Developmentsintherestoftheworldfrom5thcenturyonwards

EUROPE
Romanempirebrokenintotwoby6thcentury:West,withcapitalatRome,overwhelmedbySlavand
Germanictribesmen.TribessettleddownandsetthefoundationformodernEuropeannations.East,
withcapitalatConstantinople,encompassedeasternEurope,Turkey,SyriaandNorthAfricaandwas
calledByzantineEmpire.FollowedcentralizedadministrationbutdifferedwithCatholicChurch.
FoundedanotherbranchcalledtheGreekOrthodoxChurchwhichlaterspreadtoRussia.
ByzantinescontinuedtotradewithAsiaandactedasabridgebetweenGrecoRomancivilizationand
Arabs.Byzantineempiredisappearedinmiddleof15thcenturywhenConstantinoplefelltoTurks.
Aftercollapseofwesternromanempire,citiesdisappearedandtradedeclined.CalledDarkAges.
Revivaloccurredin10thcenturycentury.12thto14thcenturysawrapidprogressandprosperityanda
newoutlooktowardslife.Universitieswereestablishedandhelpedindisseminationofknowledge
andgrowthofnewideas.ThiseventuallyledtoRenaissance.
Feudalismemerged.Manypolitical,economicandmilitaryfactorsresponsibleforitsrise.Most
powerfulelementswerethechiefswhodominatedlargetractsoflandwithmilitarypowerand
playedanimportantpartingovernment.Kingwasineffectthemostpowerfulfeudalchief.Tensions
arosetimeandagainbetweenthekingandvassals(fiefs).Governmentwasthusdominatedby
landedaristocracywhichwashereditary.Featuresoffeudalsystem:
1.Landedaristocracy

2.SerfdomandManorsystem 3.Militaryorganization

Serfs=peasantswhohadtocompulsorilyworkontheland.Manor=thehousewherethelandlord
lived.Serfshadtocultivatethelandssurroundingthemanorandgiveapartoftheproducetothe
landlord.Landlordwastaskedwithdispensingjusticeandmaintaininglawandorder.Thissystem
disappearedfromWesternEuropeafter14thcentury.
Cavalrygainedpopularityinwarfarebecauseofironstirrupandanewharnesswhichallowedthe
horsetopulltwicetheweightitpulledearlier.TheseinventionscametoWestfromEastAsiaand
wereintroducedinIndiafrom10thcentury.Kingcouldnotmaintainsuchalargecavalrywithso
manysoldiers.Soarmywasdecentralizedandthefeudallordswereaskedtomaintaina
predeterminedarmyfromtheirpockets.Inmostcases,fiefscollectedtaxesfrompeasantry,gavea
tributetotheking,maintainedthearmyandusedtherestforpersonalconsumption.
InIndia,therewasnoserfdomormanorsystembutlocalfiefs(Samantas)exercisedsimilarpowers,
withthepeasantrydependentuponthem.
CulturallifeinEuropewasalsoshapedbyCatholicChurch.Ittookonpoliticalfunctionsand
exercisedmoralauthorityaswell.Manymonasticordersanddenominationswereestablisheddue
totherevenueobtainedfromtaxfreelandgrantsbyfeudalchiefsandkings.Churchesservedthe
poorandneedy,gavemedicalaidandsheltertotravellersandservedascentresforeducationand
learning.

ARABS
Islamunitedwarringarabtribesintoapowerfulempire.AbbasidscametopowerasCaliphsat
Baghdadinmiddleof8thcentury.ClaimedtobelongtosametribeasprophetMuhammad.Most
powerfulempirefor~150yrs.ControlledpartsofNorthAfrica,Egypt,Syria,iranandIraqand
importanttraderoutesconnectingIndiaandChinawiththeMediterranean.Regionattained
prosperitybylevyingtaxesontradeandduetoenterprisingarabmerchants.ManyChinese
inventionslikecompass,paper,printing,gunpowderreachedEuropefromChinathroughArabs.
Arabsassimilatedscientificknowledgeandadministrativeskillsofempirestheyhadoverrun.They
employednonmuslimsforrunningadministration.
Baitulhikmat=houseofwisdomtranslatingliteraturefromvariousempiresintoArabic.
IndiadidnotenjoycloseculturalcontactwithArabs.Sindhwasconqueredin8thcentury.Decimal
systemreachedArabsfromIndiaafterthisandwaspopularizedbyAlKhwarizmi.Suryasiddhanta
(AstronomyAryabhatta)wastranslatedandCharaksamhita,Sushrutsamhitawerealsotranslated.
Arabsbuiltuponthisknowledgeandmadeimmensecontributionstoscienceandtechnologyafter
10thcentury.MajorworkwasdoneinSpain,Khorasan,Egyptetc.ButiscalledArabicbecauseofthe
languageusedtocommunicatetheseachievements.Remarkabledegreeofintellectualandpersonal
freedomenjoyedbyscientistsandscholarsledtoasuchgrowthofscience.Europestagnateddueto
rigidviewsofCatholicchurch.Indiaalsodidnotprogressmuch.Arabsciencedeclinedafter14th
centuryduetogrowingorthodoxyandotherpoliticaldevelopments.
EASTANDSOUTHEASTASIA
Chinaattainedclimaxin8thand9thcenturiesunderTangdynasty.Exportedcountlessgoodstothe
WestthroughSilkRoute.TangswerereplacedbySungdynastyin10thcenturyandthengrowing
weaknessledtoMongolinvasionin13thcentury.Mongolsunifiednorthandsouthchinawithhelpof
highlydisciplinedandmobilecavalry.TheyalsoruledoverVietnamandKoreaforsometime.
MarcoPolospentsometimeatthecourtoffamousMongolrulerKublaiKhan.VisitedMalabaron
hiswaybacktoItalybysea.

SailendradynastyPalembang(Sumatra),Java,MalaypeninsulaandpartsofThailandSanskritand
BuddhistcentresoflearningBorobudurTemple(Buddha)=mountaincarvedinto9terraces
surmountedbyaStupa.
KambujadynastyCambodiaandAnnam(SouthVietnam)groupoftemplesnearAngkorThom=
~200templesin3.2sqkmarea;largest=AngkorVatTemplescontainstatuesofgods,goddessesm
nymphs.
TemplesinboththeabovementionedlocationshadpanelscontainingscenesfromRamayanand
Mahabharat.Thesewerealsotheinspirationforliterature,folkdances,songs,puppetsandstatues.

TemplebuildingherecoincidedwithtemplebuildinginIndia.BuddhismdeclinedinIndiaand
flourishedhere.BuddhawasbroughtintoHinduismlaterinIndiawhereasHinduGodswerebrought
underBuddhistfoldinSEAsia.
TradersofvariouspartsoftheworldvisitedSEasiaandledtocominglingofdifferentcultures.
ReligioustoleranceexistedandIndonesiaandMalayawereconvertedtoislamonlyafterits
consolidationinIndia.Elsewhere,Buddhismcontinuedtoflourish.Commercialandculturalcontacts
weresnappedonlyaftertheBritishersandDutchcameinthe17thcentury.

NorthernIndia[8thto10thcentury]
Pala=easternIndiamiddleof9thcentury.
Pratihara=westernIndiaanduppergangeticvalleymiddleof10thcentury.
Rashtrakuta=Deccanandvaryingpartsnorthandsouthofit.
PalasandPratiharasbattledforKanaujtofillvacuumafterHarshasdeath.Palas=Gopala,
Dharampala,Devapala.WarredwithPratiharasforcontroloverBanarastoSouthBihar.Dharampal
wasdefeatedbyRashtrakutaDhruvaandfailedtoconsolidatepoweroverKanauj.Pratiharasrevived
underNagabhattaII.Dharampalfellbackandwaskilled.Devapaladivertedenergiestowardseast
andconqueredpartsofAssam,OrissaandNepal.PalaswererestrictedtoeastIndiamoreoftenthan
not.InfoonthemprovidedbyArabmerchantsandTibetanchronicles.
DharampalrevivedNalandauniversityandsetaside200villagesforitsexpenses.Alsoestablished
VikramshilauniversityatopahillnearGangainMagadh.Builtlotsofviharasandhadclosecultural
relationswithTibetandwiththeSailendradynasty.ArequestbySailendrakingtosetupmonastery
atNalandawasgrantedbyPalas.
Pratiharas=GurjaraPratiharasbecauseoriginatedfromGujaratorSWRajasthan.Earlierrulers
failedtocontroluppergangavalleyandMalwaduetoRashtrakutas,whodefeatedPratiharastwice
andlaterretreatedtoDeccan.Bhojarevivedtheempire,recoveredKanaujin836andmadeitthe
capitalforacentury.WenteastbutstoppedbyDevapala,wentSouthforMalwaandGujaratbut
stoppedbyRashtrakutas.FinallyturnedwestandconqueredtilleastbankofSutlej.Hadthebest
cavalrywithhorsesimportedfromcentralasia.SpreadempiretoeastafterdeathofDevapala.Was
adevoteeofVishnuandtookthetitleAdivaraha.
PratiharaswerepatronsoflearningGreatpoetRajashekharlivedatcourtofMahipala,Bhojas
grandson.AlMasudivisitedGujaratfromBaghdadin915andtellsaboutPratiharakingdom.
RashtrakutakingIndraIIIattackedKanaujbetween915and918,andweakenedPratiharas.Gujarat
alsopassedinRashtrakutahands.Lossofcoastledtodeclineinrevenuesfromseatradeandledto
dissolutionoftheempire.
Rashtrakutas=foundedbyDantidurgawithcapitalatMalkhed(nearSolapur).Dominatednorthern
MaharashtraandwrestledwithPratiharasforGujaratandMalwa.Foughtconstantlywitheastern
ChalukyasofVengi,PallavasofKanchiandPandyasofMadurai.

