1

POLITICAL SCIENCE PROJECT

(INDIAN POLITICAL SYSTEM)
ON

MEDIA TRIAL & FREEDOM OF SPEECH AND

EXPRESSION
SUBMITTED TO:

Dr. Avinash Samal

Faculty, Political Science

SUBMITTED BY:

Abhinav Surollia
Roll no. 07
SECTION C
SEMESTER III, B.A. LLB(HONS.)
SUBMITTED ON:
September 2, 2014

HIDAYATULLAH NATIONAL LAW UNIVERSITY

Uparwara Post, Abhanpur, New Raipur 493661 (C.G.)

DECLARATION
I, Abhinav Surollia, of Semester III, Section C, declare that this project submitted to H.N.L.U.,
Raipur is an original work done by me under the able guidance of Dr. Avinash Samal, Faculty of
Political Science. The work is a bona fide creation done by me. Due references in terms of
footnotes have been duly given wherever necessary.

Abhinav Surollia
Roll No. 07
Section C, Semester III

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS:
I feel highly elated to work on the project Media Trial & Freedom of Speech and Expression.
The practical realisation of the project has obligated the assistance of many persons. Firstly I
express my deepest gratitude towards Dr. Avinash Samal, Faculty of Political Science, to provide

me with the opportunity to work on this project. His able guidanceship and supervision were of
extreme help in understanding and carrying out the nuances of this project.
I would also like to thank The University and the Vice Chancellor for providing extensive
database resources in the library and for the internet facilities provided by the University.
Some printing errors might have crept in which are deeply regretted. I would be grateful to
receive comments and suggestions to further improve this project.

Abhinav Surollia
Roll No. 07
Section C, Semester III

TABLE OF CONTENT:

Declaration
Acknowledgements
List of Abbreviations
Introduction
Objectives
Scope of the study
Research Methodology
Organisation of the study
Media Trial as Contempt of Court
Effect of Media Trial on Jurors
Effects of Media Trial on Accused
Conclusion
References

ii
iii
v
1
2
3
4
5
6
12
14
16
17

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

AIR

Art.
Etc.
Honble
No.
P.
SCC
8. Sec.
9. SCR
10. US
11. V.
12. Vol.

All India Reporter

Article
Et cetera (and so forth)
Honourable
Number
Page
Supreme Court Cases
Section
Supreme Court Reporter
United States
Versus
Volume

1.

INTRODUCTION:

2. A free press lies at the heart of our democracy and its preservation is essential to the
survival of liberty. Any inroad made upon the constitutional protection of a free press
tends to undermine the freedom of all men to print and read the truth.1
3. The fourth pillar of the democracy of India has the most profound impact on the
countrys citizens. If a picture is worth a thousand words, a person can just imagine what
an indelible impression a picture leaves on a persons memory. The media today works as
a channel connecting the government and the citizens of any country. It is the media for
the masses that helps them form opinions and make judgments regarding various issues.
Although, media is massively considered as a "watch dog" of political democracy, too
much intervention of this watch dog in everything is a matter of concern.
4. The subject of Trial by Media is discussed by civil rights activists, constitutional
lawyers, judges and academics almost every day in recent times. With the coming into
being of the television and cable-channels, the amount of publicity which any crime or
suspect or accused gets in the media has reached alarming proportions. Innocents may be
condemned for no reason or those who are guilty may not get a fair trial or may get a
higher sentence after trial than they deserved. There appears to be very little restraint in
the media in so far as the administration of criminal justice is concerned.
5. We are aware that in a democratic country like ours, freedom of expression is an
important right but such a right is not absolute in as much as the Constitution itself, while
it grants the freedom under Article 19(1)(a), permitted the legislature to impose
reasonable restriction on the right, in the interests of various matters, one of which is the
fair administration of justice as protected by the Contempt of Courts Act, 1971.
6. Thus, this project aims to figure out the role of media in contemporary judicial procedure
and its impact on justice delivery system.
7.
1 Justice Murphy, in Conway v. Johan, 331 US 367 1.

8.

OBJECTIVES:

9. The objectives of this project are:

1. To study whether Media Trial as contempt of Court violates the Article 19 of the
Constitution of India.
2. To study the effects of Media Trial on the judges/jurors.
3. To study the effects of Media Trial on the accused.
10.
11.

