International Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction 12 (2015) 300310

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

International Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ijdrr

A conceptual model of a schoolcommunity collaborative network in

enhancing coastal community resilience in Banda Aceh, Indonesia
Rina Suryani Oktari a,n, Koichi Shiwaku b, Khairul Munadi c, Syamsidik d, Rajib Shaw e
a
PARR Research Fellows at Kyoto University, Tsunami and Disaster Mitigation Research Center (TDMRC) and Faculty of Medicine, Syiah Kuala University, Jl.
Tgk. Syech Abdul Rauf, Darussalam, Banda Aceh 23111, Indonesia
b
Graduate School of Global Environmental Studies, Kyoto University, Yoshida Honmachi, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto 606-8501, Japan
c
Tsunami and Disaster Mitigation Research Center (TDMRC) and Electrical Engineering Department, Syiah Kuala University, Jl. Tgk. Syech Abdul Rauf,
Darussalam, Banda Aceh 23111, Indonesia
d
Tsunami and Disaster Mitigation Research Center (TDMRC) and Civil Engineering Department, Syiah Kuala University, Jl. Tgk. Syech Abdul Rauf,
Darussalam, Banda Aceh 23111, Indonesia
e
Graduate School of Global Environmental Studies, Kyoto University, Yoshida Honmachi, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto 606-8501, Japan

art ic l e i nf o

a b s t r a c t

Article history:
Received 21 November 2014
Received in revised form
16 February 2015
Accepted 16 February 2015
Available online 17 February 2015

Schools have an important role in knowledge development for building community resilience. It is important to involve the community with performing their roles to enhance resilience towards disaster, in
order to ensure the sustainability of disaster education. This study aims to evaluate current efforts of
disaster education and to develop a conceptual model for enhancing coastal community resilience.
Qualitative and quantitative methodologies were used, including Focus Group Discussion and a questionnaire survey in 19 schools in Banda Aceh with a total of 634 respondents. The survey found that the
school-based disaster preparedness (SSB) program was still effective in enhancing the resource mobilization capacity of teachers and students. But, in terms of obtaining knowledge from other sources,
teachers in a SSB school have a lower percentage than teachers in a non-SSB school. This study also
indicated some forms of collaboration that existed between school and community to improve school
services. The results of this study proposed the SchoolCommunity Collaborative Networks (SCCN)
model. The proposed model is expected to endorse the involvement of community in disaster education
efforts and the use of a knowledge management strategy to provide individuals with a correct choice of
action(s) to save lives. Also, the model hopefully can be used to promote transfer of knowledge from
generation to generation as an important intangible asset to improve the sustainability, performance and
innovation in resilience efforts.
& 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords:
Disaster education
Community resilience
School networks
Knowledge management

1. Introduction
The Hyogo Framework for Action (HFA) priority for action #3
highlighted the use of knowledge, innovation, and education to
build a culture of safety and resilience at all levels [21]. In the
20062007, UN/ISDR initiated Disaster Risk Reduction Begins at
School which emphasized the importance of integrating disaster
risk reduction into formal education. It also highlighted the importance of community participation in order to achieve sustainability within the community [22]. This campaign has noted some
learnt lessons which include the following: (i) education is a
n

Corresponding author. Fax: 62 651 805 2168.

E-mail addresses: okta@tdmrc.org (R.S. Oktari),
shiwaku.koichi.7u@kyoto-u.ac.jp (K. Shiwaku), munadi@tdmrc.org (K. Munadi),
syamsidik@tdmrc.org (Syamsidik), shaw.rajib.5u@kyoto-u.ac.jp (R. Shaw).
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijdrr.2015.02.006
2212-4209/& 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

process for effective disaster reduction; (ii) knowledge, perception,

comprehension and actions are the four important steps; (iii)
schools and formal education play signicant roles in knowledge
development; (iv) family-, community-, and self-education are
essential for comprehension of knowledge and implementation of
risk reduction actions; and (v) holistic education includes activities
at local level, as well as its policy integration [15].
As an education institution, the school has the responsibility to
deliver education and create a conducive learning atmosphere and
process. Thus, in many developing countries, the school has a
signicant role in knowledge development for building community resilience in relation to the effort of managing disaster [12]. It
is important to continuously provide disaster education in school
[16]. The importance of disaster education at school is increasing
because of the following reasons: (i) children are one of the most
vulnerable groups during a disaster, (ii) children represent the