GreatestRashtrakutas=GovindaIIIandAmoghvarsha(814878).GovindaIIIannexedKanauj,Malwa
andturnedSouthanddefeatedLankanrulers.Amoghpreferredpursuitofliteratureandreligion
thanthatofwar.WrotefirstKannadabookonpoetics.Facedmanyrebellionsinfarflungareasof
empire.EmpireweakenedandhisgrandsonIndraIII(915927)reestablishedit.Hewasthemost
powerfulrulerafterdeathofMahipalaandsackingofKanauj.
AlMasudisaysRashtrakutakingBalharaorVallabhrajawasthegreatestkingofIndiaandmost
Indianrulersacceptedhissuzerainty.KrishnaIII(934963)wasthelastruler.Foughteastern
chalukyasofVengiandannexednorthernpartofCholempire,builtatempleatRameswaram.All
opponentsunitedafterhisdeathandMalkhedwassackedandburntin972.
RashtrakutaspatronizedShaivism,VaishnavismandJainism.RockcutShivatempleatEllora=
RashtrakutakingKrishnaI.Theyweregreatpatronsofartsandliterature.Greatapabhramshapoet
SvayambhuresidedatRashtrakutacourt.
PoliticalIdeasandOrganization
AdministrativesystemwasbasedonGuptaempire,HarshaskingdominthenorthandChalukyasin
theDeccan.King=headadministratorandcommanderinchiefofarmedforces.Feudatoriesand
highofficialswaitedontheking.Courtwasacentreofdispensingjustice,policymakingandcultural
events.Kingspositionwashereditary.Warswerefrequent.Bearingarmsforselfprotectionwas
therightofanindividual,accordingtowriterMedhatithi.Usuallytheeldestsonsucceeded,
youngersonsweremadeprovincialgovernors,brothersfoughttogainthrone.Princesseswere
rarelyappointed,butChandrobalabbe,AmoghvarshaIsdaughter,administeredRaichurdoabfor
sometime.
Kingswereaidedbyministers,whowerealsohereditary.Therewereministersforforeignaffairs,
revenue,treasurer,armedforceschief,chiefjusticeandpurohit.Morethanonepostcouldbe
combined.Therewerealsoofficialsofthehousehold(antahpur).Armywasimportantforexpansion
andelephantsandhorseswereimportedfromNWandviasea.Rashtrakutashadmanyforts
guardedbyregularandirregulartroops.Regulartroopswerealsohereditary.
Territorieswere:1.Directlyadministeredand2.Ruledbyvassals.Latterwereautonomousintheir
internalmattersandhadtopaytributetothekingandmaintainandprovidearmywhencalledtodo
so.
Fordirectlyadministeredterritories,
InPalaandPratiharaempires,
Bhukti(province)underUparika(governor)
Mandala/Visaya(district)underVisayapati(head)
Pattala(unitforrealizationoflandrevenueandlawandorder) Bhukti>Visaya>Pattala
InRashtrakutaempire,
Rashtra(province)underRashtrapati

Visaya(dist)underVisayapati
Bhukti(unitforrealizationoflandrevenueandlawandorder)Rashtra>Visaya>Bhukti
Officialswerepaidbygivingthemgrantsofrentfreeland,whichblurredthedistinctionbetween
localofficialsandhereditarychiefs.
VILLAGEwasplacedbelowtheseadministrativeunits.Itsadministrationwascarriedoutbyvillage
headmanandvillageaccountwhosepostswerehereditary.Theywerepaidbyrentfreelandgrants.
Headmanwashelpedbyvillageelders=grammahajanORgramMahattara.InKtaka,village
committeesmanagedlocalschools,temples,tanksandroads.Alsodecidedsimpledisputes.Towns
alsohadsuchcommitteeswithheadsoftradeguildsassociatedwithit.
Lawandorderresponsibility=koshtapala=kotwal
HereditaryrevenueofficersinDeccan=nadgavundasordesagramakutas.
Statewasessentiallysecular.KingswereworshippersofShiva,Vishnu,JainismandBuddhismbut
theyneverpersecutednonfollowersandpatronizedallreligionsequally.Kingdidnotinterefere
withDharmashastrasandhadthegeneraldutyofprotectingBrahmanasandthevarnadivision.
Purohitguidedthekinginthesemattersbutdidnotexertundueinfluence.Kingspublicdutywasto
beplacedonArthashastraandpersonaldutyonDharmashastras.Thus,religionandpoliticswere
keptapart.

NorthernIndia[11thand12thcenturies]
RapidchangesoccurredinwestandcentralasiaandthereforeinnorthIndia.Abassidcaliphate
declinedbyendof9thcentury.Turks(heathensIslamized)hadenteredcaliphateasmercenaries
kingmakersrulers.AssumedtitlesofAmirandlaterSultan.Turkishtribesmenexcelledin
lightningraidsandplundersduetoexcellenthorsesandabilitytocoverincredibledistanceson
horseback.MovedtowardsNWIndia,wherethebreakupofGurjaraPratiharashadcreated
uncertaintyandweakness.
Ghaznavids
Transoxiana,KhorasanandIranwereruledbySamanidswhohadtobattlecontinuallywithTurksin
9thcentury.Battleagainstturks=battleforreligionaswellassafety(cozTurks=heathens).Ghazis
werebornduringthisstruggle.Ghazi=missionary+fighter.TurksgraduallybecameIslamizedand
strongestdefendersofIslambutghazistruggleagainstnonIslamictribescontinued.Turkishslave
AlaptginestablishedindependentkingdomwithcapitalatGhazni.Ghaznavidstookoverdefenceof
IslamafterSamanidempireended.
MahmudascendedGhaznithronein998,till1030.AssociatedwithIranianrenaissance.Iranians
neveracceptedArabiclanguageandculture.Highwatermark=MahmudspoetlaureateFirdausis
ShahNamah.ResurgenceofIranianpatriotismandPersianlanguageandcultureadoptedby
Ghaznavidempire.BroughtthistoIndiatwocenturieslater.RaidedIndia17timesanddirectedthe

plunderatHindustanirulersandtemples.GainedatoeholdinPunjabbybattlingtheHindushahi
rulersatPeshawar;awarinwhichrulersofKanaujandRajasthanalsotookpart.Aftergaining
Punjab,heplunderedtemplestofundhiscentralasiancampaigns.Mahmudalsoposedas
destroyerofimagesforgloryofIslam.PlunderedKanaujin1018andSomnathin1025.Overran
wholeofnorthIndia(inc.Bundelkhand)becauseofabsenceofastrongstateandpresenceofcavalry
withmountedarchers.Didnotannexanyareas,onlylootedandplundered.DiedatGhazniin1030.
DeathresultedinriseofSeljukempireencompassingSyria,IranandTransoxiana.Masud,
MahmudssonwasdefeatedbySeljuksandhadtoretreat.GhaznavidsnowconfinedtoGhazniand
PunjabandposednorealthreattoIndia.
Rajputs
CameintoexistenceafterbreakupofPratiharas.Importantones:
ChauhansAjmer
ParmarsMalwa
KalachurisJabalpur
GahadavalsKanauj
ChandelasBundelkhand
ChalukyasGujarat
TomarsDelhi
SimultaneousexpansionisturgesandfrequentquarrelsamongsttheRajputspreventedthemfrom
unitingagainstGhaznavids.BasisofRajputsociety=clan.Attachmenttoland,familyandhonour
wascharacteristicofRajputs.Feudalorganizationbasedonclansprevailed.
AdvantagesofRajputsociety=senseofbrotherhoodandegalitarianism.
Disadvantages=difficulttomaintaindiscipline,feudscontinuedforseveralgenerations,formed
exclusivegroupsandnobrotherhoodwithcommonpeoplewhowerenonRajputs.
Treatedwarassport.Thisandstruggleforlandandcattleledtocontinuouswarfare.MostRajputs
werechampionsofHinduism.Stoodasprotectorsofbrahmanasandcastesystem.Gaveconcessions
andprivilegestobrahmanaswhoinreturnrecognizedrajputsasdescendantsofsolarandlunar
dynastiesofkshatriyas.BrahmanismrevivedandSanskritreplacedPrakritandApabhramshaamong
upperclasses,butliteraturewasclosertolocallanguagesandcontinuedtobeproducedinprakrit
andapabhramsha.Locallanguages=Marathi,Bengalietc.Emergedinthisperiod.
Periodbetween10thand12thcenturies=climaxintemplebuildingactivityinnorthindia.
Nagarastyle.NorthIndiaandDeccan.Tall,curved,spiralroofoverchiefdeityroom(garbhagriha,
deul).Mandapa(anteroom)infrontofsanctum.Highwallsandloftygates.Examplesarethe
ChandellabuiltParsvanathTemple,VishvanathTempleandKandaryaMahadeotempleat