12. SCOPE OF THE STUDY:

13. This project report aims to cover whether the aspect of Media Trial as Contempt Of Court
under the Contempt of Courts Act, 1971 is violating Art. 19(1)(a) of the Indian
Constitution with reference to the effect of Media Trial on jurors and accused.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.

29.
30.

31.
32. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY:
33. This Research Project is descriptive and analytical in nature. Accumulation of the
information on the topic includes wide use of primary sources such as law reports and
cases as well as secondary sources like books, e-articles etc. The matter from these
sources have been compiled and analysed to understand the concept.
34. Websites, dictionaries and articles have also been referred.
35. The structure of the project, as instructed by the Faculty of Political Science has been
adhered to and same has been helpful in giving the project a fine finish off.
36.
37.

38. ORGANISATION OF THE

STUDY:
39. The report has been organized into five sections. The first section deals with the
introduction of the problem followed by objectives and methodology adopted for
carrying out the study.
40. The second section deals with whether the media trial amounts to contempt of court or
not. It tries to cover media trial in light of Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the
Constitution of India and Contempt of Courts Act, 1971.
41. The third section deals with the effect of media trial on jurors and the subsequent effect
on the justice delivery system.
42. The fourth section deals with the effect of media trial on the accused and their right to
free trial and their life after Media presents them as Accused.
43. Lastly, the final section deals with the concluding remarks of the report.
44.
45.
46.
47.
48.
49.
50.
51.
52.

53.
54.

55. MEDIA TRIAL AS CONTEMPT

OF COURT:
56. If media exercises an unrestricted or rather unregulated freedom in publishing
information about a criminal case and prejudices the mind of the public and those who
are to adjudicate on the guilt of the accused and if it projects a suspect or an accused as if
he has already been adjudged guilty well before the trial in court, there can be serious
prejudice to the accused. In fact, even if ultimately the person is acquitted after the due
process in courts, such an acquittal may not help the accused to rebuild his lost image in
society.
57. If excessive publicity in the media about a suspect or an accused before trial prejudices a
fair trial or results in characterizing him as a person who had indeed committed the crime,
it amounts to undue interference with the administration of justice 2, calling for
proceedings for contempt of court against the media. Other issues about the privacy rights
of individuals or defendants may also arise.
58. The observations of Mr. Andrew Belsey in his article Journalism and Ethics, can they coexist3 quoted by the Delhi High Court in Mother Dairy Foods & Processing Ltd v. Zee
Telefilms4 aptly describe the state of affairs of todays media. He says that journalism and
ethics stand apart. While journalists are distinctive facilitators for the democratic process
to function without hindrance the media has to follow the virtues of accuracy, honesty,
2 Sec. 2(c)(ii), the Contempt of Courts Act, 1971.
3 Media Ethics : A Philosophical Approach, Journalism and Ethics, can they co-exist edited
by Mathew Kieran, http://www.bignerds.com/tag/media-ethics/6/ (Accessed August 17,
2014)

4 AIR 2005 Delhi 195.

truth, objectivity, fairness, balanced reporting, respect or autonomy of ordinary people.

These are all part of the democratic process. But practical considerations, namely, pursuit
of successful career, promotion to be obtained, compulsion of meeting deadlines and
satisfying Media Managers by meeting growth targets, are recognized as factors for the
temptation to print trivial stories salaciously presented. In the temptation to sell stories,
what is presented is what public is interested in rather than what is in public interest.
59. Suspects and accused apart, even victims and witnesses suffer from excessive publicity
and invasion of their privacy rights. Police are presented in poor light by the media and
their morale too suffers. The day after the report of crime is published, media says Police
have no cue. Then, whatever gossip the media gathers about the line of investigation by
the official agencies, it gives such publicity in respect of the information that the person
who has indeed committed the crime, can move away to safer places. The pressure on the
police from media day by day builds up and reaches a stage where police feel compelled
to say something or the other in public to protect their reputation. Sometimes when, under
such pressure, police come forward with a story that they have nabbed a suspect and that
he has confessed, the Breaking News items start and few in the media appear to know
that under the law, confession to police is not admissible in a criminal trial. Once the
confession is published by both the police and the media, the suspects future is finished.
When he retracts from the confession before the Magistrate, the public imagine that the
person is a liar. The whole procedure of due process is thus getting distorted and
confused.
60. The media also creates other problems for witnesses. If the identity of witnesses is
published, there is danger of the witnesses coming under pressure both from the accused
or his associates as well as from the police. At the earliest stage, the witnesses want to
retract and get out of the muddle. Witness protection is then a serious casualty. This leads
to the question about the admissibility of hostile witness evidence and whether the law
should be amended to prevent witnesses changing their statements. Again, if the suspects
pictures are shown in the media, problems can arise during identification parades
conducted under the Code of Criminal Procedure for identifying the accused.

