may be defined as the constant stationary radial load (in case of radial ball or roller bearings)
or axial load (in case of thrust ball or roller bearings) which, if applied to a bearing with rotating inner ring and stationary
outer ring, would give the same life as that which the bearing will attain under the actual conditions of load and rotation.
= . . + .
Where V = rotation factor
= 1, for all types of bearings when the inner race is rotating
= 1, for self-aligning bearings when the inner race is stationary
= 1.2, for all types of bearings except self-aligning when inner race is stationary
Design of gears
Type of Gears
Spur gears have teeth parallel to the axis of rotation and are used to transmit motion from one shaft to another whose axis
are parallel.

Helical gears have teeth inclined to the axis of rotation. These can be used for same applications as spur gears, but are less
noisy due to gradual engagement of the teeth. These also produce thrust loads and bending couples, which are not present
with spur gears.

Bevel gears have teeth formed on conical surfaces and are mostly used for transmitting motion between intersecting shafts.

Worm gears have a worm, which resembles a screw. The direction of rotation of the worm gear, also called the worm wheel,
depends upon whether the worm teeth are cut right hand or left hand. These used for generally high speed ratios, i.e. 3 or
more.

Nomenclature
The pitch circle is a theoretical circle upon which all calculations are usually based; its diameter is the pitch diameter. The
pitch circles of a pair of mating gears are tangent to each other. A pinion is the smaller of two mating gears.

The larger is often called the gear.

The circular pitch p is the distance, measured on the pitch circle, from a point on one tooth to a corresponding point on an
adjacent tooth. Thus the circular pitch is equal to the sum of the tooth thickness and the width of space.
The module m is the ratio of the pitch diameter to the number of teeth. The customary unit of length used is the millimeter.
The module is the index of tooth size in SI.
The diametral pitch P is the ratio of the number of teeth on the gear to the pitch diameter. Thus, it is the reciprocal of the
module. Since diametral pitch is used only with U.S. units, it is expressed as teeth per inch.

The addendum a is the radial distance between the top land and the pitch circle.
The dedendum b is the radial distance from the bottom land to the pitch circle. The whole depth ht is the sum of the
addendum and the dedendum.
The clearance circle is a circle that is tangent to the addendum circle of the mating gear. The clearance c is the amount by
which the dedendum in a given gear exceeds the addendum of its mating gear.
The backlash is the amount by which the width of a tooth space exceeds the thickness of the engaging tooth measured on
the pitch circles.
Conjugate actions
Mating gear teeth acting against each other to produce rotary motion are similar to cams. When the tooth profiles, or cams,
are designed so as to produce a constant angular velocity ratio during meshing, these are said to have conjugate action. In
theory, at least, it is possible arbitrarily to select any profile for one tooth and then to find a profile for the meshing tooth
that will give conjugate action. One of these solutions is the involute profile, which, with few exceptions, is in universal use
for gear teeth and is the only one with which we should be concerned.
In the figure below, one curved surface pushes against another, the point of contact occurs where the two surfaces are
tangent to each other (point c), and the forces at any instant are directed along the common normal ab to the two curves.
The line ab, representing the direction of action of the forces, is called the line of action. The line of action will intersect the
line of centers O-O at some point P. The angular-velocity ratio between the two arms is inversely proportional to their radii
to the point P. Circles drawn through point P from each center are called pitch circles, and the radius of each circle is called
the pitch radius. Point P is called the pitch point.

A pair of gears is really a pairs of cams that act through a small arc and, before running off the involute contour, are replaced
by another identical pair of cams. The cams can run in either direction and are configured to transmit a constant angularvelocity ratio. If involute curves are used, the gears tolerate changes in center-to-center distance with no variation in constant
angular-velocity ratio. Furthermore, the rack profiles are straight-flanked, making primary tooling simpler.

