27/1/2016

Experiment No. - 1
Aim - History of linux.

In 1991, in Helsinki,a Finnish student Linus Torvalds began a personal project

to create a new free operating system kernel, that later became the Linux
kernel.
He wrote the program specifically for the hardware he was using and
independent of an operating system because he wanted to use the functions of
his new PC with an 80386 processor. Development was done on MINIX using
the GNU C compiler.
The code can be built with other compilers, such as the Intel C Compiler. Since
then, the resulting Linux kernel has been marked by constant growth
throughout its history.
Since the initial release of its source code in 1991, it has grown from a small
number of C files under a license prohibiting commercial distribution to the
4.2.3 version in 2015 with more than 18 million lines of source code under
the GNU General Public License.
Torvalds announced in 1996 that there would be a mascot for Linux, a penguin.
This was due to the fact when they were about to select the mascot, Torvalds
did mention he was bitten by a little penguin on a visit to the National Zoo &
Aquarium in Canberra, Australia. The name Tux was suggested by James
Hughes as derivative of Torvalds' UniX.
The Microsoft and Linux camps had a number of antagonistic interactions
between 1997 and 2001.
Based on inquiries, research analysts, and some Microsoft sponsored
investigations, the case studies claimed that enterprise use of Linux on servers
compared unfavorably to the use of Windows in terms of reliability, security,
and total cost of ownership. In the autumn of 2006, Novell and Microsoft
announced an agreement to co-operate on software interoperability and patent
protection.
In July 2009, Microsoft submitted 22,000 lines of source code to the Linux
kernel under the GPLV2 license, which were subsequently accepted. By 2011,
Microsoft had become the 17th largest contributor to the Linux kernel. As of
February 2015, Microsoft was no longer among the top 30 contributing sponsor
companies

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Experiment No. - 2
Aim- To study the architecture of Linux.

Linux System Architecture is consists of following layer.

Hardware layer Hardware consists of all peripheral devices (RAM/ HDD/ CPU etc.).
Kernel Kernel is the core part of Linux. It is responsible for all major activities of this
operating system. It is consists of various modules and it interacts directly with the
underlying hardware. Kernel provides the required abstraction to hide low level
hardware details to system or application programs. There are two types of kernels
1. Monolithic kernel ( e.g. linux kernel)
2. Micro kernel ( e.g. windows NT kernel ,Mach kernel etc )
Shell/GCC An interface between the user & the kernel, hiding the complexity of the
kernels functions from users. Takes command from user and executes kernels
functions.
Application Software Utility programs giving user most of the functionality of an
operating system.

 Users System users, who interacts directly with the system and application
softwares.
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Experiment No. 3
Aim - To study basic features of linux.

Following are some of the important features of Linux Operating System.

Portable - Portability means softwares can works on different types of

hardwares in same way.Linux kernel and application programs supports their
installation on any kind of hardware platform.

Open Source - Linux source code is freely available and it is community based
development project. Multiple teams works in collaboration to enhance the
capability of Linux operating system and it is continuously evolving.

Multi-User - Linux is a multiuser system means multiple users can access

system resources like memory/ ram/ application programs at same time.

Multiprogramming - Linux is a multiprogramming system means multiple

applications can run at same time.

Hierarchical File System - Linux provides a standard file structure in which

system files/ user files are arranged.

Shell - Linux provides a special interpreter program which can be used to

execute commands of the operating system. It can be used to do various types
of operations, call application programs etc.

Security - Linux provides user security using authentication features like

password protection/ controlled access to specific files/ encryption of data.

Linux is fast, free and easy to use, power laptops and servers around the world. .

Live CD/USB: Almost all Linux distributions have Live CD/USB feature by
which user can run/try the OS even without installing it on the system.

Graphical user interface (X Window System): People think that Linux is a

command line OS, somewhere its true also but not necessarily, Linux have
packages which can be installed to make the whole OS graphics based as
Windows.

Supports most national or customized keyboards: Linux is used worldwide

and hence available in multiple languages, and supports most of their custom
national keyboards.

Command

Description

Usage

man

displayreferencemanualpages

man cmd_name

BasicOptions:
-k locatescommandsbykeywordlookup
-s specifiesachapterorsectiontolookin
-u basicusagedescription

man -k keyword
man -schap# cmd_name

Application Support: Linux has its own software repository from where users
can download and install thousands of applications just by issuing a command
in Linux Terminal or Shell. Linux can also run Windows applications if needed.
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Experiment No. - 4
Aim - To study various commands in linux

cat

concatenateanddisplayargumentsto
standardoutput

cat file

cd

changedirectory

cd path

BasicOption:
-hbasicusagedescription

cd -h

copyfiles

cp fromfile tofile

cp

ls

listthecontentsofadirectory

ls options files(s)

BasicOptions:
-aallfiles
-dlistdirectoriesnottheircontents
-Fmarkdirectorieswith/,executablefiles
with*,symboliclinkswith@,andsockets
with=
-llonglistingshowingprotections,number
oflinks,owner,size,andtimeoflast
modification
-ssizeinkilobytes
--helpbasicusagedescription
mkdir

createanewsubdirectoryinthecurrent
directory

mkdir subdir

createanewsubdirectory,intheindicated
targetdirectory

mkdir subdir targetdi

r

mv fromfile tofile

mv

moveorrenamefiles

pwd

displaythecurrentdirectory'sfullpathname

pwd

rm

remove(delete)files

rm file

BasicOptions:
-iinteractive,askbeforeremoval
-rrecursive,descendintosubdirectories
removingfilesandthencontaining

rm -i file
rm -r directory

directories.

touch

updatethetimestamponexistingfiles,create touch file

newemptyfiles

wc

displaythenumberoflines,wordsand
charactersinafile

wc filename

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