Writing Advice

Sometimes when we read an essay, it is difficult to identify the authors main point, called a
thesis statement or claim. Other times, it is difficult to evaluate the strength of a thesis statement
based on the power of the evidence. Still other times, it is difficult to evaluate how well the
evidence is appropriate for the claim, or how the evidence and the thesis statement are linked
together. To help resolve these problems, critics turn to Stephen Toulmins logical model of
argumentation. Students of communication should learn the Toulmin model so they can evaluate
the arguments that they encounter in daily life and also so they can strengthen their own abilities
to argue. In what follows, I am first going to discuss the parts of the Toulmin Model and then
apply the model to what is called prose, or how we talk about language structure in essays.
At its core, the Toulmin model has two main parts to evaluate an argument. First, Data (D)
represents the evidence provided by a writer to readers. Second, the Claim (C) represents the
main point of an essay, or its thesis statement. A speaker may say Data therefore Claim, or Claim
because Data. For example, say you had a friend who watched a lot of Netflix and you noticed
that this person was not keeping-up in his or her classes. That friend might turn to you in
frustration and complain I dont know why I did poorly on yesterdays quiz! And, you might
respond You just watched Netflix all weekend long. If you watched less TV, your grades would
improve. You just made an argument that worked as follows: (D) Forty eight hours were
recently spent on entertainment rather than on studies, therefore, (C) the low quiz grade reflects
the lack of time devoted to learning. Or, (C) the low quiz grade reflects the lack of time devoted
to learning, because, (D) forty eight hours were recently spent on entertainment rather than on
studies.
Notice how the evidence (D) and the thesis (C) are linked together by reasoning, which is called
the Warrant (W). A Warrant is the part of an argument that authorizes a mental leap which
advances what is believed from evidence to thesis. In the example above, the Warrant is unstated
and assumes that time spent studying rewards the student with greater knowledge of what is
studied. Such reasoning requires its own kind of evidence called Backing (B). Backing supports
the assumptions expressed in the Warrant. Such support may be a single item or an entire
argument in itself, complete with Data and Claim. Backing must be introduced when readers or
listeners are not willing to accept a Warrant on its face value. In this example, the Backing may
be your personal experience with time spent learning.
The next part of the Toulmin model is called Rebuttal (R). In the model, a Rebuttal is not a
comeback but a way to acknowledge that there are exceptions to the claim. The Rebuttal (R)
recognizes certain conditions under which the claim will not hold strong, or will hold strong in a
qualified and restricted way. By limiting the area to which the claim may legitimately be applied,
the Rebuttal anticipates certain objections which might otherwise be advanced against the
argument. In the example above, the Rebuttal might be something like You just watched Netflix
all weekend long. If you watched less TV, your grades would improve unless you were watching
educational material. The Rebuttal accounts for how the evidence might not fit the claim.

Writing Advice
The final part of the Toulmin model is the Qualifier (Q). The function of the Qualifier is to
announce the degree of force which the speaker believes her claim to possess. The Qualification
may be expressed in terms like possibly or probably. When the speaker believes her
argument is indisputable or irrefutable, she does not need a Qualifier. In the example, the
Qualifier might be something like You just watched Netflix all weekend long. If you watched
less TV, your grades would probably improve unless you were watching educational material.
The Qualifier acknowledges how your friend might still not be able to learn subject material
even with more time spent on studies.
Taken together, Data, Claim, Warrant, Backing, Rebuttal, and Qualifier represent the Toulmin
model. Whereas the model is designed to evaluate an argument that has already been made,
communication students should consider how these parts of argument apply to their own essays.
For example, lets say that you need to write an essay about study habits. The introduction would
need a thesis statement (Claim) that announces what you want your readers to accept. In my
introduction above, for example, I stated that students of communication should learn the
Toulmin model so they can evaluate the arguments that they encounter in daily life and also so
they can strengthen their own abilities to argue. To persuade your readers, moreover, you need
to structure the body of your prose around the evidence (Data) that you located in support of
your thesis statement. You would arrange your evidence according to reasons that clearly and
succinctly linked the evidence to the thesis statement (Warrant). Each body paragraph needs to
begin with a topic sentence that announces a sub-claim, a mini-argument that supports the thesis
statement. The sentences that follow the topic sentence need to convey and explain evidence that
supports the sub-claim, tied together by reasons. Moreover, your reasons might need to be
justified or explained with more reasons (Backing). You also need to limit the scope of your
thesis statement (Rebuttal), and acknowledge when it might not apply. Lastly, you also might
need to announce how confident you are in your overall argument (Qualifier).
In your think pieces this semester, I will read and grade your papers with these rules in mind. To
ensure that you receive full credit, I encourage you to italicize your thesis statements and subclaims.