To transmit motion at a constant angular-velocity ratio, the pitch point must remain fixed; that is, all the lines of action for
every instantaneous point of contact must pass through the same point P. In the case of the involute profile, it will be shown
that all points of contact occur on the same straight line ab, that all normals to the tooth profiles at the point of contact
coincide with the line ab, and, thus, that these profiles transmit uniform rotary motion.
Involute Profiles
An involute profile can be generated, as illustrated in the figure below,

A partial flange B is attached to the cylinder A, around which is wrapped a cord def, which is held tight. Point b on the cord
represents the tracing point, and as the cord is wrapped and unwrapped about the cylinder, point b will trace out the involute
curve ac. The radius of the curvature of the involute varies continuously, being zero at point a and a maximum at point c. At
point b the radius is equal to the distance be, since point b is instantaneously rotating about point e. Thus the generating line
de is normal to the involute at all points of intersection and, at the same time, is always tangent to the cylinder A. The circle
on which the involute is generated is called the base circle.
Some fundamental concepts

Let us start by learning how to construct an involute curve. As illustrated in the figure below, divide the base circle
into a number of equal parts, and construct radial lines OAO, OA1, OA2, etc. Beginning at A1, construct
perpendiculars A1B1, A2B2, A3B3, etc. Then along A1B1 lay off the distance A1A0, along A2B2 lay off twice the distance
A1A0, etc., producing points through which the involute curve can be constructed.

When two gears are in mesh, their pitch circles roll on one another without slipping. The pitch line velocities are
then given as,
= |1 1 | = |2 2 |
The relation between the radii on the angular velocities is,

1
2
| |=
2
1

The radius of the base circle is given as,

= cos
Where r is the pitch circle radius.
Beam Strength of Gear teeth Lewis equation
The beam strength of gear teeth is determined from an equation (known as *Lewis equation) and the load carrying ability of
the toothed gears as determined by this equation gives satisfactory results.
In any pair of gears having unlike number of teeth, the gear which have the fewer teeth (i.e. pinion) will be the weaker,
because the tendency toward undercutting of the teeth becomes more pronounced in gears as the number of teeth becomes
smaller.

Consider each tooth as a cantilever beam loaded by a normal load (WN). This load is resolved into two components, tangential
(WT) and radial (WR) component. A bending stress is induced due to the tangential component, which tends to break the
tooth.

The radial component induces a compressive stress, which can be neglected

= . . . .

Where W = permissible working stress, calculated by the bending equation

y = Lewis form factor
0.684
10
= 0.124 (
) , 14

2
0.912
= 0.154 (
) , 200

0.841
= 0.175 (
) , 200

The value of permissible stress can be found out from the expression,
= .
Where = allowable basic stress
Cv = velocity factor
=
=
=

3
, 12.5/
3+

4.5
, 12.5/
4.5 +

6
, 12.5/
6+
=

0.75
0.75 +
=

, 20/
0.75
+ 0.25,
1+

Question:
1.

Two helical tensile springs of the same material and also having identical mean coil diameter and weight, have wire
diameters and /2. The ratio of their stiffness is
(A) 1
(B) 4
(C) 64
(D) 128

2.

Bars and , each of negligible mass, support load as shown in the figure. In this arrangement,

(A) bar is subjected to bending but bar is not subjected to bending.

(B) bar is not subjected to bending but bar is subjected to bending.
(C) neither bar nor bar is subjected to bending.
(D) both bars and are subjected to bending.
3.

If the wire diameter of a closed coil helical spring subjected to compressive load is increased from 1 cm to 2 cm,
other parameters remaining same, the deflection will decrease by a factor of
(A) 16
(B) 8
(C) 4
(D) 2

4.

Large speed reductions (greater than 20) in one stage of a gear train are possible through
(A) spur gearing
(B) worm gearing
(C) bevel gearing
(D) helical gearing

5.

A static load is mounted at the centre of a shaft rotating at uniform angular velocity. This shaft will be designed for
(A) the maximum compressive stress (static)
(B) the maximum tensile (static)
(C) the maximum bending moment (static)
(D) fatigue loading

6.

The coupling used to connect two shafts with large angular misalignment is
(A) a flange coupling
(B) an Oldhams coupling
(C) a flexible bush coupling
(D) a Hookes joint
Common Data For .7 and .8
The overall gear ratio in a 2 stage speed reduction gear box (with all spur gears) is 12. The input and output shafts
of the gear box are collinear. The counter shaft which is parallel to the input and output shafts has a gear ( 2
teeth) and pinion ( 3 = 15 teeth) to mesh with pinion ( 1 = 16 teeth) on the input shaft and gear ( 4 teeth) on
the output shaft respectively. It was decided to use a gear ratio of 4 with 3 module in the first stage and 4 module
in the second stage.