61. Sometimes, the media conducts parallel investigations and points its finger at persons
who may indeed be innocent. It tries to find fault with the investigation process even
before it is completed and this raises suspicions in the minds of the public about the
efficiency of the official investigation machinery.
62. The Press Council of India issues guidelines from time to time and in some cases, it does
take action. But, even if apologies are directed to be published, they are published in such
a way that either they are not apologies or the apologies are published in the papers at
places which are not very prominent.
63.
64. Our criminal law and criminal jurisprudence are based on the premise that the guilt of
any person charged in a court of law has to be proved beyond reasonable doubt and that
the accused is presumed to be innocent unless the contrary is proved in public, in a court
of law, observing all the legal safeguards to an accused. Not only that, the accused has a
basic right to silence. That right stems from the constitutional right of the accused
common to several constitutions that the accused cannot be compelled to incriminate
himself5. That is also the reason why confessions to the police are inadmissible in a court
of law.

65.

Universal Declaration of Human Rights:

66. There are certain rights of suspects and accused which are basic human rights. They are
expressly referred to in various articles of the United Nations Universal Declaration of
Human Rights (1948).
67. Article 10 deals with the right of an accused In full equality to a fair and public hearing
by an independent and impartial tribunal in the determination of his rights and
obligations and of any criminal charge against him6.
5 Art. 22, the Constitution of India.
6 Art. 10, Universal Declaration of Human Rights,
http://www.un.org/en/documents/udhr/index.shtml#a10 (Accessed August 17, 2014)

68. Article 11 of the Universal Declaration deals with the right to be presumed innocent and
reads thus:
69. Article 11 (1), Everyone charged with a penal offence has the right to be presumed
innocent until proved guilty according to law in a public trial at which he has all the
guarantees necessary for his defence.7
70. Article 12 deals with the persons privacy rights and reads thus:
71. Article 12: No one shall be subject to arbitrary interference with his privacy, family,
home or correspondence, nor to attacks upon his honour and reputation. Everyone has
the right to protection of the law against such interference and attacks.
72. Thus, the Articles presented in the United Nations Universal Declaration of Human
Rights provide rights to an accused. Although a Declaration is not binding but moral and
persuasive in nature, it is very essential for us to recognise and honour the rights of an
accused.

73.

Constitution of India: Rights of Accused and

Freedom of Speech and Expression (Art. 19(1) (a):74. Our Constitution does not separately refer to the freedom of the press or of the electronic
media in Part III but these rights are treated by the law as part of the Freedom of speech
and expression guaranteed by Article 19 (1)(a) of the Constitution of India. The
guarantee is subject to reasonable restrictions which can be made by legislation to the
extent permitted by Article 19(2).
75. The Article reads thus:
76. Article 19(1): All citizens shall have the right

77.

(a) to freedom of speech and expression;

78.

(b) ... ... ...,

10

79.

(g) ,

80. Article 19(2): Nothing in sub-clause (a) of clause (1) shall affect the operation of any
existing law, or prevent the State from making any law, in so far as such law imposes
reasonable restrictions on the exercise of the right conferred by the said sub-clause,

in the interest of the sovereignty and integrity of India,

the security of the State,
friendly relations with foreign States,
public order, decency or morality,
in relation to contempt of court, defamation or
incitement to an offence.

81. Contempt of Court law8 deals with non-interference with the administration of justice

and that is how the due course of justice that is required for a fair trial, can require
imposition of limitations on the freedom of speech and expression.
82. There comes a question whether Media Publication (print or electronic) can come under
the ambit of Art. 19(1)(a) as Speech and Expression? The answer to this question is yes
media publication amounts to speech and expression. The Supreme Court of India, in
Life Insurance Corporation of India v. Manubhai D Shah 9 has stated that the
freedom of speech and expression in Article 19(1)(a) means the right to express ones
convictions and opinions freely, by word of mouth, writing, printing, pictures or
electronic media or in any other manner.
83. Further, in case of Romesh Thapar v. State of Madras10, it was held that the freedom
includes the freedom of ideas, their publication and circulation. It was stated in

8 The Contempt of Courts Act, 1971.

9 1992 (3) SCC 637.
10 1950 SCR 594.