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future, (iii) school serves as a communitys central location for

meetings and group activities; and (iv) effects of education can be
transferred to parents or family and community [12,15]. Pertaining
to this, the school still gains trust as an effective institution to
build the disaster resilience in societies, particularly among students, teachers, education practitioners, other stakeholders as well
as to the public [12].
Disaster education should not be limited to the school, where
education is provided, but should break the school boundary and
be linked to the community and family. The role of family and
community participation is crucial for the enhancement as well as
the sustainability of disaster education [18]. In addition, to ensure
the sustainability of the education, UNESCO has emphasized the
importance of facilitating networking and collaboration among
stakeholders [24]. Other involved stakeholders which exist within
society, such as organizations, communities, agencies, departments, jurisdictions, and policy-making bodies, must recognize
and perform their roles in a large cooperative effort for the development of disaster-resilient communities [18].
Shiwaku et al. pointed out that community plays an essential
role in promoting students actual actions for disaster risk reduction [14]. Shaw et al. carried out a comparative study of various
modes of education on risk perception among school students in
Japan. From the study, it was pointed out that community and
family level of education have more direct inuence on better
disaster preparedness. The study also indicated that a school disaster risk reduction program, coupled with self, family and community education, can help a student develop a culture of disaster
preparedness in their communities, and it was suggested that
disaster education should involve non-formal activities that inuence actions rather than mere knowledge [11].
Ronan et al. have examined correlates of hazards education
involvement for youth. The study has two main ndings: (i)
younger children were generally seen to be more prepared and
girls, more knowledgeable; and (ii) youth involved in education
programs had signicantly higher levels of correct knowledge of
readiness and response behaviors, lower levels of incorrect
knowledge, and reported more home-based hazards adjustments
[27].
Using a quasi-experimental strategy, Ronan et al. also carried
out a study to evaluate youth preparedness for disaster. The study
found that following a brief school education program, supplementing a larger community-wide effort, children reported signicant gains in preparedness indicators including increased
knowledge as well as improvements in physical and psychosocial
preparedness [11,28].
The objectives of this study are: (i) to evaluate current efforts of
disaster education; (ii) to assess the current situation of school
community collaboration; (iii) to develop a conceptual model for
schoolcommunity collaboration in enhancing coastal community
resilience; and (iv) to develop a practical application of the model.
Findings from this study will suggest a proposed schoolcommunity collaborative networks model to enhance community resilience. The proposed model will need to be tested on different
data set to conrm validity of the associations and rened in future studies.
The study took place in Banda Aceh, Aceh Province, Indonesia
in the Indonesian Archipelago located at the meeting points of the
earth's tectonic plates where the Eurasian plate directly collided
with the Indo-Australian plate in the west and south sides. Another meeting point of three tectonic plates is in the east, namely
the Philippine Sea plate, Pacic plate and Indo-Australian plate.
Such a geographical location has made Indonesia prone to geological hazards such as earthquake, tsunami, landslide and volcanic
eruption [4].
Aceh is a province in Indonesia that was the most affected

301

region of the December 26, 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami triggered

by an earthquake measuring 9.15 on the Richter scale. Banda Aceh
is the capital and the largest city in the Aceh province. During the
2004 tsunami, 61,065 people went missing and died, 21,751
housing units, 169 education facility units, 25 health center units
and 302 km roads were all destroyed [2].

2. Methods
This study used both qualitative and quantitative methods. The
qualitative methods involve a literature review and a group interview. The quantitative approach was with a survey questionnaire which was conducted to assess the level of preparedness
for the school-based disaster preparedness (Sekolah Siaga Bencana/ SSB) and non-SSB schools.
A study using a cross-sectional design was carried out in 19
Public Junior High Schools in Banda Aceh in period July to August
2014. Among these schools there are ve that have implemented
the SSB program since 2012; they are SMPN 1, SMPN 5, SMPN 11,
SMPN 12 and SMPN 15.
The map below (Fig. 1) provides information on the categories
of the vulnerability to tsunami based on sub-districts where the
schools are located.
Purposive sampling was carried out to select teachers and
students from SSB and non-SSB schools. A total of 634 respondents
were selected consisting of 243 teachers and 372 students.
To meet the objective of this research and inclusion criteria for
students was that they be in the 9th grade, in the 1416-year-old
age range, and for teachers was had they had more than two years
of working experience. These criteria were used in consideration
of the fact that the students and teachers in SSB school had participated in the SSB program previously.
The questions used in the questionnaire were adopted from
Lembaga Ilmu Pengetahuan Indonesia (LIPI)-UNESCO/International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (ISDR) [8]. The questionnaire
consists of some aspects which are (i) knowledge of disaster, (ii)
emergency planning, (iii) warning system, and (iv) resource mobilization capacity.
After the survey ndings had been identied, the next step was
to explore some theoretical concepts/models and related literature
in order to create the framework of a network model between
school and community. The conceptual framework was developed
using the context in which collaborative efforts are best undertaken. In addition, the development of the conceptual framework
is also referring to key ndings from the survey in Banda Aceh and
the literature review.
Fig. 2 below illustrates the ow of the development of the
conceptual framework for schoolcommunity collaboration
model.

