University of Szeged (SZTE)

Institute of English & American Studies

Mikuls Mrton
Video games as narrative genre
BA Thesis

Supervisor:
Zoltn Dragon

Szeged, 2015

Abstract
The development of narrative and narrative genres reached into the digital age. Video
games, as a new audiovisual genre, became capable of telling stories with ludonarrative
(video game narrative). The aim of the thesis is to prove that video games, similarly to
literature, or cinema, can be narrative genres even if they achieve this differently than other
traditional storytelling methods. The storytelling structure of videogames, with the
application of the typology of Gennette, proves that games can fit into the category of
narrative genre. As games are types of Manovichs new media, interactivity is one of the basic
principles which make ludonarrative different than other narrative forms. The connection
between interactivity and narrative is discussed, with numerous games to demonstrate the
different implementations of narrative possibilities. The mediums properties and the players
agency enable the following: the components of narrative, such as narrative space and
characters can be modified and extended; the storyline (plot) can be continued to different
endings; or the exploration of an open narrative space creates an atmosphere for the
storytelling, with the presence of multiple protagonists. These features are determined by the
narrative design of video games: even the game mechanism is also capable to be the narrative
itself. The thesis also discusses the flaws of ludonarrative within the subject of ludonarrative
dissonance. Finally, the presence of storytelling-oriented video games is mentioned: they can
reinterpret linear literary narrative combined with the exploration of narrative space; and they
are able to create a meta-narrative by reflecting on the contradictions of ludonarrative.

sszefoglals
A narratva s a narratv mfajok fejldse a digitlis korszakban is folytatdott. A
videojtk, mint j audiovizulis mfaj is kpess vlt a trtnetmeslsre, a ludonarratva
(jtknarratva) segtsgvel. Ebben a dolgozatban azt a jelensget ksrlem meg bizonytani
pldkkal, hogy a videojtk is kpes narratv mfajj vlni mg ha a hagyomnyos
(irodalmi, filmes) narratvtl eltr eszkzkkel teszi ezt: tbbek kztt a gennette-i narratv
tipolgia alkalmazsval is bizonythat a videojtkok narratv jellege. Mivel a jtkok a
manovich-i j media tpusaiba sorolhatak, a jtkos interakcija az egyik meghatroz
tnyez, amely mss teszi a ludonarratvt az irodalmi s filmes elbeszlshez kpest. Az
interaktivits s a narratva kzti kapcsolat kifejtsre kerl, szmos jtkkal illusztrlva a
narratv lehetsgek megvalstst. A mdium tulajdonsgai s a jtkos cselekvse az
albbiakat teszi lehetv: a narratva komponensei, mint a narratv tr s a karakterek
megvltoztathatk, kibvthetk; a trtnetszl (cselekmny) tbb lehetsges befejezsbe is
torkollhat; vagy egy nyitott vilg narratv tr felfedezse meghatrozhatja a cselekmny
atmoszfrjt, akr tbb protagonista jelentvel is. Ezek a jellemzk a videojtkok narratv
tervezsbl erednek: mg maga a jtkmechanizmus is lehet narratva. A szakdolgozat a
ludonarratva hibira is rmutat, a ludonarratv zavar trgykrn bell. Vgezetl a
trtnetmesls-orientlt videojtkok is emltsre kerlnek: ezek az alkotsok kpesek a
lineris irodalmi narratvt jrartelmezni, kombinlni a narratv tr felfedezsvel; valamint a
metanarratva mfajt is meg tudjk valstani, a jtknarratva ellentmondsaira trtn
reflektlssal.

Table of contents
I. Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 1
1. 1. The purpose of the thesis ................................................................................................ 1
1. 2. Literary review ............................................................................................................... 2
2. The core elements of narrative and ludonarrative .................................................................. 3
2. 1. The brief definition of narrative ..................................................................................... 3
2. 2. Ludonarratives origin and its difference from other narrative types ............................. 3
2. 3. The relationship between ludology and narrative........................................................... 4
2. 4. Ludonarrative as future narrative nodal situations ...................................................... 6
3. Appearances of ludonarrative in different games .................................................................. 7
3. 1. The relation between paidia and emergent narrative in The Sims series ....................... 7
3. 2. Interactive drama in Heavy Rain .................................................................................... 8
3. 3. Grand Theft Auto V narrative in an open world gameplay ....................................... 10
4. The visual nature and design of ludonarrative ..................................................................... 11
4. 1. Visual elements and their role in ludonarrative ............................................................ 11
4. 2. The foundations of video game narrative design .......................................................... 12
4. 3. Points of view in narrative design ................................................................................ 13
5. Game mechanism and gameplay as the narrative itself ....................................................... 15
5. 1. A different approach from narratology ......................................................................... 15
5. 2. Shadow of the Colossus story and mechanism; emotional response......................... 16
5.3. Ludonarrative anomalies the ludonarrative dissonance.............................................. 17
6. Possible futures of ludonarrative .......................................................................................... 19
6. 1. Visual novel as ludonarrative ....................................................................................... 19
6. 2. Ludonarrative as metanarrative in The Stanley Parable ............................................... 20
7. Conclusion ............................................................................................................................ 21

ii

I. Introduction
1. 1. The purpose of the thesis
Alongside the cinema and literary fiction, a new genre of narrative entertainment
emerged: video games. These new media formats did not carry any narrative in the beginning
(e.g. Pong, Tetris, Pac-Man). As video games were developed, new genres were born, such as
adventure games, which brought a new era in audiovisual narrative. Roleplaying games
emerged, with elaborated storylines and characters. Later, with the arrival of developed 3D
technologies, games slowly achieved cinematic style and gameplay. The aim of the thesis is to
show that video games are a narrative genre too, even if their storytelling structure differs
from conventional narrative that can be found in films and literary works of art. Their
narrative structure is the ludonarrative, a special narrative form which demands interactivity
and the participation of the player. The features of ludonarrative will be demonstrated through
examples in the thesis to prove its narratological function, emphasising their interactivity.
However, the strongest difference of video game narrative from other narratives lies in the
narrative design, proving that gameplay is not just a tool of narrative, but is narrative by itself
- which will be further elaborated on.
The thesis starts with the general nature of narrative; its usage in traditional genres
like movies or novels, and then it shows the difference of ludonarrative (video game
narrative) from traditional media, demonstrated through three chosen games: The Sims series
(2000- ) an example of open and endless, free form of narrative; Heavy Rain (2010), which
crosses the boundaries between film and game as an interactive drama; and Grand Theft
Auto V (2013), with an example of narrative in an open-world game. Game experience as
narrative is demonstrated through Shadow of the Colossus (2005). Also, according to Lev
Manovichs studies, video games are also part of new media:

New media is interactive. In contrast to traditional media where the order of

presentation was fixed, the user can now interact with a media object. In the process of
interaction the user can choose which elements to display or which paths to follow,
thus generating a unique work. Thus the user becomes the co-author of the work.1

Lev Manovich, The Language of New Media (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 2002), 66.

Manovichs thoughts imply that the interactivity of video game narrative as new
media narrative is genuinely different than traditional narrative: it relies on the manipulability
of the content. By being the aforementioned co-author of a new media piece, the player has
choices, and is obligated to bring decisions to shape the narrative this concept is also a
significant guideline of the thesis.

1. 2. Literary review
Because the subject of the thesis mainly relies on narrative, the literature used for the
thesis covers narratology in general concerning film theory aspects due to the audio-visual
nature of video games - and it also discusses video game narrative architecture. For a general
approach of narrative, I took the basic principles from an abridged version of Genettes
Narrative Discourse An Essay in Method,2 since his narratology terms can be applied to the
structure of video game storytelling, e.g. the terms of focalization and diegesis.
Ludonarrative is a fairly recent and strongly particular subject in the domain of
digital media, therefore the subject of the thesis is mostly covered in digital publications. The
basics of game studies, or ludology were laid by Roger Caillois in his Man, Play and Games,
and Johan Huizingas Homo ludens. Cailloiss game categories were later cited by Gonzalo
Frasca in his essays Simulation versus narrative,3 and Ludology meets narratology:
Similitude4 these articles examine the relationship between ludology and narratology.
These articles are the starting points of the thesis, since they are giving insight to the
connection between player and game.
The thesis also demonstrates the narrative role of interactivity with the concept of
future narrative in Domschs Storyplaying,5 narrative types defined by Jenkins Game
Design as Narrative Architecture,6 and the game mechanism as narrative itself (not just a tool
of narrative) with the help of Gbor Zoltn Kisss analysis of Shadow of the Colossus.7
2

Lucie Guillemette and Cynthia Lvesque, Narratology, Signo (2006), available:

http://www.signosemio.com/genette/narratology.asp, access: 9 December 2013. The webpage contains a
brief summarization of Genettes terms.
3
Gonzalo Frasca, Ludology Meets Narratology: Similitude and Differences between (video)games and
Narrative, Parnasso 3 (1999): 36571.
4
Gonzalo Frasca, Simulation versus Narrative: Introduction to Ludology, in Mark J. P. Wolf and Bernard
Perron ed., The Video Game Theory Reader, (London: Routledge, 2003), 221-236.
5
Sebastian Domsch, Storyplaying - Agency and Narrative in Video Games (Berlin: De Gruyter, 2013)
6
Henry Jenkins, Game Design as Narrative Architecture, in First Person: New Media as Story, Performance,
and Game, edited by Pat Harrigan and Noah Wardrip-Fruin. (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 2003), 118-130.
7
Kiss Gbor Zoltn, Efemer galrik - Videojtkok kritikai megkzeltsben (Budapest-Pcs: Gondolat Kiad,
2013), 173-175.

2. The core elements of narrative and ludonarrative

2. 1. The brief definition of narrative
What can be defined as narrative? A narrative can be a sort of rhetorical mode: its
purpose is to tell a story, or narrate a series of events, if we take the original viewpoint of
literary narrative. Literary narrative is written, or told by some kind of author(s). The
audiovisual, cinematic narrative in films requires more than one author: the director(s), the
scriptwriter(s), the actors. The number of authors grows further in video games: there is the
creator/director of the game, who planned the fundamentals and the basic idea of the game;
the programmers who are responsible for the structure of the game; the graphic designers,
voice actors, and so on.
The events are connected to each other, forming a sequence of events, which can be
considered as a story and in the case of video games, we see a fictional sequence of events.
Genettes narrative theory can be applied here: the narrative function is the progression of the
game itself, which can be a simultaneous narration as the event sequences of a game mostly
happen in present time. Other terms by Genette, such as the narrative mood, narrative levels,
narrative instance and narrative time are also determined by the new media properties of
video games, which will be discussed in the following parts.

2. 2. Ludonarratives origin and its difference from other narrative types

Literary, cinematic and ludonarrative have their similarities and differences.
Ludonarrative is audiovisual, so it stands closer to film narrative due to its devices, like
narrative focalization by camera, visual effects, and other properties.
We have to analyse the game content in video games, which makes them different
from other visual forms of art, and gives another perspective to narrative. First, the term
game needs to be defined per se. Two intellectuals wrote books about ludology, the science
of games: Roger Cailloiss Man, Play and Games and Johan Huizingas Homo Ludens. Roger
Cailloiss game categorizations are one of the best known: agon (competition, e.g. chess),
alea (chance, e.g. playing a slot machine), mimicry (mimesis, roleplaying), ilinx (games with
the sense of altering perception, e.g. dizziness while spinning). Gonzalo Frasca, a game
designer and academic researcher demonstrates Cailloiss viewpoint: according to him, there
is distinction between paidea and ludus, which describes the difference between play and

game.8 Paidea refers to form of play in early childhood, like building blocks, playing in the
sandbox, or make-believe games (playing doctor), while ludus stands for competitive games,
with a winner/loser role, e.g. poker, football. Ludus applies for most videogames, with roles
and objectives: save the princess from the castle in Mario, score a goal in a FIFA football
game. The roles are simple: Mario is on the good side, the monsters are bad; in a shooter, we
are the good guy versus the enemies.
Paidea videogames are not, or less objective-based. For example, The Sims is a life
simulator, where we can freely manage the life of sims (virtual human characters). We can
decide what we want; there are no strong rule sets (e.g. the player can totally neglect the
characters and let them live in poverty). Ludus and paidea are the equivalent of game an
activity with rules, winner and loser roles - and play a recreational activity with no
defined objectives. According to Frasca, if ludus can be related to narrative plot, paidea can
be related to narrative settings.9 In my interpretation, this means that following a goal
progresses the storyline forward, while a game without an objective brings an emphasis to the
narrative space as environment.