KhajurahoinMPandLingarajTemple(11thcent)andKonarkSunTemple(13thcent)atOrissa
(Bhuvaneshwar).JagannathtempleatPurialsobelongstothisperiod.Temples=centresof
culturallife.Vastupal=ministerofChalukyanKingBhima=writer,patronandbuilderofJain
temple@Mt.Abu.
PlunderingbyGhaznavidsandTurkswasmetwithstoutresistancebutMuslimtraderswere
welcomedinordertoencouragetradewithcentralasiaandwestasia.Coloniesofmuslimswere
establishedandalongwiththemcametheSufis,whopreachedlove,faithanddedicationtoone
god.Hindumusliminteractionsincreasedandsoon,hinduleaderscommandedghaznavidarmies
andrecruitedhindusoldiers.
Inmiddleof12thcentury,partbuddhistpartpaganTurkishtribesmendestroyedSeljuksandtwo
newpowersarose:KhwarizmiempireinIranandGhuridempireinGhur(NWAfghanistan).Former
dominatedcentralasia,forcingthelattertomovetowardsIndia.
MuhammadGhoriascendedatGhazniwhilehisbrotherwasrulingatGhur.ConqueredMultan.
AttemptedtoconquergUjaratbutlostandrealizedtheimportanceofhavingabaseinPunjab.
MovedtowardsPeshawar,Lahoreandestablishedrulethere,poisedtoattackDelhiandGanga
valley.
Meanwhile,ChauhansofAjmerovershadowedothersandalsokilledalotofTurkswhotriedto
invadeRajasthanfromPunjab.PrithvirajChauhanascendedAjmer.AfterfailingtoconquerGujarat
(rulerBhimaIIhaddefeatedbothGhoriandPrithviraj),heturnedattentiontowardsDelhiandGanga
valley.
BattleofTarainin1191betweenGhoriandPrithviraj.GhoriforcesdefeatedbutPrithvirajdidnot
annexPunjab,givingGhoritimetoregroupandleadingtoSecondBattleofTarainin1192.Ghori
waspreparedandhisarmyandcavalrywasbetterled.Prithvirajappealedtolocalrulersforhelp
butlost.EastRajasthanandAjmerwereannexed.Prithvirajwascapturedandallowedtorule
Ajmerforsometimebeforebeingexecuted.Hissonsucceededhim,DelhiwasrestoredtoaTomar
ruler.Bothdecisionswerereversed,DelhibecameabaseforTurksandPrithvirajssonmovedto
RanthamboretoestablishChauhankingdomthere.
InordertoestablishruleoverGangavalley,GhorihadtodefeatGadhvalsofKanauj.Hedefeated
JaichandraatChandawarnearKanauj.BattlesofTarainandChandawarlaidfoundationofTurkish
ruleinIndia.Ghori,whilegoinghomebeforeChandawarbattle,hadplacedtheIndianruleunder
hisslaveQutbuddinAibak.Ghoridiedin1206.
AibakcapturedKhajurahoandKalinjarfromChandellas.ThenGujaratfromBhimaII,whichthrewof
Turkishrulesoonafterwards.Turksweremoresuccessfulintheeast.BaakhtiyarKhaljiwas
appointedtheinchargeforsomeprovincesintheeast.Hegatheredanarmyandstealthilymoved
towardsNadia,thecapitalofSenakingsofBengal.StealthilyattackedLakshmanSenaandcaptured
Nadia(in1204),butcouldnotholdontoitduetolargenumberandsizeofrivers.Withdrewand
fixedhiscapitalatLakhnautiinnorthBengalwhileLakshmanSenacontinuedtoruleinthesouth.
KhaljifoolishlyattemptedaninvasionofAssam,wasambushedbyAssameserulersandlostthe
battle.Waskilledsoonafterwards.

GhoricontinuedtowarforcentralasiaandlostthefacetofacebattlewithKhwarizmis,leavinghim
toconcentrateonIndia,resultinginaTurkishstatebasedexclusivelyiniNdia.NeitherGhorinor
GhazniwasconcernedwithIslam,theyjustusedIslamtojustifyplunderingHindutemples.
DefeatofIndianrulerswasbecauseofsociopoliticalweaknessesandnotbecauseofinferior
weapons.IronstirrupswerepresentinIndiasince8thcentury,Indianbowsweremoreaccurateand
Indianswordsthebestintheworld.IndianshadtheadvantageofelephantsbutTurkshadhorses
whichwereswifter.Turksuccessescanbeattributedtosocialandorganizationalsuperiority.
FeudalismweakenedIndianstateswhereasiqtaandkhalisasystems(explainedlater)ofTurks
enabledthemtomaintainbigarmiesoverlongertimes.
TradeandCommerce
Periodofstagnationanddeclineearlier.Tradedecline=declineoftownsandcities.Reasons=
disintegrationofromanempireandoftheoldSassanidempireafterriseofIslamanddisruptionof
overlandtrade.ThischangedwithemergenceofArabempireinWestAsiaandnorthAfrica.Demand
forspicesledtorevivaloftradewithIndiaandSoutheastAsia(spiceislands)frommiddleof10th
centuryonwards.MalwaandGujaratbenefitedthemost.Alsobelievedthatmaterialprosperityof
SEasiawasbasedonintroductionofirrigatedricecultivationfromIndia.
DuetolesspopulationofnorthIndia,therewasagradualdeclineofinternaltradetooandledto
languishingoftradeguilds(shrenisandsanghas).Guilds=peoplebelongingtodifferentcastes,
havingownrulesofconductwhichtheywerelegallyboundtoobey,entitledtolendorborrow
moneyorreceiveendowments.Aftersometime,someoldershrenisemergedassubcastes(eg.
Dvadasashreni).Jainismalsoreceivedasetbackduetodecliningtrade.
Thisallalsoledtodeclineinthinkingoftheperiod.Dharmashastrasplacedabanoncrossingcertain
areasorgoingabroad.Althoughseveraltraderscontinuedtogotodifferentcountriesforbusiness
purposes,thesebansweremeanttodissuadepeoplefromgoingtoareasdominatedbyIslaminthe
westorBuddhismintheeastandbringingbackhereticalideaswhichwereunsuitedtobrahmanical
wayoflife.
PeculiarfeaturesoflanguageanddressesofSEAsiamentionedinBrihatkathakoshbyHarisena.
Indianmerchantswereorganizedintoguilds(ManigramanandNandesiguilds).Chinabecamethe
focusoftradeafterdeclineofromanempire.SpicesfromSEasia,ivoryfromAfrica,glasswarefrom
westasia,medicinalherbs,lac,incenseetc.Weretraded.DuetoIndiasmonsoonclimate,shipshad
towaitforlongperiodstotraveldirectlyfromAfricatoChina.So,India,andchieflyMalabarport
becameanimportantstagingcentreforgoodsfromAfrica,ChinaandSEAsia.FamousChineseport=
Canton(Kanfu).
JapaneserecordsgivecreditofintroducingcottoninJapantotwoIndians.Eventuallyby13th
century,Chinesegovt.Triedtorestricttheexportofgoldandsilverandstemtheirnegativebalance
oftradewithothercountries.IndianshipsgraduallydecreasedandmadewayforbetterAraband
Chineseships(hadprimitiveMarinerscompass).

GrowthofFeudalism
Riseofsamantas,ranak,rautta(rajput)etc.Theyweregovtservantspaidbyprovidingrevenue
bearingvillages,defeatedrajas,localhereditarychiefs,triballeaders.So,largetractsoflandwithina
kingdomconsistedofoldrulerswholookedtoreasserttheirindependence.Theserulerstookto
administeringjusticeandsublettinglandtopeoplebelowthemwithoutinformingtheking,resulting
infeudalsociety.
ProsProvidedsecuritytopeasantsinaconflictpronesociety.Feudalchiefssawandastheirown
andsomeconsequentlytookeffortstoextentcultivationandirrigation.
ConsWeakenedroyalauthority.Largefeudalarmiescouldturnagainstthekingatanytime.Small
statesdiscouragedtradeandpromotedlocalvillageeconomy.Feudaldominationalsoweakedlocal
government.
Conditionofthepeople:Nodeclineinhandicraftsandagricultureandmetallurgy.Feudalchiefs
assumedlargetitleslikemahasamantadhipati.Bigmerchantsalsoapedfeudalchiefsandkingsin
splendour.Millionaire=kotisvara.Thereweremanypoorpeople,however.Manypoorresortedto
robberyandplunder.Revenuefrompeasants=1/6thofproduce;butthereweremanyother
additionaltaxesandcesses.Theyalsohadtoundergoforcedlabour=vishti.Crops,granariesand
homeswerefrequentintimesofwarandincreasedtheburdenonthecommonman.
Castesystem:Wasthebasisofsociety.Disabilitiessufferedbylowercastesincreased.Intercaste
marriageswerefrownedupon.Almostallprofessionswerenowlabelledascastes(jati).Handicrafts
wereconsideredlowoccupationsandthesepeopleweretreatedasuntouchablesalongwithtribals.
Rajputsemergedasanewcaste.TracedtheirorigintosolarandlunardynastiesofMahabharatsbut
arebelievedtobedescendantsofScythiansandHunas.Overtime,allrulingclassesnotaffiliatedto
anycasteweretermedRajputandmadeKshatriyas.Casteswerenotrigid,theycouldriseorfallin
theirvarna.Earlier,peoplefromvariouscastesworkinginpalaces=kayasth.Later,theywere
recognizedasasinglecaste.Severaltribes,JainandBuddhistfollowerswerehinduizedandreligion
andsocietybecamemorecomplex.
Women:Consideredmentallyinferior.Meanttoobeyhusbandsblindly.MatsyaPuranaauthorizes
husbandtobeatwife.WerenotallowedtostudyVedas.Marriageableagereducedtobetween6
and1213,destroyingscopeforeducation.Remarriagewasallowed,butrarely.Distrustedingeneral
andkeptinseclusion.Women,includingwidows,weregivenwiderpropertyrights.Growthoffeudal
societystrengthenedtheconceptofprivateproperty.Satiwaspracticedinsomeplaces.
Food:Vegetarianismwasmainlypracticedbutmeateatingwaslawfuloncertainoccasions.Wine
wasdrunkonceremonialoccasions,evenbywomen.Fairs,festivals,excursionswerecommon
amongstcommonpeople.Kingsandprincesindulgedindicing,huntingandroyalpolo.
EducationandScience:Masseducationdidnotexist.Peoplelearntwhatwasnecessary.Reading
andwritingwasconfinedtoupperclasses.Templesmadearrangementsforhigherleveleducation.
Mainresponsibilitytoprovideeducation=respectiveguildsorfamilies.BranchesofVedasand
grammarwerestudied.Moreformaleducationwithemphasisonsecularsubjectsprovidedin
Buddhistmonasteries.Nalanda,VikramshilaandUddandapurainBiharwerefamous.Kashmirwas