3. The current status of schools

3.1. Evaluation of school-based disaster preparedness program
In 2006, the UN/ISDR secretariat in cooperation with UNESCO
launched Disaster Risk Reduction Begins at School, as a theme
selected for the World Disaster Reduction Campaign 20062007.
The campaign promotes two major initiatives: (i) making school
buildings safer, and (ii) mainstreaming disaster risk reduction into
school curricula. The campaign involves school children, teachers
and non-academic staff and, in some cases, even surrounding
communities [23]. Following this campaign, many activities have
been carried out in all parts of the world, including the SSB program in Aceh, Indonesia.

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Fig. 1. School locations of study against tsunami risk zones map with 5 years of probabilistic.
(Source: DRMIS/TDMRC, 2014).

Existing Data (Primary

and secondary)

Literature review

Analysis

CBDRM and School network,

which one is the effective
school-community network, etc

Results

Find the Problem

How to solve the

problem

Proposed network model

Fig. 2. Flowchart to develop a conceptual framework.

Indonesia Institute of Science (LIPI) initially developed a pilot

project for SSB with support from UNESCO [1]. The basic program
of SSB was the developing disaster curricula through different
activities including training of trainers for teachers, workshop,
development of modules, training for school community, equipping with the experiment of activities related to disaster subject.
Other activities were installing signs and messages about disaster
education, distributing materials related to disaster information
and assessment of earthquake-resistance school building. The
Tsunami & Disaster Mitigation Research Center (TDMRC) started to
replicate the SSB model in Aceh. Instead of applying curriculumbased disaster education, it began the project by training about
disaster issues directly to the teachers and school children independently from the school subjects and school time. Although,
nally, the project would implement school curriculum-based
disaster education, the program was taught more interactively and

using various methods such as role-playing, discussion, and other

methods. Every month TDMRC involves local government, the Red
Cross organization conducts the different activities in school as
scheduled. Although there were similar activities related to disaster education carried out in schools, the different way of incorporating ofcially curriculum-based disaster theme and time of
the implementation are signicantly different [19].
Some components/activities of the SSB program are: (i) First
Aid training that involving the Indonesian Red Cross (PMI) as a
training facilitator; (ii) school-watching workshop: to provide
basic knowledge about disaster management, school preparedness, hazard assessment, integration disaster subject into school
curricula and extra-curricular activities and emergency/evacuation
planning; (iii) art workshop on disaster mitigation; (iv) provision
of disaster-related equipment for school; (v) mentoring, training
and simulation; and (vi) DRR festival, to promote disaster knowledge through art and music competitions [19].
Following the 2004 tsunami, some of the schools in Aceh indicated a high dependence on assistance from donors/NGOs that
inuence their capacity to mobilize the existing resources [8].
Thus, the discussion of questionnaire results will be based on the
aspect of resource mobilization capacity of teachers and students
with respect to disaster. However, other aspects will not be discussed in this paper.
Obtained data were evaluated by frequency and percentages
ratios, and a Chi-square test to investigate whether distributions of
categorical variables differ between SSB and non-SSB schools.
Testing was undertaken using one degree of freedom and a signicance level of 0.05.
The result of teachers resource mobilization capacity for disaster is shown in Table 1. To assess teachers mobilization capacity,
several questions have been asked which include: (i) effort to
enhance disaster knowledge; and (ii) ability to disseminate
knowledge to students and the community in the surrounding
environment.
From the result of the Chi-square test, almost all variables in
SSB and non-SSB Schools had shown a signicant difference, excepting question 1a, 1b, 1c and 1 h (with yellow mark).

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303

Table 1
Summary of Teachers resource mobilization capacity for disaster (table value of 3.841).