2. 3. The relationship between ludology and narrative

To discuss the application of narrative in video games, it is a good starting point the
relationship between the narrative and the gameplay. Gonzalo Frasca framed up this
connection in his article Ludology meets Narratology: Similitude and diffences between
(video)games and narrative. The essence of games, ludus have a defined set of rules, such as
football. According to Frasca, the process of ludus can be described by this scheme (Figure
made by Frasca):

Gonzalo Frasca, Simulation versus Narrative: Introduction to Ludology, in Mark J. P. Wolf and Bernard
Perron ed., The Video Game Theory Reader, (London: Routledge, 2003), 229.
9
Gonzalo Frasca, Ludology Meets Narratology: Similitude and Differences between (video)games and
Narrative, Parnasso 3 (1999), 367.
8

The game itself is played during the development. The Beginning is a previous step,
where the rules are defined and accepted by the players. The Result is the final step, where,
according to the rules, a winner/or loser are designated.10 Frasca also cites Claude Bremonds
Logique du Recit.11 Bremond based his work on different narrative roles, and the following
scheme describes the options for the willing agent. (English translation of the figure below by
Frasca)

Bremont discovers the possibilities that the author has to deal with the agents action.
Each combination of elements is called a sequence. For example, there is a scheme for a
character trying to open a door. (English translation of the figure below by Frasca)

There are three possible combinations which can be concluded from this scheme.
First, the agent does not try to open the lock at all. Second, he tries a combination code which
is unsuccessful and the door remains closed. Third, he enters the correct code and the door is
opened. In this form, ludus can be a narrative in an adventure game, where the player needs to
solve a puzzle or a problem to proceed. The actions of the character form a sequence, which
can be seen as a narrative. According to Frasca, ludus and narrative are not the same,
because the first is a set of possibilities, while the second is a set of chained actions.12
(However, I think this is deniable; according to Bode, narrative can also be seen as a set of
10

Ibid.
Claude Bremond, Logique Du Rcit (Paris: Edition du Seuil, 1973)
12
Gonzalo Frasca, Ludology Meets Narratology: Similitude and Differences between (video)games and
Narrative, Parnasso 3 (1999), 369.
11

possibilities, which will be explained in the next paragraph). Not all sorts of sequences can be
considered as narrative; for example, Tetris gameplay could not be viewed as a narrative
because its lack of characters and storyline.
A video game not only can be played, but watched on a video footage by
observation and without playing, the narrative features of a game can be much more visible.
Though, in ludonarrative, the player is not just an external observer, but an active contributor,
or agent: if the player does not interact, there will be no sequences and without sequences,
there will be no possibility and instances of narrative.13

2. 4. Ludonarrative as future narrative nodal situations

The relationship between agency and narrative also exists in the difference of
possibilities, or choices (see the previous locked door example). Cristoph Bodes future
narrative (or FN) concept states that there is a set of undecided possibilities which are not
manifested yet; at least one situation which allows for more than one continuation.14 With
his terms, these situations are called nodal situations, or simply, nodes.
Nodal situations are rarely present in traditional literary or cinematic narrative, due to
the linear progression of their storyline. A literary example is the Choose-Your-OwnAdventure roleplaying genre, where the reader-player has to decide how he wishes to
continue the story, and turn the pages according to his/her decision choosing from a limited
list of choices. The outcome of the situation relies entirely on the player: the storyline will
continue according to his/her decision. Nodal situations are present in gameplay, where more
than one possible situations can be used to solve a gameplay-related problem (e.g. in a stealth
game, getting past the guards silently and unnoticed, or gunning them down loudly); and in
the narrative, where the decision influences the storyline, and it is not just an alternative way
to finish (a level of) the game which leads to the existence of future narrative. Concerning
the narrative, I examine the implementation of nodal situations in ludonarrative, where the
player is able to shape the narrative components by multiple choices. The (high) number of
choices conform to Manovichs new media, as it emphasises the interactivity in the
relationship between player and narrative.

13
14

Ibid.
Cristoph Bode, ed., Future Narratives: Theory, Poetics, and Media-Historical Moment (Berlin: De Gruyter,
2013), 16, quoted by Sebastian Domsch, Storyplaying - Agency and Narrative in Video Games (Berlin: De
Gruyter, 2013), 1.

In my observation, all of the following games contain nodal situations; where the
actions of the player can lead to shaping the narrative environment in The Sims; changing the
direction of the plot in Heavy Rain; and, by exploring a huge virtual space, it makes possible
of enhancing gameplay elements with the different abilities of more than one protagonists in
Grand Theft Auto V, thus enhancing the narrative.