anotherimportantcentre.Shaivasectsflourishedthere.Mutths(MaduraiandSringeri)weresetup
inSouthIndia.Sciencedeclined.Surgerydidnotadvancebecausedissectionwasconsideredthejob
forlowervarnas.LilawatiofBhaskarIIwasastandardtextforMaths.Medicineadvancedalittle
butnomethodforbreedingfinehorseswasfound,leavingIndiadependentoncentralasia.
Reasonsfordeclineinscience:Societystagnated,narrowerworldview,increasingorthodoxy,
setbacktourbanlife,insularnatureofIndians.AlbirunidescribesBrahminsofthattimeashaughty,
conceited,foolishandvain.
Religiousmovements:RevivalandexpansionofHinduismandcontinueddeclineofJainismand
Buddhism.ShivandVishnubecamepopularandothersbecamesubordinate.ShivandVishnusignify
thegrowthofculturalsynthesis.Religionplayedapositiveroleintheageofdisintegration.
OutbreaksofviolenceandforcibleoccupationatBuddhistandJaintemples.Buddhismconfinedto
easternIndia.Mahayanschoolroseandadoptedelaborateritualsandmantrasetc.,makingit
indistinguishablefromHinduism.
Jainismwaspopular.Mostmagnificenttemplesbuiltduring9thand10thcenturies.Highwatermark
forJainisminsouthindia.Later,growingrigidityandlossofroyalpatronageledtodecline.Dilwara
temple@MtAbu,Jainalayasasrestingplacesfortravellers,basadis(temples)andmahastambhs.
Revivalalsoincreasedpowerandarroganceofbrahmanas,resultinginpopularvedicworship
movementssuchas:
GorakhnathNathpanthisTantraandtantrismopentoall,manyfollowersoflowercastes.in
northIndia
BhaktimovementsinsouthIndiaNayanarsandAlvars(tackledearlier).
LingayatorVirShaivamovement(12thcent)BasavaandChannabasavawholivedincourtof
KalachurikingsofKtakareformist,opposedcastesandchildmarriageandfastsandsacrificesetc,
allowedwidowremarriage.
IntellectualmovementsagainstJainismandBuddhismalsoemerged,suchas:
Sankara(9thcent)Vedantaphilosophy(advaitavad/nondualism)upheldVedasasfountainheadof
trueknowledgeGodandcreatedworldareone,differencesarenotrealbutapparentdueto
ignorancesolutionwasdevotiontogodcouldnotappealsinceitwaslessunderstood.
Ramanuj(11thcent)bhakti+Vedantaqualifieddualismgodandcreatedworldaredifferent
withthepotentialtobeonegraceofgodmoreimportantforsalvationthanknowledgeofhim.
FollowedbyMadhvacharya(Dualism/Tattvavaad)earlier,andlaterbyRamananda,Vallabhacharya.
Bhaktibecameacceptabletoallsectionsbyearly16thcentury.

CholaEmpire[9thto12thcentury]
Arosein9thcentury.DevelopedlargenavyandconqueredSLandMaldives.ClimaxinSouthIndian
history.
Founder=Vijayalaya,afeudatoryofPallavas.CapturedTanjorein850.PandyasandPallavas
defeatedby9thcent.AndTamillandbroughtundercontrol.
Famousrulers=Rajaraja(9851014)andRajendraI(10141044).Rajarajaspreadkingdom
EVERYWHERE.Quilon,Madurai,partsofSL,Maldives,NWpartsofGangaregioninKtakaandVengi.
RajendraIcontinuedannexation.SL,PandyaandCheracountriestotallyoverrun.
Builtmanytemplestocommemoratevictories.Famous=Rajarajeshwaratemple@Tanjore
completedin1010.Longvictorynarrativesinscribedonwallsofthetemples.
ExploitsofRajendraI:MarchedacrossKalinga,crossedGangaandcapturedtwokings=assumed
titleGangaikondacholaandfoundedacityGangaikondacholapuramonmouthsofKaveri.Captured
KadaramandpartsofMalaypeninsulabymountinganexpeditiononrevivedSriVijayaempire.Both
hadcordialrelationsbutCholaswantedtoremovebarrierstotradewithChineseandalsoincrease
trade.
FoughtconstantlywithChalukyas(notofBadami,butofKalyani:P)overVengi(Rayalseems),
TungabhadradoabandNWKtaka.DestroyedPandyacitieandSLcapitalAnuradhapur.However,
onceconquered,Cholassetupsoundadministrationinthesecities.Stressedonlocalself
government.
CholasandChalukyasdeclinedby12thcentury.FormerwerereplacedbyPandyasandHoysalaswhile
thelatterwerereplacedbyYadavasandKakatiyas.Theyextendedpatronagetoartsbutconstantly
foughtoneanotherandwereconqueredbySultansonthebeginningof14thcentury.
Administration
Mandalams(provinces)valanaduNadu
Builtroyalroadfortravelandmovementofarmy.Builtwellsforirrigation.Officersdidelaborate
surveystofixlandrevenue.
Invillages,ur=generalassembly.
Sabhaormahasabha=committeeofadultmeninBrahmanavillages(agraharas).Thesevillages
enjoyedalotofautonomyandmembershadtoretireeverythreeyears.Mahasabhacouldsettle
newlands,adjudicatedisputes,raiseloansandlevytaxes.
Culturallife
Kingsmaintainedlargepalacesandbuilthugemonuments.
Templearchitectureattainedclimaxundercholas.CalledDravidastylebecauseitwasconfinedto
southindia.Mainfeatures=multistoreyedchiefdeityroom(garbhagriha)intheVimanastyle.
Pillaredhall=mandapplacedinfrontofgarbhagrihaandservedasaudiencehallandplacefor

culturalactivitieslikedancesperformedbydevdasis=womendedicatedtoserviceofgods.
Pradakshinapath(pathencirclingthegrbhagriha)wassometimesbuilt.Entirestructuresurrounded
byloftywallspiercedbytallgates=gopurams.Withpassageoftime,vimanasgrewhigherand
gopuramsgrewmoreelaborate,thusmakingthetempleaminiaturecity.Examples=Kailasnath
templeatKanchipuram(8thcentury),Brihadeswaratemple(Rajarajatemple)@TanjorebyRajaraja
IandRajarajeshwaratemple@Tanjore.
TemplebuildingcontinuedunderChalukyasandHoysalas.Hoysalesvaratemple@Halebid=
exampleofchalukyanstyle.Sculpturedpanelsshowdance,music,scenesofwaretc.Inadditionto
imagesofgodsandgoddessesandmenandwomen(yakshaandyakshini).
Sculpturesalsoattainedhighstandard.GiantstatueofGomateswaratSravanBelgola.Several
Natarajamasterpiecesalsomade.
Locallanguageliteraturesawgrowth.NayanarsandAlvarscomposedworksinTamil.Sanskrit
regardedlanguageofhighculture.WritingsofNayanarsandAlvarscompiled=Tirumurais=fifth
Vedas12thcentury.AgeofKamban=goldenageofTamilliterature.Kannadaliteraturealsogrew.
Rashtrakuta,ChalukyaandHoysalarulerspatronizedKannadaandTelugu.JainscholarsPampa,
PonnaandRanna=3gemsofKannadapoetry.AlsowroteonthemesofRamayanandMahabharat.

DelhiSultanate[12th14thcenturies]
Slaverule(IlbariTurks,MamelukTurks)
AibaksucceededGhoriin1206.Yalduz,anotherslaveofGhori,succeededhimatGhazni.Since
YalduzalsoclaimedruleoverDelhi,Aibakseveredtieswithhim,causingDelhiSultanatetodevelop
independentlyinsteadofbeingdraggedintocentralasianpolitics.
Iltutmish(121036)succeededAibak.ConsolidatedTurkishruleinNorthernIndia.Marchedto
LahoreandalsooccupiedMultanandUchchwhenKhwarizmistookoverGhazni.Khwarizmiswere
laterdefeatedbyMongols.RecoveredGwaliorandRanthambore.
Raziya(123639)succeededIltutmish.HerrulemarkedthestrugglebetweenmonarchyandTurkish
chiefs(chahalgani).ShestreamlinedadministrationandsentexpeditionstoRanthamboretocontrol
Rajputs.Facedrebellionfromorthodoxandconservativeelementsinthecourtandwascaptured.
Marriedhercaptor.Waslaterkilledbybandits.
Balban(1265)wasaTurkishchiefwhohadlongstruggledwithmonarchy,servedaswazirtothe
thenrulerandfinallyascendedin1265.Soughttoincreaseprestigeandpowerofmonarchy.
Centralization.ImportantpositionswereonlygiventoTurkishnoblesandIndianmuslimswere
excluded.Herefusedtosharepowerwithanyoneandwasdeterminedtobreaktheinfluenceof
chahalgani.Wasadespotandfollowedbloodandironpolicytomaintainlawandorder.Reorganized
military(diwaniarz)andinsistedonsijadaandpaibos(prostrationandkissingKingsfeet).Diedin
1286.