As demonstrated in Table 1, teachers in SSB school have a

higher percentage than teachers in non-SSB school that answer
Yes for most of the questions, except for questions 1e, 1f and 1g
(with red mark). Teachers in SSB schools have a lower percentage
than teachers in non-SSB schools in terms of getting knowledge
from another source such as: (i) socialization, seminar, meeting;
(ii) sibling, relatives, friends and neighbors; and (iii) government
staff. This result may indicate that teachers in SSB schools feel
condent that they have enough disaster knowledge attained
through the SSB program implemented in their school. Hence, it
may lead to loss of motivation to acquire disaster knowledge from
other sources. It implies that enhancing motivation of teachers is
necessary for disaster preparedness programs for teachers so that
they can improve their knowledge continuously.
Resource mobilization among students was identied based on
several questions in the survey questionnaire, which include:
(i) experience of students in participating in training activities or
meetings on preparedness, and (ii) efforts in disseminating the

experience or knowledge acquired. Some of the activities in

question include rst aid training (including small physician and
youth red cross/PMR), scouting and evacuation simulation and
student participation on the disaster in meetings/lectures. From
the results of the questionnaire (see Table 2) it is shown that the
students in SSB schools have a higher percentage of participation
in such activities than students in non-SSBs. More detailed questions for the students who had attended the above activities are
whether a student conducts information dissemination activities
on the knowledge and skills provided to them. It is interesting to
see the trend that the majority of students in the SSB school had in
such activities with respect to friends, family and neighbors
(92.45%).
Overall, in terms of the difference in mean score of resource
mobilization capacity, it was shown that there is a statistically
signicant difference between teachers from SSB and non-SSB
schools with 0.05. From the survey results, it can be concluded
that teachers and students in schools that have implemented an

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Table 2
Summary of students resource mobilization capacity for disaster (table value of 3.841).

SSB program have a better resource mobilization capacity than in

schools that have not implemented an SSB program.
The implementation of an Australian government funded program called Local Governance Innovations for Communities in
Aceh (LOGICA) has showed that there was an effective participation in school service improvement by school committees in
6 districts in Aceh. Changes were made due to an increased
awareness of school committees that act as change agents between community and school. Some of the changes include increased levels of discipline of both teachers and students, more

transparent and targeted distribution mechanisms of support for

students from a poor family, improved school facilities, etc. [9].
Evaluation of the level of preparedness of teachers and students in mobilizing resources showed a signicant difference between SSB and non-SSB schools. In this case, the teacher and
students in SSB schools have demonstrated a resource mobilization capacity index which is higher than for non-SSB schools.
Hence, the SSB program is still an effective approach to enhancing
the disaster resilience of teachers and students.
However, in terms of getting knowledge from other sources,

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teachers in SSB schools have a lower percentage than teachers in

non-SSB schools. Thus, it is important to include the knowledge
management framework in order to increase motivation to acquire
disaster knowledge from other resources as well as to share the
disaster knowledge with others. By using knowledge management
approaches in SSB programs, the process of creating disaster
knowledge will be more sustained and will promote the process of
transferring disaster knowledge to the wider community as well as
to the next generations. In addition, the existing collaborative
network, such as School Committee's partnership could be empowered to enhance a community's resilience against disaster.
This study summarizes some points to consider for future implementation of SSB programs as described below:

 To include the knowledge management framework to ensure



the process of translating knowledge into action to response for

future disasters.
To utilize the existing collaborative network to make better use
of resources in enhancing a community's resilience against
disaster.

305

Education System stipulates that to improve school quality, it is

important to build relationships with stakeholders and to recommend making decisions based on negotiation, standard measures, comparative and publicly available information, and accountability to achieve school development goals. This law also
emphasizes the importance of engaging people from the schools
local communities in planning, monitoring, and improving school
quality by serving on school committees. The Board of Education,
as an independent body, is established and participates in the
quality improvement of education by providing advice, directions
and support for personnel, facilities, and equipment. The School
Committee, as an independent body, should be established to
provide advice, directions and support for personnel, facilities and
equipment, and monitoring of an educational unit [3,25].
According to the above laws, the Board of Education and School
Committee has an important role. One of the roles is to encourage
the growth of the attention, participation and commitment of the
community to the implementation of quality education, including
disaster education.