3. Appearances of ludonarrative in different games

3. 1. The relation between paidia and emergent narrative in The Sims series15
Some videogames can be lost, but never won: the other form of games, paidea has no
designated goal (like playing in the sandbox for children). Contrary to ludus, when there is a
clear objective (e.g. save the princess in Mario) the main goal is up to the player. The player
must determine their goals, for example in Sim City, where the player decides the fate and
methods of managing the city built by his/her own efforts; the same applies to Sims, where
everyday life of virtual people can be controlled. There is no strict plot or storyline which
leads the narrative; the player forms the story by continuously managing the everyday lives
of cities, or people, watching their emotions and actions brought by the players decisions.
In my opinion, The Sims life simulation game series is an excellent example of the
new media narrative type and, according to Jenkins theory, the type of emergent
narratives: [they] are not prestructured or pre-programmed, taking shape through the game
play [. . .]16 Since it is a paidea game, it has no obligatory objectives or rules to make
progress. The player has total control over the virtual people, which are created by him/her.
The interface in the game displays the characters everyday needs (social relationships,
hygiene, mood), and their relationship with other characters, who are also controlled by the
player. We can talk about a new media interface here, a GUI (graphical user interface), an
image-interface17, which has a role in shaping the narrative.
The interface of the game is used to control the game: icons of the characters (Sims)
are on the side of the screen, in the actual area of the game that the player controls. Clicking
on one of these icons will focus the camera on the corresponding character. Also, the camera
can be controlled (rotating, tilting, and zooming in/out) freely, independently of the characters
thus the player becomes an omniscient viewer, also narrator. The camera, as a narrative
Henry Jenkins, Game Design as Narrative Architecture, in First Person: New Media as Story, Performance,
and Game, edited by Pat Harrigan and Noah Wardrip-Fruin. (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 2003), 128.
16
Ibid.
17
Lev Manovich, The Language of New Media (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 2002), 41.
15

device, enables zero focalization. We have an extradiegetic narrative form: the interface also
displays the Sims fears and desires, their relationship with other people, their skills and traits,
their needs. Also, the game can be paused, or can be set to a fast forward speed if the player
wants to get through quickly with the events (for example, when the Sims sleep, their sleeping
hours are automatically fast forwarded). Their household can be extended: with sufficient
virtual money, new objects (household devices, furniture, leisure activities) can be bought, the
house can be modified with building, so the narrative space can be extended as the player
wishes, which influences the progression of the characters virtual life.
The progression of the gameplay is made by choices, and nodal situations: the player
must click on the characters or objects to create sequences of events. When the player clicks
on an in-game existing entity, a list of options appear on the screen, depending on the clicked
entity. If a character is chosen, they can be options of human interactions (talk, cuddle,
joke, compliment, etc.), if an object is chosen, the options are interactions with it (use
computer, make hamburgers, etc.). The Sims are also going through the periods of a
normal human life, from infancy to old age, then death. Their age, similar to real human life,
consequently influences their responses and actions, their fears and desires.
The characters skills (cooking, repairing, physical workout etc.) can be developed,
and they also can form relationship with other characters, like friendship, or love. By making
decisions in their lives, such as taking a job, having children and creating a family, or
divorcing, the player can create his/her narrative by those sequences of events. Also,
sometimes random events emerge, such as a promotion chance in their jobs or a sudden crisis.
These situations must be solved by choosing from two or three options in a pop-up window,
where the event is detailed. A virtual camera can be also used in the game to take snapshots or
video footage of the events; these can be saved into the games photo album.
To be concluded: the Sims series has no pre-planned plot or synopsis as narrative.
Instead, the literally emerging events in the characters lives as the consequences of the
actions of the player are forming a sequence, through the combination of nodal situations
and emergent narrative. Also, the player has the freedom whether consider these sequences as
a narrative or not.

3. 2. Interactive drama in Heavy Rain

There are examples of ludonarrative deliberately focused on an interactive movie
style, to create a gaming experience similar to that of watching movies, while it enables the
8

player to shape the narrative. Producer and director David Cage, and his developer team,
Quantic Dream made three interactive movies so far: Fahrenheit (2005, US version: Indigo
Prophecy), Heavy Rain (2010), and Beyond: Two Souls (2013). Heavy Rain is a perfect
subject to demonstrate that game narrative can also have similarities to film narrative, while it
includes nodal storytelling.
The game has a storyline which resembles that of a drama film. Ethan Mars, the father
of two children suffers a serious trauma, when his younger son dies in a fatal accident. He
tries to save his son, but he falls into a coma for six months due to the injuries he gets in the
tragic event. Two years later, he is depressed, and divorced. He takes care of his only child,
Shaun until the young boy is kidnapped by the mysterious Origami Killer, who kidnaps
children and drowns them into rain water. Ethan has four days to save his son and solve lifethreatening trials given by the serial killer. Meanwhile, three other characters are after the
killer: Scott Shelby, a private detective; Norman Jayden, an FBI profiler assigned for the case;
and Madison Paige, a young photojournalist who gets involved in the case and investigates on
her own. Eventually, in a flashback of Shelby it turns out that he is the Origami Killer, as a
revenge caused by an early childhood trauma where he lost his brother. At the end of the
game, the three other characters have to complete different requirements to make their way to
a warehouse where Ethans kidnapped son is held.
The different endings are depending on whether Ethan, Madison, and Jayden are alive
or not, and how they managed to resolve the case. For example, the best ending is when
Jayden and Madison find out the identity of the killer, Ethan figures out the warehouses
address by passing the trials; Shelby is killed by Jayden at the final scene, and Ethan saves
Shaun. However, the worst outcome is also possible: Jayden, Madison, and Shaun die; Ethan,
framed as the killer, hangs himself in prison, and Shelby gets away with his crimes
unpunished.
The narrative of Heavy Rain unfolds gradually; the game is segmented into scenes,
called as chapters, which are assigned to only one character. The player cannot change
between the characters anytime; the changing is dictated by the plot, which happens between
the chapters. Also, it is not possible to kill a character at any part of the story, only in certain
chapters because if a character dies, there is no game over screen and the player is not
obligated to retry the given part. Instead, the story goes on without the deceased character,
whose absence will influence the ending. Many events cannot be altered to progress with the
story this is the fixated, static narrative line of the game; while others can be modified to

alter the outcome and unlock possible endings. For this purpose, the game can be restarted
from any chapter.
Heavy Rains narrative uses internal focalization, simultaneously with external
focalization. We know as much as the characters the player can read in their thoughts with
a press of the corresponding button. The characters have limited space to move around in each
chapter, restricted by the scene according to the storyline. The player must perform certain
actions to progress the story forward during the scenes, but it is also possible to do activities
which are not related to the plot. These non-related activities are responsible for creating an
atmosphere for the game and further immersion. For example, in the prologue, the player
performs ordinary everyday activities with Ethan, such as waking up, dressing up, taking a
shower, or brushing his teeth. This is a narrative device to make the character more relatable
to the player and to emphasize the human nature of Ethan.
To ensure the movie-likeness of the game, there is no disturbing GUI (graphical user
interface) or static, over floating interface (except the pause/main menu). When the character
approaches the object/person which can be interacted with, a prompt with a button symbol
appears on it. The ludic elements develop further: a corresponding button must be pressed
within a short time limit after a screen prompt, as sort of a reflex game. These are called
Quick Time Events (QTEs), which are the base of fast, intensive action scenes. Heavy Rains
gameplay mechanism is actually a series of QTEs, which must be played through to progress
the story. QTEs can also be failed, which may result in a characters death, or in a failure of
an objective. These failures are among the available choices, which influence the progression
of the plot, therefore QTEs are tools of nodal storytelling in this game.