7.

2 and 4 are
(A) 64 and 45
(B) 45 and 64
(C) 48 and 60
(D) 60 and 48

8.

The centre distance in the second stage is

(A) 90 mm
(B) 120 mm
(C) 160 mm
(D) 240 mm

9.

The minimum number of teeth on the pinion to operate without interference in standard fill height involute teeth
gear mechanism with 20 pressure angle is
(A) 14
(B) 12
(C) 18
(D) 32

10. In a band brake the ratio of tight side band tension to the tension on the slack side is 3. If the angle of overlap of
band on the drum is 180 , the coefficient of friction required between drum and the band is
(A) 0.20
(B) 0.25
(C) 0.30
(D) 0.35
11. Square key of side 4 each and length l is used to transmit torque from the shaft of diameter to the hub
of a pulley. Assuming the length of the key to be equal to the thickness of pulley, the average shear stress
developed in the key is given by
4
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)

16
2
8

2
16
3

12. A wire rope is designated as 6 19 standard hoisting. The numbers 6 19 represent

(A) diameter in millimeter length in meter
(B) diameter in centimeter length in meter
(C) number of strands numbers of wires in each strand
(D) number of wires in each strand number of strands

13. Match the following

Type of gears
P. Bevel gears
Q. Worm gears
R. Herringbone gears
S. Hypoid gears

Arrangement of shafts
1. Nonparallel offset shafts
2. Nonparallel intersecting shaft
3. Nonparallel, nonintersecting shafts
4. Parallel shafts

(A) 4 2 l 3
(B) 2 3 4 l
(C) 3 2 l 4
(D) l 3 4 2
14. In a bolted joint two members are connected with an axial tightening force of 2200N. If the bolt used has metric
threads of 4 mm pitch, the torque required for achieving the tightening force is

(A) 0.7 Nm
(B) 1.0 Nm
(C) 1.4 Nm
(D) 2.8 Nm
15. The SN curve for steel becomes asymptotic nearly at
(A) 103 cycles
(B) 104 cycles
(C) 106 cycles
(D) 109 cycles
16. In terms of theoretical stress concentration factor ( ) and fatigue stress concentration factor ( ) , the notch
sensitivity q is expressed as
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)

( 1)
( 1)
( 1)
( +1)
( 1)
( 1)
( +1)
( +1)

Common Data For 17 and 18

A band brake consists of a lever attached to one end of the band. The other end of the band is fixed to the ground.
The wheel has a radius of 200 mm and the wrap angle of the band is 270 the braking force applied to the lever is
limited to 100 and the coefficient of friction between the band and the wheel is 0.5. No other information is
given.

17. The maximum tension that can be generated in the band during braking is
(A) 1200
(B) 2110
(C) 3224
(D) 4420
18. The maximum wheel torque that can be completely braked is

(A) 200 Nm
(B) 382 Nm
(C) 604 Nm
(D) 844 Nm
19. Which one of the following is criterion in the design of hydrodynamic journal bearings?
(A) Sommerfeld number
(B) Rating life
(C) Specific dynamic capacity
(D) Rotation factor
20. 60 mm long and 6 mm thick fillet weld carries a steady load of 15 along the weld. The shear strength ofthe
weld material is equal to 200 MPa The factor of safety is
(A) 2.4
(B) 3.4
(C) 4.8
(D) 6.8
21. A cylindrical shaft is subjected to an alternating stress of 100 MPa. Fatigue strength to sustain 1000 cycles is 490
. If the corrected endurance strength is 70 , estimated shaft life will be
(A) 1071 cycles
(B) 15000 cycles
(C) 281914 cycles
(D) 928643 cycles
22. Twenty degree ffill depth involute profiled 19 tooth pinion and 37 tooth gear are in mesh. If the module is 5 mm,
the centre distance between the gear pair will be
(A) 140 mm
(B) 150 mm
(C) 280 mm
(D) 300 mm
23. A disc clutch is required to transmit 5 at 2000 rpm. The disk has a ffiction lining with coefficient offfiction equal
to 0.25. Bore radius of fi:iction lining is equal to 25 mm. Assume uniform contact pressure of 1 . The value of
outside radius of the ffiction lining is
(A) 39.4 mm
(B) 49.5 mm
(C) 97.9 mm
(D) 142.9 mm
Common Data For .24,25 and .26
A gear set has a pinion with 20 teeth and a gear with 40 teeth. The pinion runs at 30 / and transmits a power
of 20 . The teeth are on the 20 ffilldepth system and have a module of 5 mm. The length of the line of action
is 19 mm.
24. The center distance for the above gear set in mm is
(A) 140
(B) 150
(C) 160
(D) 170
25. The contact ratio of the contacting tooth is
(A) 1.21
(B) 1.25
(C) 1.29
(D) 1.33
26. The resultant force on the contacting gear tooth in is
(A) 77.23
(B) 212.20
(C) 2258.1
(D) 289.43