4. Knowledge management to enhance community resilience

3.2. Collaboration between school and community
4.1. Seci process and knowledge ladder
Group interview for education sector and community on Recovery Assessment after ten years of post-Tsunami has been conducted in Banda Aceh in June 2014. The total number of participants was 18, including school principals, teachers and communities from tsunami-affected and non-affected areas. One of the
topics discussed were related to the collaboration between the
school and the community after a tsunami, which includes its
current condition and efforts to strengthen the collaboration.
Some of the collaboration between the school and the community after a tsunami includes providing emergency education
facilities (such as temporary schools and camps), cleaning educational facilities, and recruiting teachers and other education personnel on a temporary basis, including empowering volunteers
from the community.
In general, the FGD participants stated that to date, both
schools and communities are highly collaborative. Some forms of
collaboration between schools and communities include: regularly
meeting with the people in the community in school management, jointly organizing community events at school, and regularly organizing meetings with parents on the performance of
children in school. One form of collaboration activity includes
cooperation with the community to clean up the school.
Another example of collaboration between school and community is through partnerships in a form of School Committee and
Board of Education. Both of them are an element of society that is
expected to hold and convey information and community aspirations. The School Committee and Board of Education have a strong
legal status as is stipulated in the applicable law, namely: (i) Law
No. 25 Year 2000 on National Development Program 20002004,
(ii) the Minister of National Education No. 044/U/2002 on the
Board of Education and the School Committee, (iii) Law Number 20
Year 2003 on the National Education System [3].
Law No. 25 Year 2000 on National Development Program
20002004, particularly in Chapter VII of Education, mandates
that in order to implement decentralization in education, it is
necessary to establish a Board of Education in every district and
a School Committee in every school. The Ministerial Decree of
National Education No. 044/U/2002 on the Board of Education and
the School Committee denes the duties and powers of a Board of
Education and a School Committee in bridging the interests both
inside and outside schools.
In addition, Law Number 20 Year 2003 on the National

Knowledge is dened as being either explicit or tacit. Explicit

knowledge is clearly expressed in numbers, words, or symbols
formulate or in any other way. Explicit knowledge is also documented, public, structured, and of xed content, so that makes it
easier to be captured and shared through information technology
(IT). Because tacit knowledge is found in individuals understandings and actions, it is normally a part of the individual experience and is difcult to be expressed. Tacit knowledge guides in
choosing which methods, tools and cases to take into consideration for a particular problem and how to adapt these to a specic
case [26]. However, the transformation of explicit knowledge into
tacit knowledge and vise versa is an important process of
knowledge creation and distribution [10].
Knowledge is created through the interaction between tacit
and explicit knowledge by four different modes of conversion
which are Socialization, Externalization, Combination, and Internalization (SECI) [10].
North and Kumta have formulated the objective of knowledgebased management termed knowledge ladder in order to create
a measurable value of information into knowledge and competence in a sustainable manner. They build each step of the
knowledge ladder on the facts that the bottom-up view reects
the operational processes of information and knowledge management, whereas the top-down view reects the strategic view of
dening the competencies of an organization and its members
that will eventually lead to competitiveness [10].
In a disaster context, the success of the knowledge ladder is
primarily attributed to the focus being on linking knowledge
management directly to disaster resilience, in providing the individual with a right choice of action to save lives. As an example,
we can see from the Great East Japan Earthquake (GEJE) of March
11, 2011, how disaster education and cooperation with other local
community preparedness efforts saved many lives. In Kamaishi,
where the number of casualties reached 1000, there were ve
deaths reported among 2900 school children, and not one single
child present in school that day was killed. This has been known as
the Kamaishi Miracle that is attributed to strong disaster education since 2005, including a longstanding local tradition of
teaching children the culture of tendenko, which means to evacuate to higher ground on their own without searching for relatives
or friends. These practices resulted from many years of experience

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with disasters and are based on a strong mutual understanding

and trust that family members will also evacuate to safety [13].
Knowledge Management (KM) means organizing all the stages
of the knowledge ladder [10]. KM is a process of identifying,
gathering, synthesizing and sharing knowledge as well as promoting its application. Information and data management feed
into this process at each stage but are not sufcient to ensure that
the desired change is realized. KM is considered most effective
when the primary users (i.e. individuals and communities) are
integral to this process. KM has emerged as a new science that
integrates the relevant intelligence across the data-to-wisdom
continuum from available sources, resource persons and institutions. It is a structured process of learning for action and is far
broader than knowledge generation or information/data management [20]. As a driving force to solidify KM, some critical factors need to be developed in an organization and have been
identied as KM enablers that include: leadership, culture/structure, people/skills, and technological infrastructure [26].
As an example, through a process called Local and Indigenous
Knowledge (LINK) Inventory, Validation and Establishment of
Scientic Knowledge, a new explicit knowledge of LINK in Aceh
has been formulated, which is about Angeen Badee (strong winds
and high waves) [7].
The process of knowledge creation of Angeen Badee, in using
the knowledge spiral (SECI) and KM process can be described as
follows:

 Socialization (tacit to tacit): A tacit knowledge on Angeen Badee

has been identied from people live in the coastal area of Aceh,
especially the traditional shermens organization of Panglima
Laot. This tacit knowledge has been captured as a LINK to observe the sky and the environment in order to predict Angeen
Badee. This LINK has been described as an observation of dark
towering clouds on the horizon, and their upward movement
from winds, in combination with the position of a beehive in a
tree, calm sea weather during transition period (according to
the traditional calendar) and a rancid smell from the sea.
Externalization (tacit to explicit): In addition, this LINK has been
formalized, analyzed and validated through scientic explanation. The cloud formation and movement is Cumulus nimbus
(Cb) cloud type. This cloud is also a part of the indication of
cyclone effects generated around the Indian Ocean and the
Andaman Sea. The rancid smell is an indication of an overevaporation process at the sea surface. Further, these process
are also an indication of massive cloud formation that can accumulate large water volume which can later produce high
rainfall.
Combination (explicit to explicit): This LINK was organized, formatted, stored and packaged in order to provide more analysis
and understanding. This can be achieved through seminar,
expert comments and discussion, literature review, etc. To ensure the LINK can be inter-generationally transmitted, a set of
Information, Education, and Communication (IEC) materials
were produced and disseminated to schools, community leaders, women groups, and shermen at coastal and small island
areas.
Internalization (explicit to tacit): The explicit knowledge of LINK
was transferred to the individuals mind, skill or habit by
learning, training, experiencing, etc. to produce new tacit
knowledge. Through internalization, available explicit knowledge on Angeen Badee can be transferred to other individuals in
the community, or to other communities with a similar context.
In this way, more individuals or communities will learn, understand, and acquire new tacit knowledge. This new tacit
knowledge can be further shared among individuals or communities through socialization, thus starting a new iteration of

the continuous spiral.

Tilstone et al. pointed out some lessons learned from the initiatives that mostly incorporate more than one element of
knowledge management and promote partnerships with different
types of organizations relating to the dry-lands in the Horn of
Africa. A signicant amount of information was generated based
on the knowledge and experiences of both indigenous communities, NGOs and government partners, including assessments of
activities, the consolidation of lessons learned, the testing of new
approaches and processes, and the development of solutions or
recommendations. From the initiatives, Tilstone et al. recommended that improvements in knowledge management to
increase resilience in the dry-lands of the Horn of Africa will require a much more synergistic, systematic and holistic approach,
rather than simply an accumulation of more data, additional research, or information dissemination mechanisms [20].
Another example of the use of KM in disasters was shown in
Simeulue Island during the tsunami of 2004. Simeulue is located
west of Sumatra close to the earthquake epicenter. Simeulue Island
inhabitants immediately escaped towards the surrounding mountains. Consequently, only seven deaths occurred of the total population of about 83,000 on Simeulue Island. The accounts passed
from generation to generation of the deadly 1907 tsunami (termed
Smong) and enabled the population to understand what was happening. Since that time, the knowledge of tsunamis had been
transmitted from generation to generation through cultural practices such as songs and poems. The consequences of December 26,
2004 led the Indonesian government to consider the integration of
this word (Smong) into the ofcial Indonesian language. This helped
to increase national awareness of tsunami hazards, all the more so
as Smong creates a very helpful acronym: SeMua Orang Naik Gunung (Everybody moves up on the hills). These are just one of the
few examples showing how formal and informal education had
helped raise the awareness among individuals, thereby saving their
lives as well as others in the community [6].
4.2. Intergenerational knowledge transmission
The case of Smong is one of the successful projects such as
Intergenerational Knowledge Transmission (IKT) in saving lives
during tsunami hazards. IKT is part of the socialization process
that involves a transmission of values, knowledge, and skills from
generation to generation. IKT involves teaching and learning
strategies that meet the adaptive purpose of shaping human
behavior.
IKT has four inter-related components, namely: (i) the Settings, which refer to the environmental aspects; (ii) the Customs,
which refer to the sociocultural aspects; (iii) the Childs psychology; and (iv) the Teachers psychology, both of which refer to the
individual aspects [5].
LINK is key to increasing the resilience. However, such knowledge needs to be integrated with science and technology before it
can be used in policies, education, and actions related to disaster.
The process for integration was then developed, in which scientists, practitioners, and communities jointly undertake observation, documentation, and validation of LINK, which are then selected for integration with science. This integration promotes the
use of LINK and empowers communities to use their knowledge
supplemented with outside knowledge, to continue to make informed decisions about managing their adaptation and disaster
risk reduction strategies [7].
Most Links are orally transmitted, documentation and records
that promote the use of this knowledge usually does not exist. The
elders and traditional leaders with the knowledge are often no
longer using that knowledge and the practices, or are not

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307

Fig. 3. Conceptual framework of SCCN model to enhance community resilience.

transmitting their knowledge to the younger generation. Hence,

when they die, their knowledge will disappear with them. Because
of the importance of LINK to further strengthen the resilience of
communities, developing and disseminating IEC materials can
promote knowledge transmission and the inclusion of LINK into
disaster plans, and formal or informal education systems [7].
There have been more than 18 donors and NGOs supporting
disaster education programs in Aceh, Indonesia since December

2007. After donors and international NGOs exit, it is very difcult

to sustain projects, especially such education on low-frequency
disasters. A tsunami is a disaster with lower-frequency than
earthquakes and oods that causes severe and wide damage once
in several decades or hundreds of years. Although people keep
their disaster experience and awareness just after the disaster,
they gradually lose their disaster memory, lessons and awareness
as time passes. For this reason, it is important to build a social

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system to keep disaster awareness and to transfer lessons to the

next generation [17].