3. 3. Grand Theft Auto V narrative in an open world gameplay

After emergent narrative and cinematic style, narrative also can be placed in an open
world video game. Players can discover a fictional city called Los Santos, where they have to
complete missions to proceed with the storyline. There are different kinds of missions: main
quests, which are plot-related and must be completed to finish the game; and side-quests,
which are not story-related and help the player to earn additional resources (money, weapons,
ammunition, vehicles). Between missions, free roaming is possible in the city, where the
player can discover new locations by exploring the finite world of the game.
The setting is a satirical reflection of American society. It mocks the concept of the
American dream, associating richness with crime and greed. GTA V has three protagonists:
10

Michael, a retired bank robber who wants to start a new life after an agreement with the
authorities; Trevor, an alcoholic, abusive psychopathic character who used to work with
Michael; and Franklin, a somewhat nave Afro-American, who is a stereotypical ghetto
dweller. The three protagonists gradually become friends, and perform heists together.
At the beginning of the game, the player only has control over Michael, later on
Franklin and Trevor become available too. In free roaming mode (between missions), the
player can switch between the three protagonists. The change happens in real time: the camera
zooms out to a satellite view of the city, then zooms onto the newly selected character.
Changing between them is also possible during missions, depending on the characters role in
the plot. Sometimes, when a mission is playable by all three characters, the mission starting
cut-scene begins in the perspective of the character who started the mission.
Dialogues concerning the storyline not only featured in cut-scenes, but also during
active gameplay. All three protagonists have a smartphone to communicate with each other,
thus it also functions as a narrative device; mission briefings sometimes come in as text
messages, or calls. Also, to complete certain missions, the player also have to earn a certain
amount of money, which can be spent on weapons, real estates, or vehicles. The player lives a
second life in the game, he can pursue various pastimes such as parachuting, racing, which
helps the immersion for the enjoyment of the narrative.

4. The visual nature and design of ludonarrative

4. 1. Visual elements and their role in ludonarrative
Unlike movies and literary works of art, video games contain multiple systematized
visual information. During gameplay, we can see few or many indicators about the character,
the environment, our goals, and objectives. For instance, in Grand Theft Auto games, a
miniature-sized GPS-like map in the left lower corner indicates our position in the city; in
FPS (First Person Shooter) games, the crosshair, the remaining ammunition and locations of
objectives can be seen on the screen. It can be a life gauge of a character, a nickname of
another player character in an online game, a chat interface, and so on. These information
indicators altogether are called HUD (Heads-Up Display). HUD is the very core part of video
games in general: it is the essence of their ludic function. Their narratological function is very
rarely used: they often considered intrusive and unnecessary in cinematic cut-scenes which
segment the normal gameplay, so game developers make the HUD disappear during those
sequences. Cut-scenes have a great narratological role by breaking up gameplay: they can
11

advance the plot, can introduce new characters, give new information (upgrades, tutorial
messages, unlocked contents), and provide atmosphere, dialogue, background information,
and cues.
HUD is a core element in Grand Theft Auto V. It indicates the players position on the
mini-GPS map, the location of objectives, and incoming (tutorial) messages. How does it
participate in the narrative? HUD is a possible counterpart of Brechts distancing effect. Cutscenes often transition seamlessly into actual gameplay, while instruction messages are
displayed. The games plot and characters are also satirical; the player can not relate to them
emotionally. For example, in the final mission, Franklin is given three choices by his enemies:
he has to kill Trevor, or Michael, or their team must confront all of the antagonists in a final
showdown. The player can choose from the three options from the virtual mobile phone as a
HUD element in the right corner of the screen; the mission must be finished according to the
choice.
Visual elements are also related to narrative design which is elaborated on the next
paragraph.

4. 2. The foundations of video game narrative design

Narrative design is a key element in video games: a narrative designer, similarly to a
writer-director in movies, forms gameplay elements and narrative devices to tell the story.
Narrative consists of the plot, characters, and themes within the game, specifically with the
character/player as a protagonist. Narrative design is the creation of the story and the design
of mechanics through which it is told, helping the immersion of the player and using various
storytelling devices. 18 For example, writing an introducing sequence or a tutorial is one of the
critical points of game storytelling. Generally, a good narrative design is based on a wellbalanced amount of cut-scenes and actual gameplay, with the essential timing and
atmosphere. For example, a HUD information cannot be displayed during a cut-scene (except
when it is deliberately used as a narrative function).
The progress of building a narrative to a video game is the following. The narrative
world must be designed before the characters, plot and story. This is because the storys world
not only defines everything that will take place within it, but it also tells the player what sort
of experience they can expect. According to Andrew S. Walsh, defining the narrative world
18

Jay Posey, Narrative Design, in Wendy Despain ed. Professional Techniques for Video Game Writing
(Wellesley, Mass.: A.K. Peters, 2008), 55.

