Gene Expression and

Control
7.1 Impacts/Issues Ricin and your Ribosomes

- The ability to make proteins is critical to all life processes ricin kills
because it inactivates ribosomes that assemble proteins

7.2 The Nature of Genetic Information

- DNA carries all the genetic information needed to build a new individual
- Genetic information consists of base sequence
- Genes are subunits of that sequence
Gene - part of a DNA base sequence
- specifies structure of an RNA or protein product

From Gene to RNA to Protein

- Gene expression involves transcription(DNA to RNA), and translation

(mRNA to protein)

Gene Expression - process by which the information gene becomes

converted to an RNA or protein product

Transcription

a genes nucleotide base sequence encodes instructions for building

an RNA or protein product
a cell transcribes the base sequence of a gene into mRNA
mRNA carries a protein building message

Transcription - process by which an RNA is assembled from nucleotides

using the base sequence of a gene as a template
Messenger RNA (mRNA) - type of RNA that has a protein building
message

Translation

Translation requires the participation of tRNA (transfer RNA) and

rRNA (ribosomal RNA)

Translation - process by which a polypeptide chain is assembled from

amino acids in order specified by an mRNA

DNA

transcriptio

RNA

translation

protein

7.3 Transcription: DNA to RNA

-

Base- pairing rules in DNA replication also apply to RNA synthesis in

transcription, but RNA uses uracil in place of thymine
A U G U A C U C A G U G U A C A
T A C A T G A G T C A C A T G T
A T G T A C T C A G T G T A C A
T A C A T G A G T C A C A T G T

The Process of Transcription

-

In transcription, RNA polymerase binds to a promoter in the DNA near a

gene

RNA Polymerase - enzyme that carries out transcription

Promoter - in DNA, a sequence to which RNA polymerase binds

Polymerase moves along the DNA, unwinding the DNA so it can read the
base sequence
RNA polymerase assembles a strand of RNA by linking RNA nucleotides
in the order determined by the base sequence of the gene
The new mRNA is a copy of the gene from which it was transcribed

Thee Genes, Many RNA Polymerase

-

Many polymerase can be transcribe a gene region at the same time

7.4 RNA Players in Translation

- Three types of RNA are involved in translation: mRNA, rRNA, and tRNA
- mRNA produced by transcription carries protein building information
from DNA to other two types of RNA for translation

mRNA and the Genetic Code

- The information in mRNA consists of set of three nuceotides (codons)
that forms words spelled with the four bases A, C, G, and U
Codon - in mRNA, a nucleotide base triplet that codes for an amino acid
or stop signal during translation
-

Sixty-four codons, most of which specify amino acids, constitute the

genetic code
- 20 amino acids in proteins; most have more than once codon

Genetic Code - Sixty-four mRNA codons; each specifies an amino acid or

a signal to start or stop

rRNA and tRNA the Translators

- Ribosomes and tRNA interact to translate an mRNA into a polypeptide

Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) - type of RNA that becomes part of ribosomes

tRNA

- tRNAs deliver amino acids to ribosomes in the order specified by mRNA

Transfer RNA (tRNA) type of RNA that delivers amino acids to a
ribosome during translation
- Each tRNA as two side attachment sites
- An intocodon that can base-pair with a codon
- A site that binds to the kind of amino acid specified by the codon
Anticodon set of three nucleotides in a tRNA
- base-pairs with mRNA codon

7.5 Translating the Code: RNA to Protein

- Translation, the second part of protein synthesis, occurs in the

cytoplasm of all cells
- Translation is an energy-requiring process that converts the proteinbuilding information carried by an mRNA into a polypeptide

Three Stages of Translation

Initiation mRNA joins with an initiator tRNA and two ribosomal units
Elongation Ribosome joines amino acids delivered by tRNAs in the
order specified by
mRNA codons
Termination Polymerase encounters a stop codon; mRNA and
polypeptide are
released; ribosome disassembles

Polysomes cluster of riboosmes that are simultaneously translating an mRNA

Environmental Damage some natural and synthetic chemicals cause
mutations in DNA
Nonionizing Radiation Damage (UV light) results in thymine dimers, which
lead to skin cancer
Ionizing Radiation Damage (x-rays) breaks chromosomes and produces free
radicals

Transposable Element Small segment of DNA that can spontaneously move

to a new location in a chromosome
TYPES OF MUTATIONS
Deletion Mutation in which one or more base pairs are lost
Insertion Mutation in which one or more base pairs become inserted
into DNA
Base-pair Substitution Type of mutation in which a single base-pair
changes
Genetic information in DNA is:
Transcribed into RNA, then
Translated into polypeptides