 ChangezKhandestroyedKhwarizmisin1220.Lootedandplunderedallcitiesinwestasia,
centralasia.Killedwomenandchildren.GoodcraftsmenwereincorporatedintoMongol
army.Duetothis,allscholarsandacademiciansmigratedtoIndia,thenthelastbastionfor
Islam.
MongolsattackedLahorein1241andcapturedit.InvestedMultanin1245andforced
Balbantomarchthere.BalbanuseddiplomacytocedemajorportionofPunjabtoMongols
inreturnfornotattackingDelhi.ButyearlyexpeditionswereneededtoensurethatMongols
complied.
IlKhanMongolofIranmaintainedgoodrelationswithSultanate.However,Chagatai
MongolsofEastmadeattempttoconquerIndiaandattackedDelhi.FirstattackbyIranian
MongolswasrepelledbyJalaluddinKhaljiandthesecondwasrepelledbyAlauddinKhalji.
Thelatternowtookstepstoraisealargearmy.
Mongolsceasedtobeathreatafter1306,untilTimurreunitedalltheMongols.Khaljis
broughtLahorebackintothekingdom.
TherewereinternalrebellionsintheSultanateaswell.Theywereeitherbypowerfulchiefs
inEast(Bengal)orSouth,orbylocalmuslimswantingpostswithinthecourt.After
Iltutmishsdeath,BengalgovernorsassertedtheirindependenceorsubmittedtoDelhi
dependingontheirconvenience.BalbanreassertedcontroloverBiharandBengal,butnot
forlong.HissonsetupanindependentdynastythatruledBengalfor40years.
TurksalsohadtobattleKatheriyarajputsacrosstheGangaandChauhansinRajasthanand
ChalukyasofGujarat.
Establishmentofstrongmonarchy,cessationofMongolthreatandconsolidationineastand
northledtoSultanatesexpansioninWestandDeccan.
Khaljis
JalaluddinKhalji(129096)rebelledagainstBalbansincompetentsuccessorsandascendedthe
throne.KhaljisweresoldiersinBalbansarmybutwerenotgivenduerecognition.Hereasonedthat
majorityofpopulationwasHindu,sorulecouldnotbeIslamic.Believedthatstateshouldbebased
onthewillingsupportofthegoverned.AllowednonTurkstoholdhighoffices.
AlauddinKhalji(12961316)usedruthlessnessandrepressiontoquellinternalrebellion.Heeven
gaveharshpunishmentstowivesandchildrenoftherebelsandmassacredtheMongolswhohad
settledinDelhi.Framedaseriesofregulationsforthenoblesnofestivitiesormarriagealliances
withouthispermission,banningofwineandintoxicantsetc.,makingthenoblessubservient.A
HinduconvertKhusrauascendedthethroneafterAlauddin.NizamuddinAuliyaacknowledged
Khusrausrule.MuslimsofDelhiwerenolongerswayedbyracialconsiderationsandwereaccepting
ofanyone.Thiswidenedsocialbaseofthenobility.
Tughlaqs
GhiyasuddinTughlaq(132024)establishedanewdynastyafterrevoltingagainstKhusrauandkilling
him.
MuhammadbinTughlaq(132451)seebelow.
FiruzShahTughlaq(135188)seebelow.

TimursinvasionofDelhiin1398markedtheendofTughlaqdynastybutotherminorrulersruledtill
1412.
Expansion,ReformsinandDisintegrationofDelhiSultanate
Expansion
1.DynastiesofGujarat,RajasthanandMalwawerealwaysatwar.InMaratharegion,Deogirwasat
warwithWarangalinTelanganaandHoysalasinKarnataka.HoysalaswereatwarwithPandyasin
TN.
2.TurkishreasonswantedtoconquerGujaratbecauseoffertileareaandaccesstoseatradedueto
westernports.Accesstolargeamountsofgoldandsilveraswellasaccesstogoodqualityhorsesto
counterriseofMongolswastheneedforcontrollingGujaratports.Alauddinsenttwogeneralsto
conquerGujarat.TheysackedAnhilwara,JaisalmerandSomnathandcollectedlargebooty.Gujarat
becameapartoftheempire,exceptSouthGujarat.
3.ThencameconsolidationofRajasthan.SuccessorsofPrithvirajChauhanruled.Mongolsoldiersof
KhaljisarmyrebelledandsoughtrefugewithChauhankingHamirdeva.KhaljiorderedHamirdevato
killorexpelthem.Onrefusal,hemarchedtoRanthambore.AmirKhusrauwentwithhimandhas
givenagraphicdescriptionofthefort.Jauhar(womensacrificingthemselvesinfuneralpyre)
happenedandmencameouttofight.ThisisthefirstdescriptionofJauharinPersian.Dated1301.
4.KhaljiinvestedChittorunderRatanSinghin1303.Rajputrulerswereallowedtorulebuthadto
payregulartributeandobeyorders.
5.ThencameDeccanandSouthIndia.FirstcampaignagainstRaiKaran,erstwhilerulerofGujarat
andsecondagainstRaiRamachandra,rulerofDeogir.MalikKafurledthesecondchargeandwas
victorious.AlliancewasforgedwithRaiRamachandra.TwocampaignsbykafurinSouthIndiab/w
130911.OneagainstWarangalandsecondagainstDwarSamudraandMabar(Ktka)andMadurai
(TN).KhusrauwroteaboutthesecampaignsandtheMalwacampaign.Kafurwasappointedmalik
naib(viceregent)oftheempirebyKhalji.Within15years,alltheseterritorieswerebroughtunder
directadministrationofDelhi.
6.AfterdeathofKhalji,successiverulersalsoadoptedforwardpolicies.TerritoriesofSultanate
reacheduptoMaduraiby1324.LastHinduprincipalityKampiliinSouthKtakawasannexedin
1328.
Thisextensiveexpansioncreatednumerousadministrativeandfinancialproblems.Thesewere
tackledthrough
ReformsIntheSultanate
1.Alauddinspolicyofmarketcontrol:Triedforthefirsttimeintheknownworld.Controlledprices
ofallcommodities.SetupthreemarketsatDelhioneforfoodgrains,secondforcostlyclothand
thirdforhorses,slavesandcattle.Eachmarketundercontrolofofficer=shahna.
Needtocontrolpricesbecause1.Toenjoypopularityamongcitizens.2.Lessandstableprices=
enoughfoodforlargearmy.3.Lowpricesofhorses=increasedefficiencyofarmy.4.Baranisays

majorobjectiveofmarketcontrol=punishingHinduswhoformedamajorityoflocaltradersthat
profitedfromincreasedfoodgrainprices.
KhaljiorderedthatrevenueofGangadoabwouldberaisedtohalfofproduceandpaidtostateand
notgivenasiqtatoanyone.Supplychainwasmanaged.Peasantswereaskedtopayincash,they
soldatlowpricestobanjaraswhosolditatfixedpricesinmarkets.Allagentswereregisteredand
theirfamiliesheldresponsibleincaseofviolationoflaw.
Raisingrevenueincash=payingsoldiersincash,beingthefirstsultantodoso.Unclearifmarket
controlappliedonlytoDelhiortoothercitiesaswell.
2.Landrevenueadministration:Firstsultantoinsistthatrevenuewouldbedecidedonbasisof
assessmentoflandundercultivation.Landlords(khuts/muqaddams)hadtopaysametaxesas
othersliketaxesonmilchcattle,houses.Amilsandotherofficialsweregivensufficientsalaries,
theiraccountswerestrictlyauditedandseverepunishmentwasgiventoensurehonesty.
3.MuhammadbinTughlaqsreforms:Paidakeeninterestinagriculture.Wellversedinreligionand
philosophyandconversedwithJainsaintslikeJinaprabhaSuri,inadditiontomuslimclerics.Was
hastyandimpatient.Termedillstarredidealist.TransferredcapitalfromDelhitoDeogir
(Daulatabad)inordertohaveabettercontroloversouthIndia.Causedlotsofdeathsanddiscontent
andhecouldnotcontrolnorthIndiafromDeogir.Theexperimentultimatelyfailed.
SeveralreligiousdivineshadsettledinDeogirafterthisexperiment.Theyspreadthecultural,
religiousandsocialideasofTurkstoSouthIndiaandcausedanewprocessofculturalinteraction.
TUghlaqintroducedtokencurrency.ChinasQublaiKhanhadsuccessfullyexperimentedwithit
earlier.MBTintroducedabronzecoinequivalenttosilvertanka.Hecouldntstoppeoplefrom
forgingnewcoins,whichresultedindevaluationofthecurrency.Ithadtobewithdrawn.Failureof
thesetwoexperimentsledtowastageofmoneyandreductioninsovereignsprestige.
Sinceearlytimes,attemptshadbeenmadebyIndiankingstosecurethescientificfrontier=
HindukushandKandahar.Thiswasneededbecauseonceinvaderscrossedthepassesin
Hindukush,itwaseasyforthemtobreachIndusandreachDelhi.Astrongarmyatthescientific
frontierwouldhelpinrepellingtheinvaders.
MBTalsorecruitedalargearmytodefendthisfrontierafterMongolsinvadedIndiaandreached
tillMeerut.AnotherexpeditionwaslaunchedinKumaonHillsinHimalayastocounterChinese
excursions.CalledtheQarachilexpedition.Kangrahillsalsosawanexpeditionandweresecured.
MBTfacedrebellionfrompeasantsofthedoab.Reasonswerefaultyassessmentofrevenueand
faminethatlastedfor6years.Reliefeffortscametoolate.Sohestartedreformstorejuvenate
agriculture.Establishednewdeprtment=diwaniamirikohi.Officialswereplacedinchargeof
blocksandtaskedwithprovidingloanstopeasantsandinducingthemtoproducesuperiorcrops
suchaswheatandgrapesinplaceofbarleyandsugarcane.Schemefailedbecauseofcorruption.
MBTalsofacedproblemswithnobility.NonturkswereallowedsincethetimeofKhaljis.MBTalso
includedforeigners,hindusandIndianconvertedmuslimsintonobility.Descendantsofearliernoble