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starts with game genre then narrative genre.19 Same as for the movies, the genre, the settings,
background, and the roles of the characters must be established to build up the narrative. What
are the characters motivations? What would be the genre? The writer must fit the narrative
for the look and the feel of the world. For instance, the three protagonists of Grand Theft Auto
V are in harmony with the setting of the game, e.g. they are not medieval knights in a modern
21st century city.
Therefore, video game narrative design is somewhat similar to film narrative design.
The emphasis is on the harmony of the visual design and the narrative. However, video
games narrative design must take interactivity, the key feature of video games into
consideration. Pacing the plot does not only rely on the distribution of the climaxes, plot
twists, introducing characters, and planning visuals, but also deciding when to give the control
to the player and how to implement ludic elements in harmony with narrative. For example,
a save-game system should be designed not to interrupt the flow of the narrative. Also, the
same applies to the introduction of new characters, and/or giving control over them.
An example to illustrate this: in Devil May Cry 4, the game has two protagonists. The
swap between them occurs at the half of the game (i.e. the middle of the plot). The first
protagonist, Nero is temporarily held up by the enemy. Then a newer protagonist, Dante
comes in, and the player gains control over him. Nero cannot be controlled at this time, the
player regains control over him only at the final level of the game, where he must confront the
ultimate boss character the largest enemy, the main antagonist in the narrative. Defeating
him brings a closure the narrative, and the game ends at that point. At the beginning, it seems
that the two characters have different motivations they even confront and fight in the first
level - but it turns out in the end that they have to face the same, common antagonist. Saving
the game is only possible between missions.

4. 3. Points of view in narrative design

Point of view, or focalization is an important factor in narrative, and narrative design.
First-person, second-person, and third-person narrative can be used, or the alternation of these
perspectives. In literature and films, it is the third-person view which is generally used. The
reader/spectator sees the characters and their actions from the outside in literature, their
thoughts and feelings are also communicated through the text.
Andrew S. Walsh, Writing Tutorials, or Press Start to Start, in Wendy Despain ed. Professional
Techniques for Video Game Writing (Wellesley, Mass.: A.K. Peters, 2008), 123.
19

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In 3D video games, narrative point of view depends on the camera eye similarly to
movies, while in the case of earlier text-based adventure games, only literary narrative was
used (with a few 2D pictures illustrating the story). Text-based games used second-person
narrative style, due to their literary nature (You opened the door, The wizard gave you a
magic crystal), to immerse the players into the adventure, making themselves as the
protagonist. Using first- or third-person narrative would have created a distance between the
protagonist and the player. In the case of 3D games, the distance, or immersion can be
changed by the camera it differentiates between seeing the character, and/or being the
character.
First-person view (FPV) has the possibility to incorporate the identity of the
protagonist to the player. In this case, the protagonist can have a pre-defined personality and
physical outlook, written by the authors. Many times, though, FPV is utilised when the
protagonist is not defined clearly, or does not have any particular personality traits like
military action shooters, or role-playing games, where the players have to define these traits
(dexterity, conversation skills, etc.) at the creation and customization of their character.
Third-person view (TPV) and FPV can overlap the player sometimes has the
possibility to alternate between the viewpoints, rather for the convenience of gameplay (e.g.
better aiming with weapons in FPV) than narrative reasons. In narrative, TPV usually
emphasizes the nature of a given, predefined character similarly to novels or films. The
player also becomes a somewhat external observer not only seeing with the characters eyes,
but having a better view on the surrounding environment. This also creates an omniscient, or
limited narrative view. The player always sees the protagonist who is a separate entity from
the player and a bond can be established more easily between the player and the virtual
character. This relationship can take different forms: managing many characters at the same
time, like the virtual habitants of The Sims here, the player can be a god who controls the
habitants everyday life.
Then, the traditional and mostly used cinematic aspect of TPV is also dominant,
the narrative focuses strongly on the actions and the attributes of one main protagonist (or
more protagonists), and their actions contributing to the plot is being emphasized in
narrative, camera angles, and gameplay.

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5. Game mechanism and gameplay as the narrative itself

5. 1. A different approach from narratology
The narrative nature of video games heavily rely on the narrative of films, concerning
their storyline and their visual style. However, it is possible not only to examine the narrative
function from the traditional perspective of narratology (like in the case of literature or films),
but from the interactivity and the contribution of the player. As indicated in the The
relationship between ludology and narrative paragraph, these two subjects were analysed
parallel to each other. The two approaches give an insight to the narrative features of a game,
they discuss the relationship between the agency and storytelling, but do not elaborate on how
the build-up, the design of the games can contribute to the narrative by creating an experience
in the player. The narrative design is the unique, distinctive feature that makes ludonarrative a
narrative genre, but different from other narrative types.
However, game experience is not just mere narrative design. Game experience
consists of the feelings generated in the player, the interactivity, and the relationship between
game and gamer. According to Gbor Zoltn Kisss analysis, Shadow of the Colossus is a fine
example for implementing the narrative into the game mechanism, making the game
mechanism as the narrative, instead of using it as a regular tool of ludonarrative. 20
The aim of the game is to defeat 16 colossi, who are scattered around in the game
world. The plot revolves around the protagonist, Wander, and his dead love, Mono, whom he
wants to resurrect. Wander travels to a temple of a spiritual deity, Dormin, and makes a deal
with the entity: if Wander kills all of the 16 colossi (big, giant creatures who roam freely in
the vast lands surrounding the temple), Mono will be resurrected. He manages to kill all of the
colossi, but after every kill, he becomes more and more weathered, and darkened. In the final
scene, it turns out he was set up by Dormin: the malevolent deitys essence was fragmented
and sealed away in these sixteen colossi a long time ago. By killing them all, Wander
involuntarily freed Dormin. With each kill, a fragment of Dormins essence enters Wanders
body, which causes the visible signs of deterioration in the protagonist. A shaman, Lord Emon
with a small group of soldiers discovers that Dormin is free. Lord Emon reveals the
explanation and truth behind the storyline, as he speaks to Wander: Have you any idea what
you've done?! Not only did you steal the sword and trespass upon this cursed land, you used

20

Kiss Gbor Zoltn, Efemer galrik - Videojtkok kritikai megkzeltsben (Budapest-Pcs: Gondolat Kiad,
2013), 173.

15

the forbidden spell as well...21 Wanders fate becomes a tragedy. Dormin takes over
Wanders body, transforming him into a giant demon with horns. The soldiers flee, and Emon
casts Wanders sword into a pool, evoking a whirlwind which destroys both Wander and
Dormin.