5. Development of school community collaboration model

and its application
5.1. Development of SCCN conceptual model
The conceptual model of SchoolCommunity Collaborative
Network (SCCN), as shown in Fig. 3, consists of four components:
(i) Collaborative network between School and community; (ii)
Knowledge management framework; (iii) Intergenerational
knowledge transmission and (iv) Knowledge ladder.
The SSCN implies the importance of engagement and involvement of a collaborative network that consists of schools; community, including parents/family, school committee, board of
education; governments, NGOs/CSOs; private sectors, media, and
universities/research centers. Each of the members of the networks has a different type of relationships/links. Some of them
have strong or weak ties to others. In this model, School plays a
central in the network that has most links to others stakeholders
in the network.
The strategic focus to establish the collaborative network is on
strengthening the partnership between school, school committee,
parents/family and community. For this purpose, the School
Committee has a very important role and in particular as a liaison
between school, parents and community. In addition, the school
committee also has roles of advisor and supporting and controlling
agency in determination and implementation of education policy
in schools. Therefore, the activities/programs implemented in order to enhance a school communitys resilience to disasters need
to actively engage the school committee to ensure the involvement of parents and community in the programs. Once the collaborative network between school, school committee, parents
and community has been established and strengthened, the network could be expanded to engage broadly other stakeholders
including government institutions, NGOs/CSOs; private sectors,
media, and universities/research centers. The role of the Education
Board will be required to assist the school in engaging various
stakeholders to build resilience to disasters.
In this model, KM is used as a main focus in enhancing disaster
resilience, particularly in translating knowledge into action in

response to disaster. The collaborative network that has been

identied will be providing capacity building on the KM framework and its implementation. It is expected that the collaborative
network will promote the use of the knowledge spiral (SECI) and
KM process to sustain the process of disaster knowledge. The
model considers the tacit and explicit knowledge that will be
further managed in the KM process that includes: identify, capture, organize, share and use. Using this approach will increase the
capacity of the school and community in mobilizing their resources, especially in building knowledge capacity with respect to
disaster. It will also help schools to reduce their dependency on
disaster education programs conducted by governments or NGOs.
That is, even though the government or NGOs no longer support
them, schools can still manage their disaster knowledge from
other sources.
Hence, it is also important to identify some enablers related to
KM process in school, such as: strategy, leadership, technology and
culture. Effective knowledge management largely begins with a
proper KM strategy. KM strategy to enhance community's resilience should emphasize the systematic transfer of knowledge and
the adoption of best practices. Leadership is considered to be a
driver for effective knowledge management implementation.
When planning implementation of a KM program, a school needs
to consider whether to create a leadership role to develop and
drive the process. It is important to have a leadership that is made
up of the top management of a school, so that it will encourage the
school community to use KM and to welcome a more progressive
and proactive approach from all angles, such as providing adequate facilities and funds. As an enabler, culture became an important source in the implementation of KM and must be incorporated or practiced so that it can be spread to the wider
community.
In order to sustain knowledge in disaster, as a part of a sharing
process, the model adopted is the Intergenerational Knowledge
Transmission (IKT). This IKT is part of the socialization process in
the knowledge management process as it involves the deliberate
transmission of values, knowledge, and skills from the older to the
younger generations at various life stages. The process of transmission involves teaching and learning strategies. IKT has inuencing factors such as: individual, social-cultural and environmental. Individual aspects refer to psychology of teachers or adults
as knowledge transmitters and psychology of students or children
as receivers/learners. Social-cultural aspects refer to strategies
used or customs for disaster knowledge transmission, such as oral
transmission, active learning, experiential learning, etc. Meanwhile, environmental aspects refer to settings where transmission
of disaster knowledge takes place, such as direct contact with
nature, which discourage experiential learning while promoting
conceptual learning of disaster knowledge.
The model also reects on how to put knowledge management
into practice through the knowledge ladder. This knowledge ladder will visualize the steps of knowledge management for disaster
resilience, thereby providing individuals with a right choice of
action to save their lives from disaster. Referring to the knowledge
ladder in the development of disaster knowledge, different levels
have been distinguished. The rst, know-what, is a result of information received. For example, reading a book on disaster which
only creates resilience if a person is able to apply this information
i.e. the know-what is transformed into know-how by way of
application. Hence, a communitys resilience towards disaster is
strongly related to the knowledge that triggers informed decision
or actions.
5.2. Practical application of SCCN conceptual model

Fig. 4. Five major activities of SCCN.