How cells reproduce

8.1 Impact/Issues Henriettas Immortal Cells
- Runaway cell divisions killed Henrietta Lacks, but her cell live on in research
laboratories
8.2 Multiplication by Division
- A cell reproduces by dividing in two
- Each descendant cell receives a full set of chromosomes and some cytoplasm
- Nuclear divisions mechanisms partition chromosomes of a parent cell into new
nuclei
- The cytoplasm divides by a separate mechanism
TWO METHODS OF NUCLER DIVISION
Mitosis Nuclear division process that maintains the chromosome number
- Basis of body growth, tissue repair and replacement in multicelled
eukaryotes;
also asexual reproduction in some plants, animals, fungi,
and protists
Meosis Nuclear division process that halves the chromosome number
- Basis of sexual reproduction in multicelled eukaryotes; precedes the
formation of
gametes or sexual spores
8.3 The Life Cycle of a Cell
- A cell cycle stars when a new cell forms, and ends when the cell reproduces
Cell Cylce A series of events from the time a cell forms until its cytoplasm
divides
- Includes three phases: interphase, mitosis, and cytoplasmic
division

Interphase In a eukaryotic cell cycle, the interval between mitotic divisions

when a cell grows, roughly doubles the number of its cytoplasmic components,
and replicates its DNA
Karyokinesis division of nucleus
Controls of Cell Division
Different types of cells proceed through the cell
cycle at
different rates
- Gene expression controls regulate the cell cycle at
different
points
- Loss of cell cycle controls in cancer
Chromosomes During the Cell Cycle
- Human body cells have 23 chromosome pair
- Except for male se chromosomes, the chromosomes of each pair ar
homologous
Homologous Two members of a pair of chromosomes with the same length,
shape, and genes
- Mitosis maintains the chromosome number.

FOUR STAGES OF MITOSIS

Prophase Chromosome condense and spindle forms

Nuclear envelop breaks up
Spindle microtubules attach to chromosomes
o Spindle dynamically assembled and disassembled array of
microtubules that moves chromosomes during nuclear division
Metaphase - Duplicated homologous chromosomes line up at the spindle
equator
Sister chromatids begin to move apart toward opposite spindle
poles
Anaphase Microtubules separate the sister chromatids of each
chromosome and pull then toward opposite spindle poles
Each DNA is now a separate chromosome
Telophase Two cluster of chromosomes arrive at the spindle poles and
decondense; new nuclei form
End of Mitosis Nuclear envelope form around the two clusters of
chromosomes, forming two new nuclei with the parental chromosome
number

Cytoplasmic Division Mechanisms

- A cells cytoplasm usually divides after mitosis, forming two cells, each
with its own nucleus
- Mechanisms of cytoplasmic division differ between anima cells and plant
cells

Cytoplasmic Division in Animal Cells

- In animal cells, a contractile ring pinches the cytoplasm in two
o Contractile Ring band of actin and myosin filaments that
contracts to form the cleavage furrow
o Cleavage furrow In a dividing animal cell, the indention where
cytoplasmic division will occur
Cytoplasmic Division in Plant Cells
- In plant cells, a cell plate forms midway between the spindle poles and
partitions the cytoplasm when it connects to the parent cell wall
o Cell Plate after nuclear division in a plant cell, a disk-shaped
structure that forms a cross-wall between the two new nuclei

Sexual Reproduction and Meiosis

Two modes of reproduction
Asexual Reproduction
o Reproductive mode by which offspring arise from one parent and
inherit that parents genes only
o Offspring of asexual reproduction are clones
Clone A genetically identical copy of an organism
Sexual Reproduction
o Reproductive mode by which offspring arise from two parents and
inherit genes from both
Alleles Forms of a gene that encode slightly different versions of the genes
product
- Alleles are the basis of traits
Variation in Traits
- Sexual reproduction mixes up alleles from two parents, resulting in new
combinations of alleles (and traits) in offspring
- Variations in allele combinations are introduced during meiosis
Meiosis Halves the Chromosome Number
- Meiosis occurs in immature reproductive cells (germ cells) of sexually
reproducing eukaryotes, forming male and female haploid gametes
o Gamete mature, haploid reproductive cell
o Haploid having one of each type of chromosome characteristic of
the species
- Meiosis sorts the chromosome into new nuclei twice (meiosis I and meiosis
II)
- Duplicated chromosomes of a diploid nucleus (2n) are distributed into four
haploid nuclei (n)

Restoring Diploid Number

- Diploid number is restored at fertilization, when two haploid (n) gametes
fuse to form a zygote
o Fertilization fusion of a sperm nucleus and egg nucleus, resulting
in a single-celled zygote
o Zygote Diploid (2n) cell formed by fusion of gametes
- First cell of new individual, with two sets of chromosomes,
one from each parents
Meiosis
In meiosis, two nuclear divisions halve the parental chromosome number
o Meiosis I
o Meiosis II
Meiosis shuffles parental combinations of alleles, introducing variation in
offspring
o Crossing over in prophase I
o Random assortment in metaphase I
Meiosis I
o In the first nuclear division, duplicated homologous chromosomes line up
and cross over, then move apart, toward opposite spindle poles
o Two new nuclear envelopes form around the two clusters of still-duplicated
chromosomes
Crossing Over
o Crossing over is recombination between nonsister chromatids of
homologous chromosomes which produces new combination of parental
alleles
o Homologous chromosomes exchange corresponding segments during
prophase I of meiosisI
Meiosis II
o The second nuclear division separates sister chromatids
o Four haploid nuclei typically form, each one with complete set of
unduplicated chromosomes
Review: Comparing Mitosis and Meosis
In mitosis and meiosis, the chromosomes duplicate only once, during
the preceding interphase
The number of cell division varies:
o Mitosis uses one division and produces two diploid cells
o Meiosis uses two divisions and produces four haploid cells
All the events unique to meiosis occur during meiosis I.
From Gametes to Offspring
Meiosis and cytoplasmic division precede the development of haploid
gametes in animals and spores in plants

 The union of two haploid gametes at fertilization results in a diploid zygote

When Control is Lost
The cell cycle has a built-in checkpoints that allow problems to be
corrected before the cycle advances
Checkpoint gene products are gene expression controls that advance,
delay, or block the cell cycle in response to internal and external
conditions
Checkpoints and Tumors
Checkpoint genes whose products inhibit meiosis are called tumor
suppressors
Disruption of checkpoint gene products, such as by mutations or viruses,
causes tumors that may end up as cancer
Failure of cell cycle checkpoints results in the uncontrolled cell divisions
that characterize cancer
Checkpoint Genes
BRCA genes are tumor suppressor genes whose products normally repair
broken DNA
Metastasis
Cancer cells may have metastasize break loose and colonize distant
tissues
Three Characteristics of Cancer Cells
1. Grow and divide abnormally
2. Often have an abnormal plasma membrane, cytoskeleton, or metabolism
3. Often have weakened capacity for adhesion because recognition proteins
are altered or lost

Patterns of Inheritance
Beyond Simple Dominance an allele may be fully dominant, incompletely
dominant, or codominant with its partner on a homologous chromosome
Codominance Refers to two alleles that are both fully expressed in
heterozygous individuals
Incomplete Dominance Condition in which one allele is not fully dominant
over another, so the heterozygous phenotype is between the two homozygous
phenotype
Epistasis effect in which a trait is influenced by the products of multiple genes

Pleiotropic refers to a gene whose product multiple traits

Complex Variations in Traits
- A trait that is influenced by the products of multiple genes often occurs in
a range or small increments of phenotype (continuous variation)
- The more genes and other factors that influence a trait, the more
continuous the distribution of phenotype
Continuous Variation A range of small differences in a shared trait
Bell Curve Curve that typically results when range of variation in a continuous
trait is plotted against frequency in a population
Pedigree chart showing the pattern of inheritance of a gene in a family
Genetic Abnormality An uncommon version of a heritable trait that does not
result in medical problems
Genetic Disorder - A heritable condition that results in a syndrome of mild or
severe medical problems
Syndrome Set of symptoms characterizing a genetic disorder
Nondisjunction failure of duplicated chromosomes (sister chromatids) or
homologous chromosomes to separate during meiosis or mitosis
Aneuploidy
A chromosome abnormality in which a sell has too many or
too few copies of a particular chromosome
- The most common aneuploidy is trisomy 21, causes Down Syndrome
Polyploid Having three or more of each type of chromosome characteristic of
the species
Amniocentesis risk of puncture, infection, loss of amniotic fluid
Fetoscopy increased risk of miscarriage
Genetic Screening hospitals routinely screen newborn for certain genetic
disorders such as PKU
Phenotypic Treatments Surgery, prescription drugs, hormone replacement
therapy, or dietary controls cam minimize symptoms of some genetic disorders