5. 2. Shadow of the Colossus story and mechanism; emotional response

The mechanism of the game serves as narrative in many ways. 22 To kill a colossus,
Wander has to find it in the vast area of the game, by raising his sword into the air. The sword
reflects the sun into a shining beam, which points into the direction of the colossus. Wander
can travel in the world of the game on his swift horse, Agro, who is a sort of companion to
Wander. The landscape is desolate and bleak, although it is geographically various: canyons
with large valleys and cliffs, mountains and deserts; with ruins of ancient buildings.
According to Kiss, the landscape as game environment evokes a feeling of solitude and
persistence in the player.23
The fights with the colossi are smaller climaxes in the game. Each colossus is
different, and the player must figure out how to defeat them, by finding their weak points and
stabbing those with the sword. To succeed, Wander must climb the colossi which is
frustrating, due to the continuous movement of the opponents when they try to shake him off.
During every battle, different music illustrates the struggle and victory of Wander, giving an
emotional content to the fight. After defeating each colossus, a fragment Dormins essence
leaves the giant creatures body, then it is absorbed by Wander. He collapses unconscious
after the fight, and he is taken back to the altar, the starting point where he laid Monos body.
After each victory, Wander becomes more and more weathered, and darkened, as a sign of
Dormin slowly taking over his body.
The colossi are naturally not hostile the players (Wanders) interaction makes them
aggressive and attacking. Killing those creatures is not always glorious: their demise can
evoke a sense of guilt, and/or a sense of loss in many players. In a short essay written on the
gaming webpage Gamasutra, Ben Sherman reflects on this particular feature of the game
mechanism: []Shadow of the Colossus, it unfolds as a story would, but the hand of the
21

Fumito Ueda, Shadow of the Colossus (Sony Computer Entertainment, 2006)

Kiss Gbor Zoltn, Efemer galrik - Videojtkok kritikai megkzeltsben (Budapest-Pcs: Gondolat Kiad,
2013), 173.
23
Kiss Gbor Zoltn, Efemer galrik - Videojtkok kritikai megkzeltsben (Budapest-Pcs: Gondolat Kiad,
2013), 175.
22

16

protagonist is synonymous with the hand of the player, so the protagonist's guilt becomes the
player's guilt.24 He continues to elaborate:

Through the hours of gameplay, the player is continually returned to the temple
to see the dead girl sitting upon the altar. The player knows that something
important is going to happen to the girl. The player knows the girl is the
reason the game exists. It is the obsession that the designer creates in the mind
and imagination of the player, coupled with the guilt of certain actions that
translates the love the protagonist is supposed to feel for the girl. The player
does not actually feel love, but the player understands and can palpably feel the
necessity of accomplishing the tasks in the game to see what happens to the
girl.25

Apart from Shermans observations, I also noticed an evoking of emotions with the
game mechanism. Before the final colossus, Wander must traverse a bridge with his horse,
Agro. In a following cut-scene, the bridge collapses, and in the last moment, Agro throws off
Wander to the other side to save his master, then the horse falls down into the abyss. The
removal of this helping character from the system and Wanders only, faithful companion
foreshadows the tragic ending of the game: the hero has to face the final colossus all alone.

5.3. Ludonarrative anomalies the ludonarrative dissonance

The term ludonarrative dissonance was coined by Clint Hocking, a former creative
director at LucasArts in his blog.26 Clint criticised the game Bioshock, which rewards selfinterest through its gameplay, but advertises selflessness through its narrative. In the game, it
is possible to heal young girls mutated by experiments called Little Sisters, or harvest
(kill) them, and thus gain extra energy and resources which can be spent on developing the
protagonists skills. Thus, killing the Little Sisters is much more rewarding in gameplay than
healing them the moral value of the players decision does not have a significant effect on
gameplay mechanics. Also, there are two other characters that are fighting with each other,
Ben Sherman, Student Feature: Story Mechanics as Game Mechanics in Shadow of the Colossus,
Gamasutra (2006), available:
http://www.gamasutra.com/view/feature/131047/student_feature_story_mechanics.php, access: 12 December
2014.
25
Ibid.

24

17

Atlas and Ryan. The game does not offer an alternative to choose sides, due to the constraints
of the medium and the narrative: the player must follow the directions of Atlas, even if it is
against the players interests.
Perhaps the most significant example of ludonarrative dissonance when some
elements of the game mechanism (thus other possibilities) are constrained by the plot by
limiting the players choices. A good example of this can be found in Max Payne 3. During
normal gameplay, the protagonist, Max has the ability to slow down time (called bullet time,
similarly to the special effect of the Matrix movies), and shoot his enemies with greater
precision and advantage. During a cut-scene, Max tries to free a hostage from a house which
is guarded from the inside by numerous enemies. If it would not be a cut-scene, the player
could use bullet time to neutralize the attackers and free the hostage. However, the player is
forced to watch a cut-scene where Max goes in the house, tries to subdue the attackers; he is
outnumbered by them, he fails, and the hostage is killed right before him. The bad turn of
events is forced by the plot and the cut-scene: Max forgets his special ability to make things
happen according to the storyline the player is robbed of his/her interactivity to intervene
and save the hostage.
Another example for ludonarrative dissonance in interactive fiction is The Stanley
Parable, which is further investigated in this study. The game makes parody of ludonarrative
and its flaws, by showing general contradictions of game storytelling. The player (Stanley)
can proceed in the game as the narrator tells it, following his storyline, or can deliberately go
against the narrative, and choosing another pathway. For example, when the narrator tells that
Stanley went through the left door, the player can also go through the right door in this case,
the narrator tells that Stanley was so bad at following directions27, and adapts the narration
to the players choice. If the player continues to resist the narrator by doing this on different
parts of the level - different endings can be unlocked, including the narrators total confusion
about the storyline, or the stuck of the protagonist in an endless loop, driving him insane and
committing suicide.