The SCCN use a systems-based approach, which means that the

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disparate elements that are required to perform activities are

viewed as interrelated components of a single system. This is relevant to SCCN since it involves different stakeholders working
together to achieve a common goal.
A systems-based approach uses a standardized set of management steps that are sequential and may be applied to any
major undertaking. This dictates that overarching objectives,
strategies and tactics are established to promote effective
management.
The implementation principles and strategies will include:
(i) establish advisory team; (ii) identify needs; (iii) identify resources and capabilities; (iv) build capacity; (v) identify KM process and enablers; (vi) identify ITK factors; (vii) develop action
plan/framework and (viii) monitor and evaluate. Further explanation on these strategies will be described in the next section.
The SCCN will consider the School Safety Program as an entry
point in order to maximize the efforts of enhancing the disaster
resilience at school and to avoid reinventing the wheel.
The SCCN consists of ve major activities (as shown in Fig. 4) as
follows:

309

As a result, the SCCN model is developed on the basis of collaborative network and knowledge management in order to enable the school and the community to increase their resilience to
disasters. This model illustrates the importance of using both tacit
and explicit knowledge and processes them into an actionable
knowledge through a KM process and linking it directly to disaster
resilience through a knowledge ladder, thereby providing individuals with a right choice of action to save lives. It is expected
that knowledge of disaster that has been obtained through seminars, training, socialization, etc. can be used to cope with disasters.
That is, knowledge of disaster should be used as an embedded
wisdom of each individual, so that it can save lives when disaster
strikes. This model also emphasizes the importance of the transfer
of knowledge from generation to generation. Finally and hopefully,
this wisdom will be an important intangible asset that can improve the sustainability, performance and innovation in disaster
resilience efforts.
Testing/implementing of the proposed model is the next step
that needs to be undertaken. Testing will focus on assessing the
signicance of the elements used in the SCCN model.

 Activity 1- Building and maintaining school and community

collaborative network
Sub-activities: (i) establishing representative/participatory advisory team of SCCN from school and community, (ii) Identifying resources and linking school safety program within the
community, and (iii) identifying area and scope of school
community collaboration in school safety program.
Activity 2-Developing school disaster management
Sub-activities: (i) conducting schools risk assessment; (ii) developing educational continuity plan, and (iii) developing
standard operating procedures and contingency planning.
Activity 3-Building safe learning facilities
Sub-activities: (i) ensuring the structure of school building is
safe; (ii) ensuring the arrangement of classroom is safe; (iii)
providing secure facilities in school.
Activity 4-Implementing disaster preparedness and resilience
education
Sub-activities: (i) enhancing knowledge, attitude and practice
for disaster resilience; (ii) integrating DRR into formal curriculum, extracurricular and community-based informal education and (iii) building capacity of teachers, students and
communities.
Activity 5-Developing strategies for knowledge management
and intergenerational knowledge transmission
Sub-activities: (i) developing strategic and operative knowledge management for disaster resilience; (ii) identifying
knowledge transfer activities to ensure the process of transferring individual knowledge into collective knowledge and
vise versa; and (iii) promoting peer learning activities both at
school and community.

6. Conclusions
This paper discussed the importance of involving other stakeholders, which exist within society, to perform their roles in a
large cooperative effort to enhance school and community resilience against disaster. In the rst part of this paper, a study in
Banda Aceh, Indonesia was analyzed in order to examine the existing condition of the disaster education program and collaboration between schools and communities. Then, some key ndings/
issues from this study have been discussed. In the following part, a
literature review has been carried out to explore theoretical concepts in addressing the issues found from the study.

Acknowledgements
The rst author would like to express high appreciation to
START Secretariat and Kyoto University for a very enriching opportunity to join the Pan Asia Risk Reduction (PARR) Fellowship
Program which facilitated the author in data analysis and the
writing of a research paper. The rst author also acknowledges
funding from Aceh Disaster Management Agency (IDR. 2,000,000)
(BPBA) for a survey in schools and funding from the Toyota
foundation (IDR. 30,600,000) and great support from Kobe University for the FGD. The kind assistance and support from TDMRC
and Faculty of Medicine, University of Syiah Kuala as the rst authors home institution are greatly appreciated.

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