familiesresentedit.Nobilityconsistedofdivergentsectionswhichdidnothaveanycohesionor
loyaltytowardsthesultan.Vastextentprovidedopportunitiesforrebellion.
DisintegrationofSultanate
ManyrebellionsindifferentpartsoftheempireinBengal,TN,Warangal,Kampili,Awadh,Gujarat
andSindhdueotspreadingdiscontentamongnoblesregardingMBTspolicies.MBTrushedfrom
placetoplacetoquellthese.Plaguebrokeoutinthearmyandalmost2/3rdperished.Meanwhile,
HariharandBukkarebelledandsetuptheVIjaynagarEmpirewhichsoonembracedentiresouth
India.SomeforeignnoblessetupprincipalitiesnearDaulatabadwhichexpandedintothe
Bahmaniempire.
MBTdiedwhilequellingrebellionsandwassucceededbyFiruz.Madenoefforttoreassert
sovereigntyoverSouth.LedtwoexpeditionstoBengalandfailed,resultinginlossofBengal.Led
campaignagainstJajnagar(Orissa)andplundereditbutdidnotannexit.Alsoledcampaignsin
KangrahillsandagainstrulersofGujarat.
FacedwithimminentbreakupofSultanate,hefollowedapolicyofappeasementofthenobles,army
andtheologians.Decreedtheiqtastobemadehereditaryandabolishedtorturingofnoblesincase
ofmismanagementofaccounts.Extendedhereditytoarmyandpaidsoldiersbyassignmentsofland
revenue.Toplacatetheologians,hepersecutedsectsthatwereconsideredheretical,banned
practicesconsideredunislamic.Jizyahbecameaseparatetax.Brahmanashadtopay.Women,
childrenanddependentswereexempt.
Wallpaintingsonpalacewallswereerased(unislamic)butorderedHindureligiousworkstobe
translatedtoPersianfromSanskrit.Abolishedinhumanpunishmentslikecuttingoflimbs.Setup
hospitalsforfreetreatmentofthepoorandorderedkotwalstomakealistofunemployedpeople.
Emphasizedthatstatewasnotmeantforawardingpunishmentsandcollectingtaxesbutwasalsoa
benevolentinstitution.SetupaPWDandbuiltmanycanals,longestbeing200kmsfromSutlejto
Hansi,forwatersupplytoseveralnewtownsHissarFiruzahandFiruzabad.
Orderedthatafterattackingapalace,handsomeboysshouldbesenttosultanasslaves.Thesewere
trainedinhandicraftsandsenttoworkshops(karkhanas)andmadeintosoldierscompletely
dependentonthesultan.Afterhisdeath,nobilityandgovernorsreassertedindependenceandthe
empirewasfurtherweakenedbyTimursinvasionofDelhiin1398.Theinvasionwasforplunderand
exposedtheweaknessesduetoabsenceofastrongstateinDelhi.TImurtooklargeamountsofgold,
silver,jewelsandalsocapableartisanstohelphimbuildhiscapitalSamarqand.
Government,economicandsociallifeunderSUltanate
Sultan
IncludedCaliphinthekhutbaandpledgedallegiancetohim,butthiswasamoralpositionandnota
legalone.Political,legalandmilitaryauthoritywasvestedinthesultan.Judgeswereappointedfor
dispensingjusticeandsultanactedasacourtofappeal.
Noclearlawofsuccessiondevelopedbecauseideaofprimogeniturewasnotacceptableeitherto
hindusormuslims.Militarystrengthandloyaltyofnobilityweremainfactorsinsuccessiontothe

throne,andbothcouldbebought.KhaljisbuiltanewtowncalledSiriafterdeposingBalbansince
theyfearedpublicopinion.
CentralAdministration
Definitesystemofadminemergedattheendof13thcentury.Keyfigure=wazir.HEwasearliera
militaryexpert,butconsideredanepertinrevenueaffairsby14thcentury.Auditorgeneral
(scrutinizingexpenditure)andaccountantgeneral(inspectingincome)workedunderthewazir.
Diwaniiarz=militarydepartment.Head=arizimamalik;notcommanderinchiefbuttaskedwith
recruitment,equippingandpayingthearmy.SetupforthefirsttimebyBalban.
Alauddinintroduceddagh(branding)systemsothatpoorqualityhorsescouldnotbebroughttothe
muster.
Diwanirisalat=departmentofreligiousmatters,piousfoundationsandstipendstoscholars.Head=
chiefsadr,whowasalsoaleadingqazi.
ChiefQazi=HeadofDept.OfJustice. Qazi=
dispensedcivillawbasedonsharia.
Criminaljusticesystemdependedontherulerofthetime.
Hindusweregovernedbytheirownpersonallawsdispensedbypanchayatsinthevillages.
Diwaniinsha=statecorrespondencedepartment.Informalandformalcommunicationbetween
thekingandothersovereignsaswellasthekingssubordinateswashandledthroughthisdivision.
Barids=intelligenceagentsdeployedaroundthekingdom.Noblemanwithfullconfidenceofthe
kingwouldbeappointedChiefBarid.
Householddepartment=lookedaftercomfortsofsultanandthewomen,supervisedroyal
workshops.Officerincharge=wakilidar.
LocalAdministration
Turksdividedterritoryintoiqtaswhichweredividedamongleadingnobles=muqtis/walis.These
tractslaterbecameprovinces=subas.Muqtismaintainedlawandorderandcollectedland
revenue.Maintainedarmyfromthatrevenueandgaveaportiontotheking.Withincreasingpower
ofsultan,muqtisweresupervisedmoreclosely,accountswereauditedandharshpunishmentswere
metedoutformalappropriation.SuchharshpunishmentswerephasedoutbyFiruzShahTughlaq.
Subas(provinces)Shiqs(~districts)Parganas(~agroupof100or84villages;calledChaurasi)
Subasundermuqtis,parganasunderAmils.Villagehadkhut(landowners)andmuqaddam
(headman).Accountant=patwari.Exactinformationonadministrationnotavailable.
EconomicandSocialLife:LittleisknownbutIbnBattuta,aresidentofTangier(Africa)visitedindia
in14thcenturyandstayedatMBTscourtfor8years.Leftbehindacolourfulaccount.Soilwas
fertileandboretwo,sometimesthree,crops.Sesame,sugarcaneandcottonformedthebasisfor
industrieslikeoilpressing,jiggeryproduction,weavingetc.

PeasantsandRuralGentry:Khutsandmuqaddamsenjoyedahigherstandardoflifecomparedto
otherpeasants.Theywereprosperousenoughtoridecostlyhorsesandwearfinecloothes.Alauddin
tooksternactionagainstthemandcurtailedtheirprivileges.
AutonomousrajasorHinduRaisenjoyedhighstandardoflife.
Trade,industryandMerchants:Tradeincreasedduetoimprovementincommunicationand
establishmentofcurrencybasedonsilvertankaandcopperdirham.Sultanatewasaflourishing
urbaneconomy.Bengal,Cambaywerefamousfortextiles,goldandsilver.Sonargaonwasfamous
forrawsilkandmuslin.PapermanufacturingwasintroducedinIndiabyTurks.Spinningwheelwas
introduced,aswasthecottoncartersbow(dhunia).
Tradinggroupsinvolved:
Coastaltradeandtradeb/wportsandnorthIndia=MarwarisandGujaratis,mostJain.Muslim
Bohrastoo.
Overlandtradewithcentralandwestasia=Multanis(hindus)andKhurasanis(afghans,Iraniansetc.)
GujaratiandMarwarimerchantsspentlargesumsforconstructionoftemples.Livedlavishlifestyles
andlivedinmanors.
Travelwasriskyduetorobbers,dacoitsandmaraudingtribes.Manysaraiswerethereforcomfortof
travellers.MBTbuiltaroadfromPeshawartoSonargaon(Bengal)andalsofromDelhito
Daulatabad.Horserelayswereusedfordeliveringposts,fruitsforthesultanetc.
Economiclifequickened.Growthofmetallurgicalindustriesandmetalcraftsduetolargescaleuse
ofarmouretc.Rahatwasimprovedandmadeiteasiertoliftwaterfromdeeperlevelsforirrigation.
ImprovedmortarenabledTurkstoerectlargerbuildingsbasedonarchanddome.
SultanandNobles:Livedopulentlifestyle.Sultangavenumerousgiftstonoblesduringhisbirthday,
navrozandannualcoronationday.Robesconsistedofclothvelvetandcostlymaterials.Royal
workshopsmanufacturedgoodsforuseofsultan.Theyalsocateredtoharam=chambercontaining
queens,femalerelativesandwomenfromvariouscountries.
TownLife:Manytownsgrewarounfmilitarygarrisons.Governmentservantsandclerkshadtoread
andwrite.Sinceeducationwasinthehandsofmuslimtheologians=ulama,bothofthemshared
identicalviews.Beggarsformedalargemassandcouldcreatelawandorderproblems.
Slavesanddomesticservantsformedasizeableproportionofpopulation.Positionsofdifferent
typesofslaveshasbeendiscussedinHindushastras.SlavemarketsexistedinIndiaaswellasWest
Asia.Theywereusedforpersonalservice,asartisansorassomeskilledlabourers.Slaveswere
betteroffthandomesticseevantssincethemasterswereobligedtoprovidefoodandsheltertothe
former.Slaveswereallowedtomarryandownpersonalproperty.
Medievalsocietycontainedmanyinequalities.
Caste,socialmannersandcustoms:Nochange.Brahmanasdominated,butwereallowedtoengage
inagriculturesinceofficiatingatsacrificesdidnotgenerateenoughincome.Shudrasweresupposed