Clint Hocking, Ludonarrative Dissonance in Bioshock, Click Nothing (2006), available:

http://clicknothing.typepad.com/click_nothing/2007/10/ludonarrative-d.html, access: 7 March 2014.
27
Galactic Cafe (developer team), The Stanley Parable (2013)
26

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6. Possible futures of ludonarrative

6. 1. Visual novel as ludonarrative
Recently, a new trend emerged in indie (independent) video game industry: games
which are concentrating strongly on the subject of storytelling itself, as a core element. These
games do not feature typical gameplay elements like weapons, defeating a series of
antagonists and clear objectives to complete; the gameplay mechanics are concentrated on the
experience of storytelling, both visually and textually. Their plots are mostly linear, rarely
including nodal situations, similarly to the narrative of literary fiction hence they can also fit
into the category of interactive or visual novels. Three indie games were chosen to
demonstrate this: Dear Esther (2012), Gone Home (2013), and the aforementioned The
Stanley Parable (2013). All of these games are in first-person view, to immerse the player
into the role of the protagonist.
Dear Esther is an experimental first-person video game. The epistolary narrative
unfolds by a series of voiced-over letter fragments, written to a certain Esther, allegedly the
wife of the narrator, while exploring an uninhabited Hebridean island. The gameplay consists
of walking on a linear pathway on the island, while hearing these monologues on different
sections of the level, semi-randomly chosen by the game. The fragments refer to several
unseen characters, for example, Paul, a drunk driver, who is allegedly responsible for the
death of Esther. The monologues are philosophical and reminiscent, reflecting on the
relationship of the narrator and Esther. In the end, the main character reaches the radio mast
on the islands peak, and during a final monologue, he jumps down the shore below after
climbing the tower. During the fall, his shadow becomes that of a bird. The player-narrator
flies across the bay of the island, and the camera closes down to a group of paper boats on the
water: the letters which the narrator wrote to Esther.
Gone Home has the similar first-person view gameplay structure as Dear Esther. A
young girl, Kaitlin arrives home from her European trip to her family house in Oregon, in
1995. To her great surprise, there is no one at home, not even her parents she spots a note on
the door left by her sister, Samantha, telling Kaitlin not to look for answers about her
whereabouts. The player must explore the house to find out what happened the story
proceeds by finding and reading Samanthas journals, discovering her teenage hardships, her
conflicts with her parents, and her lesbian relationship with another girl. The player can
examine every object in the game (even the most ordinary household objects), and read
numerous documents (letters, invoices, notes) scattered in the house, unfolding the
19

background of the plot and gain important details concerning the relationship of the family
members. This makes possible to create storytelling from an intimate perspective, by
exploring the rooms and examining the personal belongings of the family members, making
the player omniscient. The game ends when Kaitlin, after thorough investigation and
following clues in the house, finds the last piece of the scattered journal in the attic.
Gone Home uses framed, or embedded narrative: the player has to discover a story
within a basic narrative setting reconstructing a personal story while investigating an
abandoned house. The game also can be considered as a visual novel, due to its heavy reliance
on texts: the story is told by reading the journals and other documents, following a very linear
storyline. Cut-scenes are not featured, and other characters are not present during gameplay,
which creates a continuous atmosphere of solitude, and an uninterrupted flow of exploration.
Dear Esther also has the role of visual novel, but with less interaction: the only task of the
player is to walk through a linear path, while the monologues are heard. Both games have a
common property: the exploration of virtual space is combined aesthetically with the
discovery of the narrative.

6. 2. Ludonarrative as metanarrative in The Stanley Parable

The Stanley Parable satirically reflects on ludonarrative, pointing out the general
contradictions of video game storytelling. Stanley is an office worker whose job is to push
buttons without question on a computer according to his superiors orders (as a mocking
reflection to clich game tutorials like Press button X to jump). One day, he does not
receive orders anymore, and it turns out that the office building has been abandoned by his coworkers, so he ventures out to find out what happened. The narrator suggests the route which
Stanley should take, but the player can opt against it and choose another path. If the latter
happens, the narrator adapts his monologue to the players choice, but in case of going
persistently against it, he begins to mock Stanley (and thus the player), eventually forcing him
to follow his (the narrators) ideas, in an absurdly humorous manner. By following different
paths, different endings can be unlocked. After each ending, the game restarts from the
beginning.
The game contains multiple nodal situations: the player has a lot of possibilities and
choices to divert the storyline while he goes through the game nineteen possible endings can
be unlocked. The Stanley Parable reflects on the illusion of free will in videogames, when the
player makes a choice however, these choices already decided the protagonists fate in the
20

game. There is no total freedom: for instance, Stanley is not able to attack the narrator, or go
back and choose a different path, because the game does not allow him to do so.

7. Conclusion
After analysing different methods and devices of ludonarrative, featured by the games
and the concepts mentioned in the thesis, it is clear that video games can be a narrative genre
not just by the traditional narrative approach of literature and films, but through the
narrative design and the interactivity provided by this genre.
As a meta-medium and a new media type, video games contain complex audio-visual
and textual information. They carry a narrative potential, which can be realised in different
aspects. Games conform to the idea of new media by Lev Manovich, as the player, or gamer
becomes the co-author of these games, while they combine visual and textual devices to tell a
story. Concerning narrative features, Genettes typology can be applied this enables to
interpret games as a narrative genre. According to Frasca, interactivity is also a determining
factor, as the player has the choice to shape the storyline, or the other components of the
narrative.
Ludonarrative can be implemented in various ways: the narrative space and characters
can be extended, or altered to influence the sequence of events in The Sims; as a cinematic
narrative style, it is also present as film-like storytelling in Heavy Rain; and it is able to use
the visual properties of new media, like visual interfaces, as a tool of narrative in an open
world game like Grand Theft Auto V. Furthermore, it is also discussed that game mechanism
is not only just a tool of narrative, but can be narrative itself, as demonstrated in Shadow of
the Colossus. Also, games like Dear Esther or Gone Home are able to imitate literary
narrative, by focusing on the subject of storytelling and combining it with the exploration of
narrative space. Metanarratives in video games, like The Stanley Parable are also possible, by
reflecting on the contradictions in ludonarrative.
In conclusion, by its new media properties, video games can be declared as narrative
genre, even if it establishes narrative differently than the traditional narrative genres such as
literature, or film.

21

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