27. The piston rod of diameter 20 mm and length 700 mm in a hydraulic cylinder is subjected to a compressive force
of 10 due to the internal pressure. The end conditions for the rod may be assumed as guided at the piston end
and hinged at the other end. The Youngs modulus is 200 . The factor of safety for the piston rod is
(A) 0.68
(B) 2.75
(C) 5.62
(D) 11.0
28. A blockbrake shown below has a face width of 300 mm and a mean coefficient of friction of 0.25. For an activating
force of 400 , the braking torque in Nm is
400

(A) 30
(B) 40
(C) 45
(D) 60
29. A bolted joint is shown below. The maximum shear stress, in MPa in the bolts at A and , respectively are

1
(all dimensions in the figure are in mm)
(A) 242.6, 42.5
(B) 42.5, 242.6
(C) 42.5, 42.5
(D) 18.75, 343.64
30. A natural feed journal bearing of diameter 50 mm and length 50 mm operating at 20 revolution/second carries a
load of 2 . The lubricant used has a viscosity of 20 . The radial clearance is50 . The Sommerfeld number
for the bearing is
(A) 0.062
(B) 0.125
(C) 0.250
(D) 0.785
31. A thin spherical pressure vessel of 200 mm diameter and 1 mm thickness is subjected to an internal pressure
varying form 4 to 8 . Assume that the yield, ultimate and endurance strength of material are 600, 800 and 400
MPa respectively. The factor of safety as per Goodmans relation is
(A) 2.0
(B) 1.6
(C) 1.4
(D) 1.2

32. A ball bearing operating at a load has 8000 hours oflife. The life of the bearing, in hours, when the load is doubled
to 2 is
(A) 8000
(B) 6000
(C) 4000
(D) 1000
Common Data For . 33 and .34
A steel bar of10 50 mm is cantilevered with two 12 bolts ( P and ) to support a static load of 4 as shown
in the figure.

33. The primary and secondary shear loads on bolt , respectively, are
(A) 2 , 20
(B) 20 , 2
(C) 20 , 0
(D) 0, 20
34. The resultant shear stress on bolt is closest to
(A) 132 MPa
(B) 159 MPa
(C) 178 MPa
(D) 195 MPa
35. Match the type of gears with their most appropriate description.
Type of gear
P. Helical
Q. Spiral Bevel
C. Hypoid
S. Rack and pinion
Description
1. Axes non parallel and non intersecting
2. Axes parallel and teeth are inclined to the axis
3. Axes parallel and teeth are parallel to the axis
4. Axes are perpendicular and intersecting, and teeth are inclined to the axis.
5. Axes are perpendicular and used for large speed reduction
6. Axes parallel and one of the gears has infinite radius
(A) 2, Q4, R1, S6
() 1, Q4, R5, S6
(C) 2, Q6, R4, S2
() 6, Q3, R1, S5
36. One tooth of a gear having 4 module and 32 teeth is shown in the figure. Assume that the gear tooth and the
corresponding tooth space make equal intercepts on the pitch circumference. The dimensions a and b,
respectively, are closest to

(A) 6.08 mm, 4 mm

(B) 6.48 mm, 4.2 mm
(C) 6.28 mm, 4.3 mm

(D) 6.28 mm, 4.1 mm

37. A spur gear has a module of 3 mm, number of teeth 16, a face width of 36 mm and a pressure angle of 20 It is
transmitting a power of 3 at 20 /. Taking a velocity factor of 1.5 and a form factor of 0.3, the stress in the
gear tooth is about.
(A) 32 MPa
(B) 46 MPa
(C) 58 MPa
(D) 70 MPa
38. A clutch has outer and inner diameters 100 mm and 40 mm respectively. Assuming a uniform pressure of 2 MPa
and coefficient of friction of liner material is 0.4, the torque carrying capacity of the clutch is
(A) 148 m
(B) 196 m
(C) 372 m
(D) 490 m
39. A journal bearing has a shaft diameter of 40 mm and a length of 40 mm. The shaft is rotating at 20 / and the
viscosity of the lubricant is 20 the clearance is 0.020 mm. The loss of torque due to the viscosity of the
lubricant is approximately.
(A) 0.040 m
(B) 0.252 m
(C) 0.400 m
(D) 0.652 m
Common Data For . 40 and .41
A 20 ffill depth involute spur pinion of 4 mm module and 21 teeth is to transmit 15 at
face width is 25 mm.
40. The tangential force transmitted (in ) is
(A) 3552
(B) 2611
(C) 1776
(D) 1305

960 rpm. Its

41. Given that the ooth geometry factor is 0.32 and the combined effect of dynamic load and allied factors
intensifying the stress is 1.5; the minimum allowable stress ( ) for the gear material is
(A) 242.0
(B) 166.5
(C) 121.0
(D) 74.0
42. A forged steel link with uniform diameter of 30 mm at the centre is subjected to an axial force that varies from 40
in compression to 160 in tension. The tensile ( ) , yield ( ) and corrected endurance ( ) strengths of
the steel material are 600 , 420 MPa and 240 MPa respectively. The factor of safety against fatigue endurance
as per Soderbergs criterion is
(A) 1.26
(B) 1.37
(C) 1.45
(D) 2.00
43. A lightly loaded fill journal bearing has journal diameter of 50 mm, bush bore of 50.05 mm and bush length of 20
mm. If rotational speed of journal is 1200 rpm and average viscosity of liquid lubricant is 0.03 Pa , the power loss
(in ) will be
(A) 37
(B) 74
(C) 118
(D) 237
44. A bracket (shown in figure) is rigidly mounted on wall using four rivets. Each rivet is 6 mm in diameter and has an
effective length of 12 mm.

Direct shear stress ( ) in the most heavily loaded rivet is

(A) 4.4
(B) 8.8
(C) 17.6
(D) 35.2
45. A band brake having bandwidth of 80 mm, drum diameter of 250 mm, coefficient of fiction of 0.25 and angle of
wrap of 270 degrees is required to exert a friction torque of1000 Nm. The maximum tension (in k) developed in
the band is
(A) 1.88
(B) 3.56
(C) 6.12
(D) 11.56
46. Two identical ball bearings and are operating at loads 30 and 45 respectively. The ratio of the life of
bearing to the life of bearing is
81
(A)
16
27

(B)
(C)
(D)

4
3
2

47. A solid circular shaft needs to be designed to transmit a torque of 50 Nm. If the allowable shear stress of the
material is 140 , assuming a factor of safety of 2, the minimum allowable design diameter is mm is
(A) 8
(B) 16
(C) 24
(D) 32
48. A force of 400 is applied to the brake drum of 0.5 diameter in a band brake system as shown in the figure,
where the wrapping angle is 180 . Ifthe coefficient of friction between the drum and the band is 0.25, the braking
torque applied, in Nm is

(A) 100.6
(B) 54.4
(C) 22.1
(D) 15.7
49. A fillet welded joint is subjected to transverse loading as shown in the figure. Both legs of the fillets are of 10mm
size and the weld length is 30 mm. If the allowable shear stress of the weld is 94 , considering the minimum
throat area of the weld, the maximum allowable transverse load in is

(A) 14.44
(B) 17.92
(C) 19.93
(D) 22.16

ANSWERS:
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30

C
C
A
B
D
D
A
B
C
D
C
C
B
C
C
A
B
B
A
B
C
A
A
B
C
C
C
C
A
B

31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49

B
D
A
B
A
D
B
B
A
A
B
A
A
B
D
B
B
B
C