toserveothercastesbutallowedtocarryoutanyoccupationexceptdealinginliquorandmeat.
ForbiddentolistentoorreciteVedas,butnotPuranas.Severestrestrictionsplacedonminglingwith
chandalasoroutcastes.
Littlechangeinpositionofwomen.Widowremarriageprohibited.Annulmentallowedinspecial
circumstances.Earlymarriageforgirlscontinued.Satiwasprevalentindifferentregionsofthe
country,butwithpermissionofSultan.PropertyrightsofwomenimprovedunderHindulaw.
PracticeofPurdahbecamewidespreadamongupperclasswomen,bothHinduandMuslim.This
mayhavebeendonetopreventcaptureofwomenbyinvaders.Mostimportantreasonwassocial
purdahsignifiedupperclass.
Muslimsocietyremaineddividedintoracialandethnicgroups.Turks,Iranians,AfghanisandIndian
muslimsdidnotintermarry.Hinduandmuslimupperclassesdidnotinteractmuchdueto
superiorityoflatterandrestrictionsonintermarryingandinterdining.Buttherewasnoclosureof
interaction,severalopportunitiesweretheresincehindusassistantswerehiredbymuslimnobles
andviceversa.Sometensionswerecreatedfromtimetotimeandthissloweddowntheprocessof
mutualunderstandingandculturalassimilation.
NatureofState:Turkishstatewasmilitaristicandaristocratic.FormallyIslamic.Rulersdidnot
violateIslamiclawandgrantedplacesofimportancetoIslamicdivinesandgrantedrentfree
revenuegeneratinglandstothem.However,thedivineswerenotallowedtoholdswayoverStates
policies.SultanshadtosupplementMuslimlawwiththeirownregulations(zawabit).SoBarani
refusedtoacknowledgeStateasIslamicbutinsistedthatitwasbasedonsecularconsiderations
(jahandari).
Hinduswereregardedasprotectedpeople(zimmis)whoacceptedmuslimruleandagreedtopay
Jizyah.Actuallyataxinlieuofmilitaryserviceandleviedaccordingtoonescapacity.Women,
children,dependentsandinitially,evenBrahmanaswereexempt.Collectedalongwithlandrevenue
andindistinguishablefromit.
Later,FiruzmadeJizyahaseparatetaxandlevieditonbrahmanas.Couldnotbeattributedasatool
forconversiontoIslam.Medievalstateswerenotbasedontheideaofequality,butonthenotion
ofprivileges.
ReligiousFreedom:Inerlyphaseofconquest,manyHindutemplesweresackedandplunderedand
religiousjustificationgivenforit.Manytempleswereconvertedintomosques.Examples=Quwwat
ulislammosquenearQutabMinarwasaVishnutemple.Innersanctumswerepulleddownanda
screenofarchescontainingQuranicverseswasputup.
Turksbuiltnewmosquesbutnonewtempleswerebuiltbecauseshariaprohibitednewplacesof
worshipinoppositiontoIslam.Repairofoldtempleswasallowedsincebuildingscouldnotlast
forever.SOtemplescouldbeerectedinvillagesandprivatehomes,wheretherewasnoIslam.This
wasrevokedinwartimes.Policyofbroadtolerancewasmaintaineddespiteprotestsfromorthodox
theology.

Simultanously,therewereinstancesofconversionofmuslimstoHinduism.Chaitanyaconverted
severalmuslimseventhoughthetheologyconsideredapostasytobeacapitalpunishment.
Conversionswerenotdonebysword.RulersrealiedHindufaithwastoostrongtobedestroyedby
force.ConversionstoIslamweredoneinhopesofpoliticalgainorsocialimprovement.Saintly
characterofsufisaintscreatedareceptiveclimateforislam.Discriminationtolowercastesof
hinduismdidnotresultinconversionstoislam.Conversionswerethusduetopersonal,politicaland
regionalfactors(Punjab,Bengaletc.)

Vijayanagar,BahmanidsandAdventofPortugese[13501565]
VijaynagarandBahmanikingdomsdominatedSouthofVindhyasformorethan200years.

Vijayanagarkingdom
HariharaandBukka.FeudatoriesofKakatiyasofWarangalandlaterministersinkingdomofKampili
(Ktaka).KampiliwasoverrunbyMBT,theywerecaptured,convertedandappointedtoquell
rebellionsthere.
SinceMuslimgovernorofMadurai,HoysalarulerofMysoreandrulerofWarangalhadalready
declaredindependencefromSultanate,H&BgotreadmittedtoHinduismbytheirguruVidyaranya,
andestablishedthecapitalatVijaynagarIn1336.
MaduraiandHoysalaswarredandthelatterlost.Hoysalakingdompassedintothehandsof
Vijaynagarrulersby1346.Waskindofacooperativecommonwealthatfirst.Bukkasucceeded
Hariharain1356andruledtill1377.WarredalotwithMadurai,ultimatelyremovingitby1377.
ThentheentireVijayanagarempireextendedtillRameshwaram,includingTNaswellasChera
(Kerala)country.FacedenemyintheformofBahmanikingdominthenorth.
Bahmanikingdom
Foundedin1347.AlaudinHasan,anAfghanadventurer(HasanGangu).AssumedtitleofAlauddin
HasanBahmanShah.FiruzShahBahmaniwasthemostprolificruler.
Commonhistory:
InterestsofVijayanagarandBahmanidsclashedinthreeareas:Tungabhadradoab,KGdeltaand
MArathwadacountry.Doabbecauseofwealthandeconomicresources,basinbecauseoffertile
delta,portsandMarathabecauseofaccesstoKonkanregionandports,especiallyforimportof
goodqualityofhorses.Militaryconflictsbetweenthetwokingdomscontinuedtilltheyexisted.

In1367,BukkaIkilledBahmanigarrison.Inresponse,Bahmanisultancrosseddoab,entered
VijayanagaranddefeatedBukkaI.Therewasuseofartilleryforthefirsttimeinthiswar.
VijayanagarfacedsetbacksduetosuperiorBahmanartilleryandefficientcavalry.Ultimately,there
wasastalemateandoriginalterritorieswererestored.Treatyalsolaidoutthathelplesspeasants
andwomenwouldnotbeharmedinthefutureandquarrelwouldbeminimized,seeingasthey
wereboundtobeneighboursfortheforeseeablefuture.
VijayanagarmadeeastwardexpansionunderHariharaII(13771406)Reddisonupperreachesof
deltaandKingdomofWarangal.OrissankingsandBahmanidswerealsointerestedinWarangal.
WarangalhadsignedanalliancewithBahmanidsthatlasted50yearsandpreventedVijayanagar
fromcapturingthedoaborputtingupadefenceoftheregion.However,HariharaIIwrestled
BelgaumandGoafromBahmanidsandsentanenvoytoSL.
WassucceededbyDevaRayaI(140422)whowasdefeatedbyBahmanikingFiruzShah(not
Tughlaq).MarriedhisdaughtertoFiruzandcededBankapurinthedoab.Notthefirstpolitical
marriage.RulerofKherlainGOndwanahadalsomarriedhisdaughtertoFiruz.
ConfusionoverReddisalliancewithWarangaltopartitionReddisbetweenthem.Warangals
defectionchangedbalanceofpower.DevaRayaIdefeatedFiruzandannexedterritoryuptomouth
ofKrishnariver.BuiltdamsacrossTungabhadraandHaridraforirrigationpurposes.
DevaRayaIIascendedin1425.Till1446.Greatestrulerofthedynasty.Inductedmuslimsinthearmy
andaskedhindusoldierstolearnarcheryfromtheminordertocombatsuperiorBahmanidarchers.
Crosseddoabtocapturelostterritoriesbutfailed.PortugesewriterNuniztellsthatkingsofQuilon,
SL,Pulicat,PeguandTenasserimpaidtributetoDevaRayaII.
Vijayanagar=mostpowerfulandwealthystateinsouthduringfirsthalfof15thcentury.NicoloConti
visitedduringDevaRayaIandAbdurRazzaqduringDevaRayaII.KingsofVijayanagarwerevery
wealthyandhoardedbullionwithinthepalace,whichwasacommonfeature.
FiruzShahBahmaniascendedin1397.Till1422.Wellacquaintedwithreligionandfondofnatural
sciences.Goodcalligraphistandpoet.WasdeterminedtomakeDeccantheculturalcentreofIndia.
DeclineofSultanatecausedmanylearnedmentomigratetoDeccan.InductedHindusintoBahmani
administrationonalargescale.
StartedexpansiontowardsBerarandKherla.ThenhappenedtheDevaRayaIepisodementioned
earlier.HadtoabdicateinfavourofWali(saint)AhmadShahI.InvadedWarangalinrevengeof
defection,defeatedandannexedit.ShiftedcapitalfromGulbargatoBidar.
LossofWarangaltoBahmanikingdomchangedbalanceofpowerinitsfavour.Kingdomexpanded
andreachedterritoriallimitsunderPMshipofMahmudGawan,whowasearliertheChiefof
merchants=MalikulTujjar.OverranDabholandGoa,causingincreasedtradefortheempire.
Gawanmadeeffortstosecurenorthernfrontiersoftheempire.WasaidedbyGujaratrulerwhile
defeatingMahmudKhaljiofMalwaoverBerar.Patternofstruggleinsouthindiadidnotallow
divisionsalongpoliticallines.Strategicadpoliticalconsiderationsovertradeandcommercewere

moreimportant.StrugglesofNorthandSouthwerenotinisolation.Orissankingsmadeinroadsto
asfarasMaduraionce.
Gawancarriedoutinternalreforms.Dividedkingdomsintoeighttarafs(provinces),eachgoverned
byatarafdar.Salrieswerepaidincashorbyassigningjagir.Atractoflandineachprovincewasset
asideforexpensesofthesultan(khalisa).SetupamagnificentmadrasaatBidarwheremany
scholarscameandstayed.
Bahmanikingdomfacedstrifeamongnobles.Weredividedintooldcomersandnewcomersor
DeccanisandAfaqis(gharibs).GawantriedtoconciliatewithDeccanisbutfailedandwaskilledin
1482.Soon,Bahmanikingdomsplitintofiveprincipalities:Golconda,Bijapur,Ahmadnagar,Berar
andBidar.Bahmanikingdomactedasaculturalbridgebetweennorthandsouth.
Duetoabsenceofprincipleofprimogeniture,civilwarwasfoughtforthethrone.Authorityofking
declinedtoKrnatakaandwesternAndhra.ThronewasusurpedbySaluva,whorestoredinternallaw
andorderandfoundedanewdynasty.TuluvasynastywasfoundedbyKrishnaDeva.KrishnaDeva
Raya(KDR)wasthegreatestfigureofthisdynasty.Healsohadtocontendwithsuccessorstatesof
BahmanikingdomandOrissa.
OrissawasforcedtocedeterritoriesuptoriverKrishnatoKDRwhothenturnedattentiontodoab.
BijapurandOrissaalignedagainstKDRbuttheentirealliancewasdefeatedbyKDRin1520andhe
occupiedBelgaumandBijapur,emergingasthestrongestmilitarypowerinthesouth.
Theseinternalfeudsledtoaneglectwithregardstoarrivalofportugese.KDRdidnotpayattention
todevelopmentofnavy,unlikeCholas.
AdministrationandCulturalLife
KDRbuiltnewtownnearVijayanagar.Duganenormoustankforirrigationpurposes.Wasagifted
scholarofTeluguandSanskrit.MarkedanewerainteluguliteraturewhereimitationofSanskrit
worksgaveplacetoindependentworks.Patronagewasextendedtotelugu,kannadaandtamil
poets.Wasbroadlytolerantandadministeredefficientjustice.
SadashivRayascendedandreignedtill1567.RealpowerlaywithRamaRajawhoenteredintoa
commercialtreatywithPortugeseandstoppedhorsesupplytoBijapurandtherebydefeatedthem
alongwithGolcondaandAhmadnagar.Later,thesethreealignedanddefeatedVijaynagarnear
Bannihattiin1565.ThismarkedtheendofVijayanagarempire.
ConceptofkingshipwashighamongstVijayanagarrulers.KingwasadvisedbyCoM.
Rajyasormandalam(provinces)nadu(district)sthala(subdistrict)grama(village).
CholatraditionofselfgovernmentwasweakenedbyVijayanagar.Princeswereappointed
governors,andlatervassals.Governorsenjoyedlargeautonomyandmaintainedownarmies.Were
allowedtoissueowncoinsofsmalldenomination.Hadtherighttoimposetaxes.Vijayanagarwas
moreofaconfederacythanacentralizedempire.Manyareaswereunderthecontrolofsubordinate
rulers.