11

Hamdard Dawakhana v. Union of India11, that the right includes the right to acquire
and impart ideas and information about matters of common interest.
84. The Honble Supreme Court in the case of State of Maharashtra v. Rajendra
Jawanmal Gandhi12 held that a trial by press, electronic media or by way of a public
agitation is the very anti-thesis of rule of law and can lead to miscarriage of justice. A
Judge is to guard himself against such pressure.

85.

Contempt of Courts Act, 1971:

86. So far as interference with criminal law is concerned, Sections 2 and 3 of the Contempt
of Courts Act, 1971 are relevant,
87. Section 2(c) defines Criminal Contempt as:
88. Section 2(c): Criminal contempt means the publication, (whether by words, spoken or
written or by signs, or by visible representations, or otherwise), of any matter or the
doing of any other act whatsoever which, (i)
89. (ii) prejudices or interferes or tends to interfere with the due course of any judicial
proceedings; or
90. (iii) interferes or tends to interfere with or obstructs or tends to obstruct, the
administration of justice in any manner.
91. Section 3(1), however, exempts the following:
92. innocent publication, if the publisher had no reasonable grounds for believing that the
proceeding was pending.
93. For the purposes of this section, a judicial proceeding is said to be pending

11 1960 (2) SCR 671.

12 1997 (8) SCC 386.

12

94. (A) in case of a civil proceeding, when it is instituted by the filing of a plaint or
otherwise;
95. (B) in case of a criminal proceeding under the Code of Criminal Procedure, 1898, or any
other law96. (i) where it relates to the commission of an offence, when the charge-sheet or challan is
filed , or when the Court issues summons or warrant, as the case may be, against the
accused, and
97. (ii) in any other case, when the Court takes cognizance of the matter to which the
proceeding relates, and in the case of a civil or criminal proceedings, shall be deemed to
continue to be pending until it is heard and finally decided, that is to say, in a case where
an appeal or revision is competent, until the appeal or revision is heard and finally
decided or, where no appeal or revision is preferred, until the period of limitation
prescribed for such appeal or revision has expired.
98. Section 4 of the Act protects fair and accurate reporting of judicial proceedings.
99.
100.

After studying the Constitution of India, the Contempt of Courts Act, 1971 and

the Universal Declaration of Human Rights it can be concluded that Media Trial during
the pendency of a Civil or Criminal Trial amounts to the Contempt of Court and this is
indeed a reasonable restriction on Media, as provided in the Constitution of India under
Art. 19(2).

101. EFFECT OF MEDIA TRIAL

ON JURORS:
102.

There is a nice question whether a media publication can unconsciously

influence Judges or Juries and whether Judges, as human beings are not susceptible to
such indirect influences, at least subconsciously or unconsciously?

13

103.

The American view appears to be that Jurors and Judges are not liable to be

influenced by media publication, while the Anglo-Saxon view is that Judges, at any rate
may still be subconsciously (though not consciously) influenced and members of the
public may think that Judges are influenced by such publications and such a situation, it
has been held, attracts the principle that justice must not only be done but must be seen
to be done. The Anglo-Saxon view appears to have been accepted by the Supreme Court
as can be seen by a close reading of the Judgment in Reliance Petrochemicals v.
Proprietor of Indian Express.13 It appears that it was accepted by the Supreme Court
that Judges are likely to be subconsciously influenced by the media publications.
104.

The Supreme Court then referred to the observations of Justice Frankfurter in

John D. Pennekamp v. State of Florida. 14. The Judiciary, according to Justice

Frankfurter could not function properly if what the press does is reasonably calculated to
disturb the judicial judgment in its duty and capacity to act solely on the basis of what is
before the Court. The judiciary is not independent unless Courts of Justice are enabled to
administer law by absence of pressure from without, or the presence of disfavour.
105.

There is yet another celebrated passage in the said judgment of Justice Frankfurter

which we may refer:106.

No Judge fit to be one is likely to be influenced consciously, except by what he

sees or hears in Court and by what is judicially appropriate for his deliberations.
However, Judges are also human and we know better than did our forbears how powerful
is the pull of the unconscious and how treacherous the rational process ... and since
Judges, however stalwart, are human, the delicate task of administering justice ought not
to be made unduly difficult by irresponsible print. The power to punish for contempt of
court is a safeguard not for Judges as persons but for the functions which they exercise.
It is a condition of that function indispensable in a free society that in a particular
controversy pending before a court and awaiting judgment, human beings, however
strong, should not be torn from their moorings of impartiality by the undertone of
13 1988(4) SCC 592.
14 (1946) 328 US 331.

14

extraneous influence. In securing freedom of speech, the Constitution hardly meant to

create the right to influence Judges and Jurors.
107.

A case study can elaborate the above point.

108.

In1981, The Delhi High Court took suo motu notice of a fake sting operation in

which a reporter doctored voice and video recordings to project a totally fabricated
allegation. The television channel, Live India, aired the programme on August 30,
showing a Delhi schoolteacher "forcing" a student into sex work. In the violence out- side
the school that followed, the teacher was assaulted by angry citizens. She was then
dismissed from service. It later transpired that the reporter had cooked up this allegation
at the behest of a businessman to whom the teacher owed money. The "student" was an
aspiring journalist roped in by the reporter. The reporter had repeatedly phoned the
teacher asking to be "supplied with girls", a demand which the teacher had strongly
objected to.15
109.

Thus after going through the above views of the Supreme Court and

Justice Frankfurter and the case study how media can fabricate news which may affect
the judges, we can conclude that though not consciously but definitely subconsciously
media trial does affect the judges and hinders the administration of justice as there should
be a free and independent justice delivery system which should not be prejudiced.
110.
111.
112.
113.
114.

15 Economic and Political Weekly, Vol. 42, No. 52 (Dec. 29, 2007 - Jan. 4, 2008), p.
7.

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115. EFFECT OF MEDIA TRIAL

ON ACCUSED:
116.

The relationship between law and the media share many of the features of the

relationship between the media and other areas of social life. What most people know
about law they will have learned through the media. At the same time, those who are
familiar with the internal workings of law may view media reporting as simplistic,
distorted, or just incorrect. Whatever we know about our society, or indeed about the
world in which we live, we know through the mass media. This is true not only of our
knowledge of society and history but also of our knowledge of nature. What we know
about the stratosphere is the same as what Plato knows about Atlantis: we've heard tell of
it. Or, as Horatio puts it: 'So have I heard, and do in part believe it. 16
117.

The source of what everybody is presumed to know is, inescapably, the mass

media. This may occasionally take the form of media reports of knowledge, but more
commonly it takes the form of what is taken for granted in media communications. This
media trial and portrayal of any accused or defendant in any trial inexplicably affects his
innocence and image, which, if and when the accused is held to be innocent, results in
defamation and a permanent scar on his public image. As with their understanding,
knowledge of what people will accept is not directly accessible. With the mass media, it
is unavoidably an imaginary audience. There are crude indicators of acceptance, such as a
surge in newspaper sales, which may provide occasional evidence of the acceptance of a
particular item. But another indicator of acceptance is the reaction of the media to their
own communications: if a newspaper story is 'really news' it will be picked up by other
newspapers, broadcast on TV, and so on. The news story of the day is the story that
makes the news pages and news programmes for that day.

16 Robbennolt, Jennifer K., News Media Reporting on Civil Litigation and Its Influence on Civil
Justice Decision Making, Law and Human Behavior, Vol. 27, No. 1, Psychology in Civil Litigation
(Feb., 2003), pp. 5-27

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118.

AS the trial of OJ Simpson (ex-football star, television personality and probably

the most famous person in America ever to go on trial for murder) for the brutal killings
of his ex- wife and her male friend ground on for nine months, it began to look more like
a long- running TV soap opera than real life. Millions of Americans watched the
proceedings on TV, which were covered exhaustively by CNN, and an estimated 135
million people, or half the population, are thought to have watched or heard the verdict,
which was carried live by all the major networks and cable channels (during which time
advertising slots reportedly were sold at five times the normal price). The trial of OJ
Simpson, the famous football star, was broadcast like a soap opera but ended like a
football match, with blacks and whites cheering opposing sides. Why did this happen?
The racial tension that it generated had something to do with already existing racial
divisions and inequalities in American society, but much more to do with the way in
which the case was projected and produced by the media. The transformation of a murder
trial into a race issue is but one example of the increasing control which the media exerts
over the terms of public discourse in the US. . As the verdict of 'not guilty' was read out,
reports say, most whites reacted with dismay while many blacks cheered. Thus in the end
the trial was transformed from a TV drama into a football game, with blacks and whites
largely championing opposing sides. Added to this we have the ratings wars, the
compulsion to make news more and more sensational in order to sell one's programmes
or paper, and it should not surprise anyone that the line between fiction and reality is
becoming too thin to see.17 Far from reflecting or reporting on political issues or people's
current concerns, the media has shown itself capable of whipping up frenzy on one issue
or the other - a very good example is the present concern about 'crime', hysteria about
which provides useful public support for building more jails and putting more people
behind bars.
119.

This is precisely why jurors in cases such as this are prevented from reading

newspaper or watching television, and sequestered if necessary, lest their impartiality be

affected by what they read or hear in the media. Before the trial had even begun, OJ
Simpson had been tried and convicted by the media, so the main criterion for selection of
17 Nobles, Richard, A Story of Miscarriage: Law in the Media, Journal of Law and Society, Vol. 31,
No. 2 (Jun., 2004), pp. 221-244

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jurors laid down by the judge was that they should not have read any newspapers during
the selection period. Intensive media exposure to accusations, theories and lawyers has
prepared them for a trial they think they can understand, but it also has made them more
skeptical of virtually everyone involved in it.
120.
121.

122.
123.

CONCLUSION:

The news media have the potential to act as a powerful influence of the civil

litigation system, influencing decision making in particular cases and on the system more
generally as media reports influence the decision making of various participants in the
system. The information presented in the media about the civil litigation system is critical
because citizens report that the news media is their primary source of information about
the court system, an even more important source than contact with the courts themselves.
Not only do the media control much of the information that is available to individuals
about the workings of the civil litigation system, the media also have the potential to
influence the meaning that is given to the information and the conclusions that are drawn
from it. In this way, news media have the capacity to act as powerful influences on the
system itself, influencing decision making in particular cases and on the system more
generally as media reports influence the decision making of various participants in the
system. Studies of media reporting about civil litigation demonstrate that such reporting
presents a systematically distorted picture of civil litigation. News reporting is "eventcentered" and that, as a consequence, the "system in which a given event is embedded" is
rarely considered. As a result, despite the fact that the majority of civil disputes are
settled by means other than trial, media reports tend to focus on the concrete events of
trials, with little systematic consideration of aggregate information. Furthermore, trials in
which the plaintiffs prevail and large-scale monetary damages are awarded receive more
attention than other cases that go to trial. the picture of civil litigation that one is likely to
draw from the information available in the media is that of a system characterized by

18

frequent litigation, frivolous lawsuits, greedy plaintiffs, and high damage awards.
Scholars have identified a number of reasons for the disparity between this picture and
the empirical evidence. The feedback path in the framework allows for characterizations
of the public as active, rather than passive, consumers of news. Although it is true that
people sometimes simply react to information presented by the media, at other times they
may make clear statements about what they want to see or hear (e.g., by writing letters to
the editor or by tuning in or out). Importantly, awareness of information presented in the
media, both at a general level and in particular cases, has been shown to influence
judgments made by decision makers at trial.

124.

REFERENCES:

Barendt Eric, Freedom of the Press, Library of Essays in Media Law, Ashgate Publishing

Company, 2009
Barendt Eric, Media Freedom and Contempt of Court, Library of Essays in Media Law,

Ashgate Publishing Company, 2009

Bakshi P.M., Constitution of India. Ed. 12th, Universal Law Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd.
Delhi

The Contempt of Courts Act, 1971,

125.
http://lawyerslaw.org/the-contempt-of-courts-act-1971(Accessed

August

18,

2014)
Nobles, Richard, A Story of Miscarriage: Law in the Media, Journal of Law and

Society, Vol. 31, No. 2

Robbennolt, Jennifer K., News Media Reporting on Civil Litigation and Its Influence on
Civil Justice Decision Making, Law and Human Behavior, Vol. 27, No. 1, Psychology in

Civil Litigation
Economic and Political Weekly, Vol. 42, No. 52 (Dec. 29, 2007 - Jan. 4, 2008)
Universal Declaration of Human Rights,
126.
http://www.un.org/en/documents/udhr/index.shtml#a10 (Accessed August 17,

2014)
Kieran Mathew, Media Ethics : A Philosophical Approach, Journalism and Ethics, can

they co-exist edited

127.
http://www.bignerds.com/tag/media-ethics/6/ (Accessed August 17, 2014)
128.

19
129.