Amarams(territories)withfixedrevenueweregrantedtomilitarychiefs(palaiyagars,palegars,
nayaks)whohadtomaintainafixednumberoffootsoldiers,horsesandelephantsandoayafixed
amounttocentre.Theybecamepowerful,assertedindependence(Tanjore,Madurai)and
contributedtothedownfalloftheempire.
NoideaabouteconomiclifeofpeasantsunderVijayanagaremoire,butitmustveremainedmoreor
lessthesame.Thatchedhuts,littleclothesabovethewaist.Upperclasspeopleworecostlyshoes
butdidnotcoverthemselvesabovethewaist.Allclassesofpeopleworeornaments.1/3rdofkuruvai
(atypeofrice)duringwinter,1/4thofsesame,ragi,horsegram.1/6thofmilletanddrylandcrops.
Variousothertaxessuchaspropertytax,professionaltax,militarycontribution,marriagetaxetc.
Nikitin(16thcenturytraveller)speaksoflargepopulationandprevalenceofinequality.Urbanlife
andtradegrew.Templeswereverylargeandtookpartinbothinternalandexternaltrade.
AdventofPortugese
VascodaGamalandedatCalicutin1498.FactorswhichboughtportugesetoIndia:
1.ExpansionofEuropeaneconomyandlandundercultivation,whichledtoriseofcitiesand
increaseintrade.
2.IncreaseinprosperityandthusthedemandforsilkfromChinaandspicesanddrugsfromIndia
andSEAsia.PepperwasneededtomakemeatpalatableandwasbroughtoverlandthroughLevant
andEgypt.WiththeriseofOttomanTurks,thisrouteprovedexpensiveduetomonopolizationof
thetransitroute.
3.GrowthandeasternexpansionofTurkishnavyandturningofMediterraneanintoaTurkishlake
alarmedtheEuropeans.SpainandPortugalhadtoincreasetheirnaviesinresponsetothisthreat.
4.TherearoseaspiritofadventurefuelledbyRenaissance,andledtosearchfornewlandand
explorationofhithertounknownregions.Thus,GenoeseColumbusdiscoveredUS.Portugeseruler
DomHenrique=HenryTheNavigatorwasexcitedaboutthesedevelopments.
5.HenrysentshipstodiscoverIndiainorderto:1.OusttheArabsandEuropeanrivalsfromrich
Easterntradeand2.CounterpoisethegrowingpowerofTurksbyconvertingtheheathensofAfrica
andAsiatoChristianity.
6.In1483,BatholomewDiazroundedtheCapeofGoodHopeandlaidthebasisofdirecttradelink
betweenEuropeandIndia.Longvoyagesweremadepossiblebynavigationcompassandastrolabe.

ZamorinallowedVascototakepeppersetc.Onhisships,whichwerelatersoldathighpricein
Portugal.ReasonforslowgrowthoftradewasthemonopolyexercisedbyPortugesegovernment.
Nottobeleftbehind,sultanofEgyptsentafleettoIndia,whichwassubsequentlyroutedby
Portugese.

Soonafter,AlbuquerquewasmadegovernorofeasternPortugesepossessionsandembarkedupon
apolicyofdominatingorientalcommercebysettingupportsatstrategiclocationsinAsiaandAfrica.
InitiatedthepolicybycapturingGoafromBijapurin1510.SackedBijapuriportsofDandaRajouri
andDabhol,setupfortsatColombo,Achin(Sumatra),Malaccaport,Socotra(mouthofredsea)and
Ormuz(entryintoPersiangulf).
FacedexternalchallengefromTurks,whoafterconqueringwesternEuropetillViennain1529,had
turnedtheirattentiontonavalwarfare.SultanofGujaratsentanembassytoOttomanrulerwho
agreedtofightthePortugeseandsubsequentlyremovedthemfromtheRedSea.TwoTurkswere
madegovernorsofSuratandDiu.Portugeseattackedtheseplacesandweredefeated,andsetup
theirfortatChaul,lowerdownthecoast.
ThencametheinternalthreatfromMughalsasHUmayunattackedGujarat.BahadurShahgranted
islandofBasseintoPortugeseinreturnforanallianceagainstMughals.APortugesefortwas
allowedatDiu.BahadurShahagainappealedtoOttomansultanforhelpbutwaskilledin1536
beforetheTurksmountedanavaloffensivewithalargenavyagainstthePortugeseatDiu.This
continuedfortwodecadestill1556,whenTurksandPortugeseagreedtosharethespicetradeand
nottoquarrelintheArabseas.
Evaluation:PortugesewerenotabletochangeAsiantradenetworks.GujaratisandArabs
dominatedthelucrativetradeintextiles,riceandsugar.Theywerenotevenabletomonopoliz
peppertradesincemughalsandsafavidsjointlyprotectedlandtraderoutesandanewsearoutevia
AchinandLakshwadeeptoRedSeawasarranged,wherePortugesecouldnotoperate.
PortugesewereabletoadverselyaffectMalabartradeandseatradefromBengal.Theyopenedup
IndiastradewithJapan,fromwhichcopperandsilverwereobtained.Theycouldnotactasabridge
fortransmittingEuropeanrenaissancescienceandtechtoIndia,mainlybecausetheythemselves
werenotaffectedandbecameagainstitlateronduetoCatholicinfluence(Jesuits).Introduced
potato,tobaccofromcentralAmericatoIndia.
DefeatofVijayanagaratBannihattiin1565emboldenedDeccanistatestostandagainstPortugese.
However,theywereunsuccessfulandPortugesemightprevailednearCalicutandMalabarcoast.

NorthIndia[14001525]
Timursinvasionin1398ledtodisintegrationofSultanate.Gujarat,Malwa,Jaunpur,Deccanstates,
Bengal,SindhandMultanbecameindependent,asdidthestatesofRajputana.
Balanceofpoweremerged.GujaratandMalwacheckedeachotherinthewest,Bengalwaschecked
byOrissa(Gajapatirulers)andJaunpur(EastUP).LodisinDelhiwarredwithJaunpurforcustodyof
GangaJamunavalley.Theyultimatelysucceeded.ExpandedtowardsRajasthanand
Malwa.StrufgfgleformasteryovermalwawasthecockpitforstruggleoverNorthIndia.RanaSanga
invitedBaburtowarwithLodis,thinkingthatthiswouldmakeMewarthestrongestpowerinthe
field.

Bengal,AssamandOrissa:BengalhadbeenmoreorlessindependentofDelhibecauseofits
distance,climateandaccessviawaterways.AfterShamsuddinIlyasKhan,anobleofMBTascended
thethroneandexpandedhisempiretillAssamandBanaras,FiruzTughlaqhadtobattlehim.A
treatyoffriendshipwasconcluded.FiruzagainattackedafterdeathofIlyas,butfailed.ThenBengal
wasleftalonefor200yearstill1538,whenMughalsestablishedtheirpowerandSherShahoverran
Bengal.
AzamShah,famousBengaliruler,hadrelationswithPersianpoetHafizofShiraz,aswellasfriendly
relationswiththeChinese.BuddhismhadnotcompletelydiedoutinBengaltillthen.Chittagong
portbecameaflourishingportfortradewithChina.TherewasabriefspellofHinduruleunderRaja
Ganesh.Hissonspreferredtoruleasmuslims.ThesesultanspatronizedgreatmenandBengali
language.AlsoshowedrespecttoVaishnavitesaintChaitanya.MaladharBasu=composerofSri
KrishnaVijaya.
TwokingdomsinAssam:Kamata(Kamrup)inwestandAhomintheeast.Latterwereamongoloid
tribefromnorthernBurmaandhadestablishedapowerfulkingdomin13thcentury,becoming
Hinduizedwithtime.TheywarredwitheachotherandoccasionallylistedthehelpofBengalimuslim
rulerstofurthertheirobjectives.Suhungmung=greatestAhomrulerwhoadoptedthenameof
SvargaNatayana.VaishnavitereformerShankaradevspreadVaishnavismintheareaduringthis
time.
OrissahadbeenplunderedtimeandagainbyTughlaqsandIlyasKhan(Bengal)Gajapatidynastywas
establishedandmarksabrilliantphaseinOrissahistory.ExtendedruletowardsKarnatakaand
conflictedwithReddis,VijayanagarandBahmanids.Couldnotholdonforalongtime.Hadnot
engagedBengalrulersbecauseofthelattersstrength,butconflictsarosefromtimetotime.
Gujarat,MalwaandMewar: