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2.081J/16.230J Plates and Shells: Professor Tomasz Wierzbicki
2.081J/16.230J Plates and Shells: Professor Tomasz Wierzbicki
Contents
1 Strain-Displacement Relation for Plates
1.1 1-D Strain Measure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.1 Engineering Strain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.2 Green-Lagrangian Strain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2 3-D Strain Measure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.1 Derivation of Green-Lagrangian Strain Tensor for Plates
1.2.2 Specication of Strain-Displacement Relation for Plates
2 Derivation of Constitutive Equations for Plates
2.1 Denitions of Bending Moment and Axial Force .
2.2 Bending Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.1 Bending Moment . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.2 Bending Energy Density . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.3 Total Bending Energy . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3 Membrane Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3.1 Axial Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3.2 Membrane Energy Density . . . . . . . .
2.3.3 Total Membrane Energy . . . . . . . . . .
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10
10
10
10
11
13
14
14
14
16
Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2 Membrane Theory of Plates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2.1 Plate Membrane Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2.2 Plate Equation for the Circular Membrane . . . . . . . . . .
4.2.3 Example: Approximation Solution for the Clamped Membrane
4.3 Buckling Theory of Plates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.3.1 General Equation of Plate Buckling . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.3.2 Linearized Buckling Equation of Rectangular Plates . . . . .
4.3.3 Analysis of Rectangular Plates Buckling . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.3.4 Derivation of Raleigh-Ritz Quotient . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.3.5 Ultimate Strength of Plates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.3.6 Plastic Buckling of Plates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.3.7 Exercise 1: Eect of In-Plane Boundary Conditions, w = 0 .
4.3.8 Exercise 2: Raleigh-Ritz Quotient for Simply Supported Square
ii
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29
31
34
34
34
35
36
40
42
47
47
48
48
51
51
52
54
62
65
71
74
76
77
77
80
84
84
86
87
88
89
89
90
90
93
96
99
100
102
1.1
1.1.1
ds ds0
ds0
(1)
where ds0 is the increment of initial lenght and ds is the increment of current length.
1.1.2
Green-Lagrangian Strain
Instead of comparing the length, one can compare the square of lengths:
ds2 ds20
2ds20
ds ds0 ds + ds0
=
ds0
2ds0
E=
(2)
Where ds ds0 , the second term is Eq. (2) tends to unity, and the Green strain
measure and the engineering strain become identical. Equation (2) can be put into
an equivalnet form:
(3)
ds2 ds20 = 2Eds20
which will now be generalized to the 3-D case.
1.2
1.2.1
(4)
du
da
dx
x
a
Now, the squares of the initial and the current length increment can be written
in terms of ai and ui :
(5)
ds20 = dai daj ij
ds2 = dxi dxj ij
(6)
1 0 0
ij =
0 1 0
0 0 1
(7)
(8)
(9)
Using Eq. (8) and the denition of ij , the dierence in the length square can be
transformed into:
ds2 ds20 = (duj dai + dui daj + dui duj ) ij
(10)
where, by analogy with the 1-D case, the Lagrangian or Green strain tensor Eij is
dened:
1
(11)
Eij = (ui ,j +uj ,i +uk ,i uk ,j )
2
In the case of small displacement gradient (uk ,i 1), the second nonlinear term
can be neglected leading to the dention of the innitesimal strain tensor:
ij =
1
(ui ,j +uj ,i )
2
(12)
From the dention, the strain tensor is symmetric ij = ji , which can be seen by
intechanign the indices i for j and j for i. In the moderately large deection theory
of structures, the nonlinear terms are important. Therefore, Eq. (11) will be used
as a starting point in the development of the general theory of plates.
Components of Green-Lagrangian Strain Tensor Let dene the following
range convention for indices:
Greek letters: , , ... = 1, 2
Roman letters: i, j, ... = 1, 2, 3
With this range convention, the Roman letters are also written as:
i = , 3
(13)
j = , 3
The Lagrangian or Green strain tensor can be expressed:
E11
E12 # E13
#
E22 # E23 =
Eij = E21
" " " # " "
E31
E32 # E33
E
"
E 3
#
# E3
#
" #
"
# E33
u1
u
u
ui = u2 = v =
" " "
u3
w
w
where u is the in-plane components of the displacement vector, and u3 = w is the
out-of-plane components of the displacement vector and also called as the trans
verse displacement.
u3
middle
surface
Deformed Configuration
Assumptions of the von Karman Theory The von Karman thoery of mod
erately large deection of plates assumes:
1. The plate is thin. The thickness h is much smaller than the typical plate
dimension, h L.
2. The magnitude of the transverse deection is of the same order as the thickness
of plate, |w| = O (h). In practice, the present theory is still a good engineering
approximation for deections up to ten plate thickness.
4
(14)
z
5. The out-of-plane displacement is independent of the zcoordiante, i.e. u3 ,3 =
0.
1.2.2
1
(u , +u , +uk , uk , )
2
(15)
(16)
= u , u , +u3 , u3 ,
In the view of the Assumption 3, the rst term in the above equation is zero,
u , u , ' 0. Therefore, the 2-D in-plane components of strain tensor reads:
E =
1
(u , +u , +w, w, )
2
(17)
where w = u3 . Introducing Eq. (14) into Eq. (17), i.e. applying Love-Kirchho
hypothesis, one gets:
(18)
E = (u z w, ) , + u z w, , +w, w,
2
=
u , +u , 2 z w, +w, w,
2
=
u , +u , z w, + w, w,
2
(19)
+ z
E = E
(20)
1
1
=
u , +u , + w, w,
(21)
E
2
In the limiting case of small displacements, the second term can be neglected as
compared to the rst term. In the classical bending theory of plate, the in-plane
displacements are assumed to be zero u = 0 so that strains are only due to the
curvatue:
(22)
E = z
where
11 12
21 22
2w
x2
2w
xy
2w
xy
2 w
y2
=
w,
(23)
In the above equation, 11 and 22 are curvatures of the cylindrical bending, and
12 is the twist which tells how the slope in the xdirection changes with the
ydirection:
12 =
y x
for a cylinder
12 = 0
1
2
u , +u ,
Each component can
1
(u1 ,1 +u1 ,1 ) = u1 ,1 =
2
1
= (u2 ,2 +u2 ,2 ) = u2 ,2 =
2
11 =
22
12 |if
1
1
12 = (u1 ,2 +u2 ,1 ) =
2
2
1 du1
u2 =0 =
2 dy
du1
dx
du2
dy
du1 du2
+
dy
dx
(24)
(25)
(26)
u2 0
11
12
22
u1
Therefore, 11 and 22 are the tensile strain in the two directions, and 12 is the
change of angles, i.e. shear strain.
Interpretation of the nonlinear term: 12 w, w, Let = 1 and = 1.
Then, the nonlienar term reads:
1 dw 2
1
1 dw dw
w, w,
=
=
(27)
2 dx dx
2
2 dx
=1,=1
One can also obtain the same quantity by the dention of 1-D Green-Lagrangian
strain:
2
dx
ds0 = dx
ds 2 = ds02 + dw2
ds0
z, w
dw
ds
Thus, the conclusion is that the nonlinear term 12 w, w, represents the change of
length of the plate element due to nite rotations.
Out-Of-Plane Terms of the Strain Tensors Refering to the denition intro
duced in Section 1.2.1, there are three other componets of the strain tensor: E3 ,
E3 and E33 . Using the general expression for the components of the strain tensor,
Eq. (11), it can be shown that the application of Assumption 4 and 5 lead to the
following expressions:
1
(u3 , +u ,3 +uk ,3 uk , )
2
= [u3 , u3 , + (u3 ,1 u1 , u3 ,2 u2 , )]
2
= (u3 ,1 u1 , u3 ,2 u2 , )
2
= w, u ,
2
E3 =
1
(u ,3 +u3 , +uk , uk ,3 )
2
= (u1 , u3 ,1 u2 , u3 ,2 )
2
= w, u ,
2
E3 =
(29)
(30)
1
(u3 ,3 +u3 ,3 +uk ,3 uk ,3 )
2
i
1h
= u3 ,3 + (u1 ,3 )2 + (u2 ,3 )2 + (u3 ,3 )2
2
i
1h
(u1 ,3 )2 + (u2 ,3 )2
=
2
i
1h
(u3 ,1 )2 + (u3 ,2 )2
=
2
1
= w, w,
2
E33 =
(31)
The above are all second order terms which vanish for small deection theory of
plates. In the theory of moderately larege deection of plates, the out-of-plate shear
strains as well as the through-thickness strain is not zero. Therefore, an assumption
"plane remains plane," expressed by Eq. (14), does not mean that "normal remains
normal." The existance of the out-of-plane shear strain means that lines originally
normal to the middle surface do not remain normal to the deformed plate. However,
the incremental work of these strains with the corresponding stresses is negligible:
E3 3 , E3 3 and E33 33 , are small
(32)
2.1
(34)
In terms of components:
E
(xx + yy )
1 2
E
(yy + xx )
yy =
1 2
E
xy
xy =
1+
xx =
(35)
(36)
Z
h
2
h2
z dz
(37)
2.2
2.2.1
Z
h
2
h2
dz
(38)
Bending Energy
Bending Moment
h
2
h2
[(1 ) + ] z dz
E
=
(1 ) +
2
1
+
=
Z
h
[(1 ) + ]
1
2
h
2
h
2
h
2
Eh3
[(1 ) + ]
12 (1 2 )
10
z dz
z
2 dz
(39)
Eh3
12 (1 2 )
(40)
M = D [(1 ) + ]
M
where M12 = M21 due to symmetry.
M11 M12
M21 M22
(41)
(42)
M11 = D (11 + 22 )
(43)
M22 = D (22 + 11 )
M12 = D (1 ) 12
2.2.2
One -Dimensional Case Here, we use the hat notation for a function of certain
argument such as:
11 (11 )
M11 = M
(44)
= D 11
b reads :
Then, the bending energy density U
Z
11
b =
11 (11 ) d11
U
M
0
Z
11
11 d11
=D
(45)
1
11 )2
= D (
2
b = 1
M11
11
U
2
(46)
M11
D
11
d11
11
(47)
11
22
Calculate the energy density stored when the curvature reaches a given value
.
Consider a straight loading path:
=
(48)
d =
d
=1
=0
( )
M = M
(
=M
)
(
)
= M
12
(49)
Ub = M
Z 1
(
=
M
)
d
0
Z 1
= M (
)
d
(50)
1
)
= M
(
2
1
= M
2
U
2
D
=
[(1 )
+
]
2
i
D h
=
+ (
)2
(1 )
2
(51)
i
o
n
h
12 )2 + (
22 )2 + (
22 )2
11 +
(52)
(1 ) (
11 )2 + 2 (
n
h
i
o
(1 ) (
11 +
11 +
22 )2 2
11
22 + 2 (
12 )2 + (
22 )2
nh
i
h
io
(
11 +
11
22 )2 2
11
22 + 2 (
12 )2 2
22 + 2 (
12 )2
io
n
h
(
11 +
22 )2 2
11
22 + 2 (
12 )2 2
11
22 + 2 (
12 )2
n
io
h
(
11 +
22 )2 + 2 (1 )
11
22 + (
12 )2
n
h
io
b = D (
11 +
22 )2 2 (1 )
11
22 (
12 )2
U
2
2.2.3
(53)
The total bending energy is the integral of the bending energy density over the area
of plate:
Z
b dA
Ub =
(54)
U
S
13
2.3
2.3.1
Membrane Energy
Axial Force
N
=
1 2
E
1 2
h
2
h2
Z
h
2
h2
+
1 2
[(1 ) + ] dz
(55)
(1 ) + dz
h
2
h2
[(1 ) + ] z dz
Z h
2
E
dz
(1 )
+
1 2
h2
Z h
2
E
+
[(1 ) + ]
z dz
2
1
h2
Eh
=
(1 ) +
2
1
Eh
1 2
(56)
N = C
i
h
(1 ) +
N
N11 N12
N21 N22
N11 = C (11 + 22 )
N22 = C
(58)
(59)
(22
N12 = C (1
2.3.2
(57)
+ 11 )
) 11
Using the similar denition used in the calculation of the bending energy density,
the extension energy (membrane energy) reads:
I
m = N d
(60)
U
14
Calculate the energy stored when the extension reaches a given value . Consider
a straight loading path:
=
d
(61)
N = N
= N
= N
(62)
where N
is a homogeneous function of degree one.
m =
U
N
d
(63)
N
d
1
= N
2
1
= N
2
Now, the extension energy reads:
m = C (1 ) +
U
h
i
C
2
=
(1 ) +
2
(64)
n
h
i
o
m = C (1 ) (11 )2 + 2 (12 )2 + (22 )2 + (11 + 22 )2
(65)
U
2
i
o
n
h
C
=
(1 ) (11 + 22 )2 2 1122 + 2 (12 )2 + (11 + 22 )2
2
h
io
C n
(11 + 22 )2 2 1122 + 2 (12 )2 2 1122 + 2 (12 )2
=
2
h
io
C n
=
(11 + 22 )2 + 2 (1 ) 1122 + (12 )2
2
h
io
n
m = C ( + )2 2 (1 ) ( )2
U
11
22
11 22
12
2
15
(66)
2.3.3
The total membrane is the integral of the membrane energy density over the area
of plate::
Z
m dS
Um =
(67)
U
S
16
(68)
where Ub is the bending energy stored in the plate, and Vb is the work of external
forces.
Bending Energy
1
Ub =
2
=
Z
1
2
M dS
SZ
(69)
M w, dS
(70)
This is distributed load measured in [N/m2 ] or [lb/in2 ] force per unit area of the
middle surface of the plate.
q ( x)
(71)
where is the Dirac delta function, [x0, y0 ] is the coordinate of the application of
the concentrated force, and P0 is the load intensity.
17
Dirac -function
x0
NOTE The shearing loads on the lateral surface of ice are normally not consid
ered in the theory of thin plates.
Load Classication
Load applied at the horizontal surfaces.
transverse load
edge force
edge moment
in-plane tension
or compression
in-plane shear
dl
t
n
edge moment
(73)
where the minus sign is included because positive bending moment results in a
negative rotation and negative moment produces positive rotation.
Mnn < 0
Mnn > 0
dw
>0
dxn
dw
<0
dxn
w
At the edge, Mtt = 0 and Mtn = 0.
19
xn
(74)
Q2
Q1
x2
x1
Vn
Potential Energy due to All External Forces Now, the work of external
forces reads:
Z
Z
Z
dw
q w dS Mnn
dl + Vn w dl
(75)
Vb =
dxn
S
q w dS + Mnn
dl Vn w dl
dxn
S
Z
ZS
Z
dw
q w dS + Mnn
dl Vn w dl
dxn
S
(76)
(77)
We shall transform now the rst integral with the help of the Gauss theorem.
First note that from the rule of the product dierentiation:
M w, = (M w, ) , M , w,
then
M w, dS =
(M w, ) , dS
M , w, dS
(78)
(79)
Now, the rst integral on the right hand side of the above equation transforms to
the line integral:
Z
Z
Z
M w, dS =
M w, n dl M , w, dS
(80)
S
20
The integrand of the second integral on the right hand side of the above equation
transform to:
(81)
M , w, = (M , w) , M , w
which results in:
Z
Z
M w, dS = M w, n dl
S
Z
Z
(M , w) , dS + M , w dS
S
(82)
(83)
We can return now to the expression for and substitute there the transformed
rst integral:
Z
= (M , q) w dS
(84)
SZ
Z
+ M , w n dl Vn w dl
Z
Z
nn w,n dl
M w, n dl + M
dw
nn
where w,n = dx
. It is seen that integrals involving the prescribed forces M
n
and Vn are written in a local coordinate system x {xn , xt } while the remaining
two integrals over the contour are written in the global coordinate system x . In
order to make comparison, we have to decide on one coordinate system. We choose
the local system.
Consider the rst integral:
Z
(M , n ) w dl
(85)
The term in the parenthesis is a scalar quantity and thus remain unchanged with
respect to the rotation of coordinate system. In the local system x , the line
integral becomes:
Z
(M , n ) w dl
(86)
Z
= M1 , w dl
21
(88)
and we call it the shear force in the normal direction n and denote:
Qn Mn ,
= {1, 0} or {n, t}
(89)
Now, we can combine two line integrals in the equation of rst variation of the total
potential energy:
Z
Qn Vn w dl
(90)
(91)
Because it is a scalar quantity, we simply switch indices from global system ( and
) to local ( and ). As before n {1, 0} so after summing with respect to , we
have:
Z
Z
(M1 n1 + M2 n2 ) w, dl = M1 w, dl
(92)
Z
= Mn w, dl
Z
= (Mnn w,n +Mtn w,t ) dl
The rst term can be absorbed with the line integral representing potential energy
of bending moment:
Z
nn w,n dl
Mnn M
(93)
There remains though one integral which does not t to anything. Since the
boundary term must be equilibrated, it is suspected that this term might belong to
the shearing force term, at least partially:
Z
Mtn w,t dl
transverse term
(94)
In order to compare this term with the shearing force term, we have to make this
term comparable as far as the kinematic quantity describing variation is concerned.
One integral involves w and the other one w,t . Note that w,t = (w) /xt is
the derivative of the function w in the tangential direction, i.e. direction along the
curve . This means that we can integrate by parts along . Thus,
Mtn w,t = (Mtn w) ,t Mtn ,t w
22
(95)
Mtn w,t dl =
(Mtn w) ,t dl
Mtn ,t w dl
(96)
The rst term in the right hand is equal to the value of the integrand calculated at
the beginning and end of the integration path:
Z
(Mtn w) ,t dl = Mtn w|end
(97)
beginning
(98)
direction of
integration
end
begining
23
3.1.3
Now, we can write the nal expression for the rst variation of :
Z
= (M , q) w dS
S
Z
Z
nn w,n dl
+
Qn Vn w dl
Mnn M
Z
X
end
Mtn w|beginning Mtn ,t w dl
(100)
(M , q) w dS
Z
Z
nn w,n dl
+
Vn Vn w dl
Mnn M
X
end
Mtn w|beginning
on S
(101)
Boundary Conditions
3.1.4
nn = 0
Mnn M
Vn Vn = 0
or
or
w,n = 0
w = 0
Mnt = 0
or
w = 0
on
on
at corner points
of the contour
24
(102)
xt
yn
Boundary Conditions For edges parallel to x-axis, the normal direction is the
ydirection.
yy = 0
Myy M
or
Vy Vy = 0
or
w
=0
y
w=0
(103)
where
Myx
y
Mxy
Vy = Qy +
x
Vx = Qx +
(104)
xx = 0
Mxx M
Vx Vx = 0
or
or
w
=0
x
w=0
(105)
where
Mxy
x
Myx
Vx = Qx +
y
Vy = Qy +
25
(106)
segment [ k 1]
segment [ k ]
direction of
integration
4
Boundary condition reads:
X
[1]
[2]
[4]
[3]
[2]
Mtn w[1] + Mtn w[4] Mtn w[3]
Mtn w|end
beginning = Mtn w
(107)
where
thus
X
w[3] = w[2]
(108)
[1]
[3]
[2]
[4]
[1]
Mtn w|end
=
M
w
+
M
M
w[2] + Mtn w[4]
tn
tn
tn
beginning
(109)
[ k 1]
[k]
n = x, t = y
Mtn w|end
beginning
(110)
n = y, t = x
= (Mxy Myx ) w
(111)
symmetry
26
(112)
surface element
dS
xy
yx
Let us place the surface element at the corner.
x
y
xy
Edge
[ k 1]
yx
Edge
[k]
M xy
M yx
The shearing stresses produce twisting moments which are in the opposite direction:
[k1]
[k]
= Myx
Mxy
[k1]
[k]
Mtn w|end
w = 2 Mxy w = 0
=
M
M
xy
yx
beginning
Fcorner = 2 Mxy
27
(113)
(114)
(115)
2 M xy
2 Mxy
2 Mxy
2 M xy
x
y
dy
Qx
dy
M xy
M xy +
Equilibrium reads:
M xy
y
Mxy
dy Mxy
Qx dy + Mxy +
y
Mxy
dy
= Qx +
y
= Vx dy
Vx = Qx +
28
Mxy
y
dy
(116)
(117)
3.2
3.2.1
(118)
(119)
where
1
1
(u , +u , ) + w, w,
2
2
Potential Energy of External Forces Evaluation of Boundary Terms
=
nn un dl
N
(120)
(121)
tn ut dl
N
(122)
tn ut dl
Vm =
Nnn un dl + N
3.2.2
(123)
(124)
The rst parenthesis represent the terms considered already in the bending theory
of plates. All we have to do is to evaluate the term in the second parenthesis.
Here, the rst variation of the membrane energy reads:
Z
Um =
N dS
(125)
S
29
where
1
1
(u , +u , ) + (w, w, +w, w, )
2
2
Because of the symmetry of the tensor of membrane forces:
=
N = N
(126)
(127)
(128)
Z
1
1
(u , +u , ) + (w, w, +w, w, )
dS (129)
Um =
N
2
2
ZS
= (N u , +N w, w, ) dS
(130)
(131)
30
tn ut dl
Nnn un dl + N
Vm =
3.2.3
(134)
S
Z
Z
+ (Nnn w,n +Nnt w,t ) w dl (N w, ) , w dS
S
Z
Z
nn un dl N
tn ut dl
N
Z
Z
Z
tn ut dl
Nnn Nnn un dl +
Ntn N
= N , u dS +
Z
ZS
(N w, ) , w dS + (Nnn w,n +Nnt w,t ) w dl
S
31
on S
(136)
or
or
un = 0
ut = 0
on
on
(137)
(138)
on S
where the second term in the left hand is the new term arising from the nite
rotation.
The term with the line integral should be added to the corresponding term
involving variation w:
Z
or
w = 0
on
(140)
where the second and third terms in the left hand side of the rst equation are the
new terms arising from the nite rotation.
If the boundaries of the plate are kept undeformed w,t = 0 (simply supported
or clamped plate), then the boundary condition is satised:
Vn + Nnn w,n Vn = 0
or
w = 0 on
(141)
Physically, the additional terms represent the contribution of the axial force to the
vertical equilibrium. Using the in-plane equilibrium, N , = 0, the out-of-plane
equilibrium can be transformed to the form:
M , +N , w, +N w, +q = 0
32
on S
(142)
Equation of Equilibrium II
M , +N w, +q = 0
on S
(143)
which is called as the von Karman equation. Note that N is related through the
Hooks law with the gradient of the in-plane displacement u , i.e. N = N (u ).
Therefore, the new term N w, represents in fact coupling between in-plane and
out-out-plane deformation.
To make derivation complete, the nal boundary conditions which do not changed
from the bending theory of plate are presented:
Boundary Conditions II- (B)
nn = 0
Mnn M
or
w,n = 0
Mnt = 0
or
w = 0
33
on
at corner points
of the contour
(144)
4.1
4.1.1
M , +q = 0
on S
(145)
= w,
(146)
M = D [(1 ) + ]
(147)
(148)
(149)
D [(1 ) w, + w, ] + q = 0
Note that the components of the Kronecker " " tensor are constant and thus are
not subjected to dierentiation:
1 0
1
if =
or =
(150)
01
0
if 6=
Also, note that only these components:
(151)
survive in the matrix multiplication for which = . Therefore, Eq. (149) now
reads:
(152)
D [(1 ) w, + w, ] + q = 0
Because "" are "dummy" indices, they can be replaced by any other indices, for
example "."
(153)
D [(1 ) w, + w, ] + q = 0
The order of dierentiation does not matter:
w, = w, = w,
34
Thus, two terms in Eq. (153) can now be added to give the plate bending equation:
D w, = q
for , = 1, 2
(154)
(155)
4
w
4w
4w
= q (x, y)
D
+2 2 2 +
x4
x x
y4
(156)
(157)
2w 2w
+
x2
y 2
4 w = 2 2 w
2
2
= 2 2 w + 2 2 w
x
y
2
w 2w
2 2w 2w
= 2
+
+
+
x
x2
y2
y 2 x2
y 2
4
4
4
w
w
w
=
+2 2 2 +
4
x
x x
y 4
4.1.2
(158)
(159)
Denote
D w, = M
(160)
(161)
we obtain a system of two linear partial dierential equations of the second order:
M, = q
D w, = M
35
(162)
or
2M
2M
2 + y 2 = q
x
2
w
2w
+
= M
2
2
x
y
(163)
(164)
= D [(1 ) 11 + (11 + 22 ) 11 ]
+D [(1 ) 22 + (11 + 22 ) 22 ]
= D [(1 + ) (11 + 22 )]
= D (1 + )
or
M
= D = D w, = M
1+
(165)
Therefore,
M = M (1 + )
(166)
= D (1 + )
Now, moment sum reads:
M = D
(167)
M = D [xx + yy ]
(168)
4.1.3
Square plate ( a a)
a
a
y
36
nn w,n = 0 on
Mnn M
Vn Vn w = 0
on
nn = 0
M
w=0
w=0
Mxx = 0
Myy = 0
at
at
at
at
(169)
Mnn = 0 on
w=0
on
(170)
x = 0 and x = a , 0 y a
y = 0 and y = a , 0 x a
(171)
x = 0 and x = a , 0 y a
y = 0 and y = a , 0 x a
(172)
(174)
satisfy both the boundary conditions and the governing equations (see below).
Plate Bending Equation Substituting Eq. (173) and (174) into the plate bend
ing equation (156), one gets:
y
x
4 4
4
D w0
q0 sin
sin
= 0 (175)
+2
+
a
a
a
a
a
y
4
x
q0 sin
sin
=0
4 D w0
a
a
a
In order to satisfy the above equation for all values of x and y, the coecient in
the bracket must vanish. This gives:
q0 a 4
(176)
w0 =
4D
where D = Eh3 / 12 1 2 .
Bending Moments The various bending moments are given by:
2
y
x
2
w
2w
Mxx = D
sin
(177)
+
w
sin
=
D
(1
+
)
0
x2
y 2
a
a
a
2
x
y
2
w
2w
Myy = D
+
w
sin
sin
=
D
(1
+
)
0
y2
x2
a
a
a
2
2
y
w
x
= D (1 )
cos
w0 cos
Mxy = D (1 )
xy
a
a
a
37
(178)
Qx =
Now, using the previously obtained bending moments, we get the shear components
in the interior of the plate:
y
3
x
sin
(179)
w0 cos
Qx = 2 D
a
a
a
y
3
x
Qx = 2 D
w0 sin
cos
a
a
a
Eective Shear Components Next, let us computer the eective shear com
ponents:
Mxy
y
Mxy
Vy = Qy +
x
(180)
Vx = Qx +
0
y=a
positive shear
x
z
38
(181)
(182)
y
From the above results, we can plot the shear distribution:
Force Balance Integrating the eective shear along the boundary, we get:
Z a
Z a
Z
3
y
dy (183)
Vn dxt = 4
Vx |x=0 dy = 4 (3 ) D
w0
sin
R=
a
a
L
0
0
Then, the reduction force due to eective shear on boundaries reads:
R = 2 (3 ) q0
a 2
(184)
(185)
P = 4 q0
a 2
(186)
Notice that R and P do not balance! We did not include the corner forces. These
are given by:
(187)
(Fcorner )x0 ,y0 = 2 (Mxy )|x=x0 ,y=y0
39
Because of the symmetry, all four forces are equal. So, compute the corner force
at x = y = 0, (Fcorner )0,0 :
y i
x
cos
a
a
0,0
2
w0
= 2 D (1 )
a
(Fcorner )0,0 = 2
cos
(188)
R + 4 Fcorner = P
a 2
2
8 D (1 )
w0 = 4 q0
2
a 2
a 2
2 (3 ) q0
2 (1 ) q0
= 4 q0
2 (3 ) q0
4.1.4
a 2
(189)
(190)
Plate Solution For a square simply supported plate under loading qplate (x, y)
given by:
y
x
qplate (x, y) = (q0 )plate sin
sin
(191)
a
a
we found that the plate deection is:
y
x
wplate (x, y) = (w0 )plate sin
sin
(192)
a
a
with:
(q0 )plate a 4
4 D
2
3 1 (q0 )plate a 4
=
E h3
(w0 )plate =
= 4 (q0 )plate
40
(193)
(194)
Wide Beam Solution For a wide beam under line loading given by:
x
qbeam (x, y) = (q0 )beam sin
a
we need to compute the central deection (w0 )beam from:
0000
E I wbeam
= qbeam (x)
where I =
ah3 /12.
we get:
EI
Thus,
(196)
4
a
x
x
= (q0 )beam sin
a
a
(q0 )beam a 4
EI
12 (q0 )beam a 4
=
E a h3
Pplate = Pbeam
a 2
a
= 2 (q0 )beam
4 (q0 )plate
a
(q0 )beam = 2 (q0 )plate
24 (q0 )plate a 4
=
E h3
E h3
=
=
(w )
24 (q0 )plate a 4
0 beam
E h3
(195)
(197)
(198)
(199)
(200)
(201)
(202)
(203)
(204)
=
1 2 ' 0.36
8
The above equation means that under the same total load, a plate is three times
stier than a wide beam. The ratio will vary slightly depending on the load
distribution (sinusoidal, uniform, concentrated load, etc.).
41
(205)
(206)
M
= D
1+
(207)
on
Mnn = 0
on
(208)
n
y
dx
From the general constitutive equations,
w=0
d2 w
=0
dx2
(209)
Myy = D [yy + xx ]
0 = D [yy + 0]
xx = 0
(210)
(211)
yy = 0
Therefore,
M = D [ + ] = D [0 + 0] = 0
42
(212)
Similar derivation can be performed for two edges parallel to y-axis. Then, M =
0. It can be concluded that for a simply supported plate the following boundary
conditions hold:
( 2
2
M
+ yM
in S
2 = q
x2
(213)
M =0
on
(
2
2
w
+ yw2 = M
in S
D
x2
(214)
w=0
on
Therefore, the above two boundary value problems are uncoupled.
The Finite Dierence Technique An approximation to the rst and second
derivatives.
zn+1
zn
xn xn+1
m 1
h
n1
n, m
n+1
m+1
y
dz
backward zn zn1
'
dx n
h
f orward
dz
zn+1 zn
'
dx
h
n+1
43
(215)
d2 z
d dz
dx2
n dx dx
dz
dz
dx n+1 dx n
=
zn+1 zn
zn zhn1
h
=
h
zn+1 2 zn + zn1
=
h2
d2 z
zm+1 2 zm + zm1
=
2
dy m
h2
2z
2z
+ 2
2
x
y
1
= 2 (zn+1 2 zn + zn1 + zm+1 2 zm + zm1 )
h
2 z =
(216)
(217)
(218)
Top
h
h
Left
h
Right
Bottom
1
(zT + zB + zL + zR 4 z0 )
(219)
h2
Divide the plate into sixteen identical squares and distinguish six representative
nodes: three in the interior and three at the boundary. Because of symmetry, it is
enough to consider only an eighth of the plate.
2 z =
44
h=
a
4
Determination of Moment For each interior point (1, 2, 3), we write equation
2 M = q. For each boundary point (4, 5, 6), we write boundary condition
M = 0 (uniform pressure).
q a2
16
(220)
Point 1:
4 M2 4 M1 =
Point 2:
M1 + M4 + 2 M3 4 M2 =
Point 3:
2 M5 + 2 M2 4 M3 =
Point 4:
M4 = 0
Point 5:
M5 = 0
Point 6:
M6 = 0
45
q a2
16
q a2
16
Substituting three last equations of Eq. (220) into the rst three equations of Eq.
(220), one ends up with the following system of linear algebraic equations:
q a2
4 M2 4 M1 = 16
2
(221)
M1 + 2 M3 4 M2 = q16a
q a2
2 M2 4 M3 = 16
9
q a2
128
7
q a2
M2 =
128
11
q a2
M3 =
256
M1 =
(222)
Mxx + Myy
2 Mxx
=
1+
1+
Mxx =
1
(1 + ) M
2
(223)
(224)
Mxx =
(225)
This is 4.6% less than the exact solution which is (Mxx )exact = 0.0479 q a2 from
the text book.
Determination of Deection For each interior point (1, 2, 3), we write equation
2 w = M/D. For each boundary point (4, 5, 6), we write boundary condition
w = 0.
2
9 qa2
a
M1 a2
=
(226)
Point 1:
4 w2 4 w1 =
D 16
128 D
16
2
7 q a2
a
M2 a2
=
Point 2:
w1 + w4 + 2 w3 4 w2 =
D 16
128 D
16
2
2
2
11 q a
a
M3 a
=
Point 3:
2 w5 + 2 w2 4 w3 =
D 16
256 D
16
Point 4:
w4 = 0
Point 5:
w5 = 0
Point 6:
w6 = 0
46
Similarly,
9 qa4
4 w2 4 w1 = 2048 D
7
w1 + 2 w3 4 w2 = 2048
q
a
11
2 w2 4 w3 = 4096
D
q a4
D
(227)
q a4
33 q a4
= 0.00403
8196 D
D
3 q a4
q a4
w2 =
= 0.00293
1024 D
D
35 q a4
q a4
= 0.00214
w3 =
16384 D
D
w1 =
(228)
On the other hand, the exact deection of the center point is:
q a4
D
(229)
4.2
4.2.1
on S
(230)
on S
(231)
Strain-displacement relation
=
1
1
(u , +u , ) + w, w,
2
2
(232)
Constitutive equation
N = C (1 ) +
where C = Eh/ 1 2 .
(233)
Note that
4.2.2
Nrr
+ Nrr N = 0
r
on S
(234)
on S
(235)
w
r +r q =0
Nrr
r
r
Strain-displacement relation
(236)
Nrr = C [rr + ]
(237)
ur 1
rr =
+
r
2
ur
=
r
w
r
Constitutive equation
N = C [ + rr ]
4.2.3
where C = Eh/ 1 2 .
a
w0
w(r )
48
Membrane Solution From the symmetry and clamped boundary condition, the
radial displacement ur reads:
ur (r = 0) = 0
(238)
ur (r = a) = 0
Thus, as a rst approximation, it is appropriate to assume:
ur 0
for 0 r a
(239)
1
=
2
w
r
(240)
(241)
With the assumption ur = 0, the in-plane equilibrium equation can not be satised.
Consider out-of-plane equilibrium equation only. Substituting Eq. (240) and
(241) into Eq. (235), one gets:
"
#
C w 2 w
r = r q on S
(242)
r 2 r
r
Integrating both sides once with respect to r reads:
C
r
2
w
r
r2 q
+ c1
2
(243)
At the center of the membrane, the slope should be zero. Thus, one gets:
w
=0
at r = 0
r
c1 = 0
(244)
(245)
(246)
The integration constant c2 can be determined from the zero deection condition
at the clamped edge:
w=0
at r = a
r
3 3 q 4/3
a
c2 =
4
C
(247)
Recalling the denition of the axial rigidity C = Eh/ 1 2 , Eq. (246) can be
put into a nal form:
r
r 4/3
w 3 3 (1 2 ) q a
=
1
(248)
a 4
Eh
a
r
r 4/3
qa
3
' 0.73
1
Eh
a
In particular, the central deection w (r = 0) = w0 is related to the load intensity
by:
r
w0
qa
= 0.73 3
(249)
a
Eh
Bending Solution It is interesting to compare the bending and membrane re
sponse of the clamped circular plate. From the page 55 of Theory of Plates and
Shells (2nd Ed.) by Timoshenko and Woinowsky-Krieger, the central deection of
the plate is linearly related to the loading intensity:
q a3
w0
=
a 64D
3 1 2 q a 3
=
16 E
h
q a 3
' 0.17
E h
(250)
w0
qa
= 17
a
Eh
(251)
50
4.3
4.3.1
on S
(252)
on S
(253)
Strain-displacement relation
1
1
(u , +u , ) + w, w,
2
2
= w,
=
N = C (1 ) +
where D = Eh3 / 12 1 2 .
51
(254)
(255)
(256)
(257)
on S
(258)
(259)
Now, changing signs leads the general out-of-plane equation for the buckling of
the plates:
D w, N w, = 0
(260)
where the second term in the left hand is non-linear due to N which should be
obtained from:
N , = 0
4.3.2
(261)
The nonlinear buckling equation can be separated into two linear equations: one
for in-plane equation for N and another one for w.
52
x
Px
Px
b
ux
y
Px
Post-buckling
(w 0)
k
2
Pc
Pre-buckling
(w = 0)
k
ux
1 u u
1 w w
+
+
=
2 x
x
2 x x
(262)
Eh
(1
(263)
1 2
In the pre-buckling problem, the linear equilibrium equations are obtained by
omitting the nonlinear terms in the governing equations Eq. (260) and (261). The
resulting equations are now:
D w, = 0
N =
N , = 0
N , = 0
53
(264)
where
N =
Eh
(1 ) +
2
1
1
u u
2
x
x
(265)
(266)
nn un = 0
Nnn N
on
(267)
N = N
Boundary
Conditions
(268)
is dened as:
where membrane force tensor in the pre-buckling solution N
=N
xx N
xy
N
=
Nyx Nyy
(269)
(270)
54
x
Px
Px
b
y
Nxx Nxy
N =
Nyx Nyy
xx N
xy
N
Nyx Nyy
Px 1 0
b
0 0
(271)
Px
w,xx = 0
b
(272)
Boundary condition for this simply supported plate are written as:
w=0
on
Mnn = 0
on
(273)
(274)
on x = [0, a]
w = w,yy = 0
on x = [0, b]
(275)
satises both the dierential equation and the boundary conditions. Introduction
into Eq. (272) gives:
m 2 n 2 n 4 P m 2
m 4
x
+2
+
=0
(277)
D
a
a
b
b
b
a
a 2 m 2 n 2 2
Px
=D
+
b
m
a
b
(278)
where for the discrete values of Px Eq. (272) has nontrivial solutions. The critical
load can be determined by the smallest eigenvalue, i.e. n = 1 for all values of a:
"
#
a 2 m 2 1 2
Px
=D
+
(279)
b
m
a
b
"
2 #
1
2 D a b 2 m 2
+
= 2
b
m
a
b
a 2
2 D m b
= 2
+
b
a
mb
Now, the critical load (Px )cr can be written as:
(Px )cr = kc
where
kc =
2 D
b
mb
a
+
a
mb
(280)
(281)
56
12
For a given a/b, m may be chosen to yield the smallest eigenvalue. In order to
minimize kc in Eq. (281), treating m as a continuous variable produces:
mb
a
b
a
kc
=2
+
=0
(282)
a
mb
a b m2
m
where the rst bracket can not be zero, so the second bracket should be zero:
b a 1
=0
a b m2
(283)
a
b
kc = 4
(284)
Here, this is valid when a/b is integer and when considering a very long plates.
Transition from m to m+1 half-waves occurs when the two corresponding curves
have equal ordinates, i.e. from Eq. (281):
kc |m = kc |m+1
(m + 1) b
a
mb
a
+
=
+
a
mb
a
(m + 1) b
a p
= m (m + 1)
b
57
(285)
(286)
p
a
= m (m + 1)
b
Example 1 For m = 1, a/b =
(287)
Example 2 For a very large m, i.e. a very long plate, a/b ' m. Thus, kc = 4 is
now independent of m.
A very long plate buckles in half-waves, whose lengths approach the width of the
plate:
x
n y
sin
w = c1 sin
b
b
Thus, the buckled plate subdivides approximately into squares.
Various Boundary Conditions of Plate under In-Plane Compressive Load
ing The critical buckling load reads:
(Px )cr = kc
2 D
b
16
14
12
10
kc 8
ss
c
ss
free E
ss
free D
c
c
ss
4
Loaded edges clamped.
Loaded edges simply supported.
a
b
58
2 D
b2
15
2
rcr = D
kc
b2h
13
Clamped Edges
11
kc 9
Simply Supported Edges
7
a
x
b a 2
2 D
+
= 2
b
a b
2 D a 2 b a 2
+
= 2
a
b
a b
2 D
a 2 2
= 2
1+
a
b
(288)
If a/b 1, then the second term in the bracket can be neglected so that the
buckling load per unit length becomes:
(Nx )cr =
2 D
a2
60
cr
s
From the von Karman formula, the buckling load per unit length for each divided
part reads:
4 2 D
(Nx )cr =
s2
Now, the buckling stress can be calculated:
(Nx )cr
h
2
4 D
= 2
s h
( cr )longitudinal =
L
s
cr
From the Sezawas formula, the buckling load per unit length along the loaded edges
reads:
2 D
(Nx )cr = 2
s
Now, the buckling stress can be calculated:
(Nx )cr
h
2D
= 2
s h
( cr )transverse =
4.3.4
Recall the total potential energy of system and other corresponding denitions:
= (Ub Vb ) + (Um Vm )
(289)
where each term for buckling problems will be discussed in the following.
Term Relating to Plate Bending Response In the buckling problem, the
work done by external load causing bending response considered as zero:
Vb = 0
(290)
(292)
where I and II are the principal curvatures. For plates with straight edges,
Gaussian curvature vanishes, so one gets:
Z
D
(11 + 22 )2 dS
(293)
Ub =
2 S
The integrand of the above equation can be written in terms of the transverse
displacement:
2
(11 + 22 )2 = 2 w
2
(294)
= w w
2 w 2 w dS
62
(295)
= N
is determined from the
In the buckling problem, the axial force N
pre-buckling solution and is considered as constant, so the membrane energy reads:
Z
dS
(297)
Um = N
Z
1 (u , +u , ) + 1 w, w, dS
= N
2
2
ZS
Z
u , dS
w, w, dS
= N
N
2 S
S
Here, the rst term can be extended in a similar way shown in Eq. (132):
Z
Z
tn ut dl
u , dS =
nn un + N
N
N
S
Z
ZS
, u dS
N
tn ut dl
nn un + N
N
, = 0
N
Now, the membrane energy can be expressed:
Z
Z
tn ut dl
w, w, dS
nn un + N
Um =
N
N
2 S
w, w, dS
Um Vm =
N
Nnn un + Ntn ut dl
2 S
Z
Z
tn ut dl
Nnn un dl N
Z
Z
nn N
tn N
nn un dl
tn ut dl
N
N
=
w, w, dS
2 S
w, w,
=
N
2 S
(298)
(299)
(300)
(301)
Total Potential Energy and Its Variations Now, one gets the total potential
energy:
= (Ub Vb ) + (Um Vm )
Z
Z
D
2
2
w, w, dS
w w dS
=
N
2 S
2 S
2 2
D
=
w w + 2 w 2 w dS
2 S
Z
(w, w, +w, w, ) dS
N
2 S
Z
Z
2
2
w, w, dS
= D w w dS N
S
S
Z
Z
2
2
w, w, dS
= D w w dS N
S
(302)
(303)
w, w, dS
2 = D 2 w 2 w dS N
(304)
S
S
Z
Z
2
2
w, w, dS
D w w dS N
S
w=A
(306)
(307)
R
D S 2 (A ) 2 (A ) dS
= R
S N (A ) , (A ) , dS
R
D
A 2 A 2 dS
=R S
S N A , A , dS
R
2 2 dS
D
=R S
, , dS
N
S
64
(308)
2 2 dS
, , dS
N
(309)
D
S 2 2 dS
=
R
2
S (,x ) dS
N = =
01
D
S 2 2 dS
=
R
S , , dS
R
D
S 2 2 dS
i
=
R
h
2
2
(,
dS
)
+
(,
)
x
y
S
4.3.5
The onset of buckling stress cr does not necessarily means the total collapse of the
plate. Usually, there is redistribution of stresses, and the plate takes additional
load until the ultimate strength u is reached.
Von Karman Analysis of the Eective Width For a simply supported plate,
the buckling load is:
4 2 D
b
4 2 E h3
=
12 (1 2 ) b
Pcr =
4 2 E
=
2
12 (1 ) b
2
h
2 E
=
2
3 (1 ) b
65
(310)
(311)
(1.9)2
y b 2
E
2
h
b
(312)
(313)
cr
=
y
1.9
(314)
The relation between the normalized buckling stress versus is plotted in the next
gure.
1.9
66
(y)
b
y
Before Buckling
After Buckling
beff
2
y
beff
2
y
(y)
b
Actual Stress
The edge zones are at yield, i.e. cr / y = 1, but the width of the eective
portion of the plate is unknown:
cr
=
y
from which one obtains:
y
E
(1.9)2
2 = 1
bef f
h
bef f = 1.9 h
E
y
(315)
(316)
(317)
This is somehow high, but there is not much dierence from the empirically deter
mined values of bef f = 40h 50h.
67
(318)
P
bh
(319)
bef f
b
hp
= 1.9
E y
b
= y
(320)
(321)
The average ultimate stress is plotted with respect to in the next gure.
1.9
Comparison of the ultimate and buckling load solution is shown in the next
gure.
68
1.9
Under the uniaxial loading, the relation between an applied load and the cor
responding displacement is schematically shown all the way to collapse in the next
gure.
Px
Pu
Pcr
post-buckling
Px
Px
collapse
or crash
ux
pre-buckling
u
x
Empirical Formulas
Foulkner correction
u
2
1
= 2
y
69
(322)
gh2
A
E
y
!0.85
(323)
where g is the sum of the number of cuts and the number of anges after the
cuts, A is the cross sectional area A = bh, and the coecients 0.56 and 0.85
are empirical constants.
Example 6 Consider a plate which has one cut and two anges.
b
h
Then,
g =1+2 =3
Now,
s !0.85
3h2 E
bh y
s !0.85
h E
= 1.42
b y
u
= 0.56
y
1.42
0.85
Modications in Codes In the original von Karman formula, the eective width
ratio reads:
r
bef f
cr
=
(324)
b
y
In the ANSI specication, imperfection is considered:
r
r
bef f
cr
cr
=
1 0.218
b
y
y
(325)
70
(326)
eff
4.3.6
Stocky plates with low b/h ratio will yield before buckling at the point B. After
additional load, the plate will deform plastically on the path BC until conditions
are met for the plate to buckle in the plastic range.
1.9
Stowells Theory for the Buckling Strain Stowell developed the theory of
plastic buckling for simply-supported square plates loaded in one direction.
71
b
thickness h
y
The critical buckling strain cr was derived by him in the form:
i
p
2 h 2 h
2 + 1 + 3 (Et /Es )
cr =
9 b
(327)
where the tangent modulus Et and the secant modulus Es are dened by:
Et =
d
d
Es =
(328)
Et
y
Es
= r
r
(329)
where r and r are the reference stress and strain. Now, the tangent and secant
modulus are:
r n1
d
Et =
=n
(330)
d
r r
r n1
Es = =
r r
72
Substituting these expression back into the buckling equation (327), one gets:
cr
2
=
9
h
2 + 1 + 3n
b
(331)
2
h
= 3.7
b
(332)
E
(xx + yy )
1 2
E
(yy + xx )
yy =
1 2
xx =
(333)
Using the solution for the pre-buckling state, i.e. xx = cr and yy = 0 leads:
E
(xx + yy )
1 2
E
0=
(yy + xx )
1 2
cr =
(334)
(335)
cr = Exx = Ecr
The critical elastic buckling stress is:
cr
2 E
= kc
12 (1 2 )
2
h
b
(336)
2
= kc
12 (1 2 )
2
h
b
(337)
Equation (337) is more general than a similar expression Eq. (327) given by
the Stowell theory because it applies to all type of boundary conditions. At the
73
same time, Stowells equation was derived only for the simply supported boundary
conditions. In particular, for kc = 4, Eq. (337) predicts:
cr
2
h
= 3.6
b
(338)
which should be compared with the coecient 3.7 of Eq. (332) in the Stowells
theory. For a plastic material or very high hardening exponent, the prediction of
both method are much closer.
4.3.7
expansion due to
Poison's effect
uy
a
ND
ND
a
ux
y
N 0
0 0
(339)
Eh
yy + xx = 0 = Nyy
2
1
=
yy = xx
Nyy =
(340)
By applying the geometric equation between strain and the displacement and con
sidering w = 0, here, one gets the relation between ux and uy :
uy
ux
=
y
x
74
(341)
(342)
x
D
N xx
= ND
ND
ND
a
ux
y
Consequently, one also gets:
yy =
uy
=0
y
(343)
ux
ux
=
x
a
(344)
Eh ux
Eh
xx + yy =
= Nxx
2
1
1 2 a
Eh
ux
Eh
Nyy =
= Nyy
yy + xx =
2
2
1
1
a
Nxx =
Nxx 0
=
1 0
N =
0 Nyy
where
Eh ux
1 2 a
75
(345)
(346)
(347)
a
ND
x
ND
a
y
1 0
N = N =
00
1 0
0 0
(348)
The plate will deform into a dish, so for the trial function take the following:
sin
,x = cos
a
ax
ay
,y = sin
cos
a
a
a
y
x
sin
a
a
a
y
2
x
,yy =
sin
sin
a
a
a
,xx =
sin
2 = ,xx +,yy
2
y
x
= 2
sin
sin
a
a
a
4
y
x
2 2 = 4
sin2
sin2
a
a
a
76
(350)
(351)
(352)
(353)
N = =
R
2
S (,x ) dS
4 R
4D a
sin2 ax sin2 ay dS
S
= 2 R
2 x sin2 y dS
a
a
S cos
a
2
= 4D
a
Ncr
= = 4D
(354)
(355)
This is the classical buckling solution, and it is exact because of the right guess of
the displacement eld.
4.4
4.4.1
Buckling of Sections
Transition from Global and Local Buckling
2 EI
l2
(356)
where I is the bending rigidity of the column. Consider a section column which is
composed of several thin plates, then the Euler buckling load can be considered as
a global buckling load of the column.
( Pcr )column
EI
77
kc 2 D
b2
(357)
kc 2 D
b
(358)
N cr
h
a
EI
2 D
=
k
c
l2
b
kc 2 E h3
=
12 (1 2 ) b
I
kc
=
3
bh
12 (1 2 )
Example 7 Consider a square box column.
78
2
l
b
(359)
(360)
I
2 2 E hb3
=
l2
3 l2
and the local buckling load from four plates can be calculated:
(Pcr )f our plates =
4kc 2 E h3
12 (1 2 ) b
b2
hl
' 2.20
Thus, the local and global buckling loads become same when
b2 ' 1.5hl
For example, if b = 40h, then l = 60b.
Transition from the local to global buckling for an open channel section with
lips is shown in the gure below.
79
4.4.2
Local Buckling
The remainder of this section deals only with the local buckling. Dividing both
sides of Eq. (357) by the plate thickness b gives the expression of the buckling stress
cr :
2
h
Ncr
kc 2 E
=
(361)
cr =
2
h
12 (1 ) b
Consider two adjacent plates of a section of the prismatic column.
P late 1
h1
b1
h2
b2
P late 2
In general, there will be a restraining moment acting at the corner line between
80
P late 1 and P late 2. The buckling stresses for those two plates are:
2
h1
k1 2 E
( cr )1 =
2
12 (1 ) b1
2
h2
k2 2 E
( cr )2 =
2
12 (1 ) b2
(362)
Before buckling, stresses in the entire cross-section are the same. So, at the point
of buckling, one gets:
(363)
( cr )1 = ( cr )2
from which the buckling coecient k2 is relating to k1 :
h1 b2 2
k2 = k1
h2 b1
(364)
h1 b2 2 (h2 )3
(h1 )3
2 E
=
+ k1
k1
12 (1 2 )
b1
h2 b1
b2
h1 2
2 Ek1
=
A
12 (1 2 ) b1
(365)
where A is the sectional area of two plate A = b1 h1 +b2 h2 . From this derivation, the
conclusion is that only one buckling coecient is needed to calculate the buckling
load of the section consisting of several plates.
Determination of the buckling coecient is a bit more complicated because of
the existence of the edge bending moment. This can be illustrated in an example
of a box column with a rectangular cross section with the same thickness h.
b1
b2
uniform thickness h
The wider ange will be ready to buckling rst while the narrow plate is not ready
81
to buckle. When the second plate buckles, the rst plate would have buckled long
before. Thus, there is an interaction between left plates, and a compromise must
be established because left plates must buckle at the same time. The buckling
coecient as a function of the ratio b2 /b1 is plotted in the gure next.
h
h
In the limiting case of a square box (b1 = b2 = b), k1 = 4 and the edge interactive
moment between adjacent plates is zero.
Some useful graphs and formulas for typical sections are given next.
82
83
5
5.1
The starting point of the analysis is the strain-displacement relation for plates:
1
1
(u , +u , ) + w, w,
2
2
= w,
=
(366)
Consider a at plate (x, y) and a segment of a cylinder (x, a), where a is the radius
of a cylinder and is the hoop coordinate.
a
x
a
y
(368)
(369)
in the length of circumference when the original circle has a radius of "a" before
deformation and a new circle has a radius of "a + w" after deformation:
=
w
2 (a + w) 2a
=
2a
a
(373)
(374)
y = r cos
The step-by-step derivation can be found, for example, in the book by Y.C. Fung,
"First Course in the Continuum Mechanics." The expression for curvature are
transformed in a similar way:
xx = w,xx
w,
= 2
a
w,x
x =
a
(375)
Using the variational approach explained in details for the plate problem, one can
see that the only new term in the expression for = 0 is
Z
w
dS
(376)
N
a
S
Therefore, the new term should be added in the equation for out-of-plane equilib
rium:
1
2
1
4
D w + N Nxx w,xx + Nx w,x + 2 N w, = q
(377)
a
a
a
where
4 w = w,xxxx +
2
1
w,xx + 4 w,
2
a
a
85
(378)
The above equations are the nonlinear equilibrium equations for quasi-shallow cylin
drical shells. The linear equilibrium equations are obtained by omission the non
linear terms, i.e. terms in the parenthesis. The resulting equations are:
aNxx ,x +Nx , = 0
(379)
aN ,x +N , = 0
1
D4 w + N = q
a
with
w
Nxx = C u,x +
(380)
a
w
0
N = C
+ u,x
a
.
N
5.1.1
N
=
2a
0 0
(381)
P
x
2ahE
Pl
w=
E 2ah
(382)
u (x) =
u ( l)
x
a
It is easy to prove that the above solution satises all eld equation.
86
5.1.2
N = N
01
(383)
w
a
(384)
Substituting Eq. (384) into Eq. (379) leads the following linear forth order inho
mogeneous ordinary dierential equation for w (x):
Dw0000 +
Ehw
=q
a2
(385)
or in a dimensionless form:
d4 w
q
(386)
+ 4 4 w =
4
D
dx
where
3 1 2
Eh
4
= 2 =
(387)
a D
a
2 h4
The dimension of is [L1 M 0 T 0 ], so x is dimensionless. There are four boundary
conditions for a simply supported cylinder:
Mxx = w = 0
at
x=0
Mxx = w = 0
at
x=l
(388)
d2 w
dx2
(389)
M = 0
The general solutions of the above boundary value problem is:
w (x) = ex [c1 sin x + c2 cos x] + ex [c3 sin x + c4 cos x]
q
D4 4
(390)
The four integration constants can be found from the boundary conditions.
typical term of the solution is a rapidly decaying function of x.
87
For the sake of simplicity, this localized bending can be neglected (D 0).
Then, from Eq. (379), the hoop membrane force is related to the lateral pressure
by N = qa and the pre-buckling solution is:
0 0
(392)
N = qa
01
5.1.3
For a cylinder subjected to the hydrostatic pressure, the total axial compressive
force is:
P = qa2
(393)
1/2 0
= qa
0 1
(394)
5.1.4
The pre-buckling stress in a cylinder subjected to the total torque of the magnitude
T is:
M 0 1
(395)
=
N
2a
1 0
x
a
N x
5.2
We are now in the position to linearize the nonlinear buckling equation Eq. (377).
It is assumed that the state of membrane forces does not change at the point of
buckling from the pre-buckling value. Thus,
N = N
(396)
1
2
1
a
a
a
(397)
where the hoop membrane force N , the second term in Eq. (397), depends linearly
on three component of the displacement vector (u, v, w):
1
w
(398)
N =
C
v, + + u,x
a
a
89
Therefore, the out-of-plane equilibrium equation is coupled with the in-plane dis
placement (u, v) through the presence of the term N . Note that in the plate
buckling problem the in-plane and out-of-plane response was uncoupled. It is
possible to eliminate the terms involving in-plane components using the full set of
equilibrium and constitutive equations in the in-plane direction. By doing this, the
order of the governing equation has to be raised by four to give eight:
1 2
2
1
8
4
5.3
5.3.1
We are now in a position to develop solutions to the buckling equations, Eq. (399)
for four dierent loading cases discussed in the previous section. Consider rst
Case I of a simply-supported cylindrical shell in which the pre-buckling solution is
given by Eq. (381). In this case, Eq. (399) reduces to:
D8 w +
1 2
P 4
w,xx = 0
Cw,xxxx +
a2
2a
(400)
(401)
where c1 is the magnitude, and the integer numbers (m, n) denote the number
of half-waves respectively in the axial and circumferential direction. The above
deformation satises both simply-supported boundary conditions at the ends, x = 0
and x = L, and periodicity conditions along the circumference.
Here, the half-length of the buckling wave is dened:
=
l
m
l
l
a
a
ma
m
=
l
90
(402)
(403)
Using the dimensionless buckling number, substituting the solution Eq. (401)
into the governing equation Eq. (400) leads:
P 2
D 2
4
2 4
2
2 2 2 c1
+
m
1
n
m
sin
m
sin (n) = 0
m
+
n
+
a2
2a
a6
a
(404)
By setting the coecient in the square bracket to zero, the critical buckling mem
brane force per unit length becomes:
Pcr
2a
2
2
+ n2
D m
m
2
2
+
1
= 2
C
a
m
2
(m
2 + n2 )2
Ncr =
(405)
D
(407)
Ncr = 2 + 1 2 C
a
The dependence of the buckling force on the parameter is shown in the gure
below.
91
(408)
(409)
Introducing the expression for the optimum parameter into Eq. (407) and using
denitions of bending and axial rigidity, one gets:
h2
E
(Ncr )min = p
3 (1 2 ) a
(410)
The buckling stress is obtained by dividing the critical membrane fore by the shell
thickness h:
(Ncr )min
h
E
h
=p
2
3 (1 ) a
cr =
cr ' 0.605 E
h
a
(411)
(412)
This is the classical solution for the buckling stress of a cylindrical shell subjected
to axial compression. While the buckling load is unique and does not depend on
(m
, n), the buckling mode is not unique as:
opt
2
2
m
+ n2
a
=
= 3.3
m
2
h
' 21
m
92
(413)
n=
5.3.2
p
21m
m
2
hl2
2 D
(414)
p
l2
1 2
ah
(415)
(416)
(417)
This relation between kc and Z are shown in the gure below together with two
limiting cases of very short and very long cylindrical shells. These two limiting
cases are discussed below.
93
(418)
l
Then, it is natural to assume that the number of half-waves in the axial direction
is unity:
m=1
Consequently, one gets:
l
is much larger than n, one also gets:
Since m
m
=
(419)
m
2 + n2 ' m
2
(420)
94
2
m
D
= 2
a
2 D
= 2
l
Ncr =
(421)
kc = 1
This solution indicated in previous gure as the lower bound cut-o value.
upper bound cut-o values is given by the Euler buckling load.
The
2 EI
l2
95
(422)
cr =
(423)
For this very long cylindrical shells, the buckling coecient can be written:
a 2
kc = 6 1 2
h
kc = 6
a
l
Z2
(424)
(425)
From Eq. (411) and (423), the transition between the local shell buckling and
global thin-walled column buckling occurs when
( cr )shell = ( cr )column
which gives:
5.4
h
2 a 2
E
p
=
E
2
l
3 (1 2 ) a
p
2 3 (1 2 )
hl2
' 8.15
3 =
a
2
(426)
(427)
(428)
From the pre-buckling solution, Eq. (392), the governing equation Eq. (399) be
comes:
1 2
q
Cw,xxxx + 4 w, = 0
(429)
D8 w +
2
a
a
Assuming the double sine buckling deection function, similar to the case of axial
compression, the governing equation becomes:
D 2
2 4
4
2
2
2 2 c1
m
qa
n
m
+
n
+
m
+
n
sin
m
sin (n) = 0
a2
a6
a
(430)
By setting the coecient in the square bracket to zero, the equation for the buckling
pressure becomes:
2
2
+ n2
m
4
D m
2
C
+
1
qa = 2
a
n2
n2 (m
2 + n2 )2
96
(431)
l2 a
2 D
(433)
Now, substituting m
, n
and p into Eq. (431) leads:
2
1 2 C l 2
1+n
2
1
q =
+
n
2
a2
a
n
2 (1 + n
2 )2
(434)
1+n
2
1
12 2
+
q =
2 Z
2
2
n
2
n
(1 + n
)
(435)
97
In this case, the last term in Eq. (431) vanishes and the buckling pressure becomes:
q=
n2 D
a3
(437)
Imagine a long cylinder consisting of a change of ring, each of the height b. The
moment of inertia of the ring along the axial axis reads:
I=
bh3
12
(438)
From Eq. (437) and (438), the intensity of the line load Q = qb can be written:
Q = qb
n2
Eh3
= 3
b
a 12 (1 2 )
n2 EI
= 3
a (1 2 )
(439)
98
The Donnell solution should be compared with more exact solution of the ring
buckling problem which take into account a more complex incremental displacement
eld with both w () and v (). Here, a distinction should be made between the
centrally directed pressure (as in all preceding analysis) and the eld -pressure
loading where pressure is always directed normal to the deformed surface.
In the later case, the ring buckling occurs at:
EI
Qc = n2 1 3
a
(440)
where the smallest integer n = 2 so that Q = 3EI/a3 . The buckling mode has now
eight nodal points rather than four.
(441)
where again the smallest n = 2. Thus the smallest buckling load intensity is:
Qc = 4.5
EI
a3
(442)
It is seen that for a realistic value n=2, the present solution, Eq. (439) gives
the buckling pressure between the two cases of eld-pressure loading and centrally
directed loading, 3 < 4 < 4.5.
5.5
Special case of the combined loading in which the total axial load P is:
P = a2 q
99
(443)
The pre-buckling solution is given by Eq. (394). The solution of the buckling equa
tion still can be sought through the sinusoidal function, Eq. (401). The optimum
solution can be found by a trial and error method varying parameters m
and n
. A
graphical representation of the solution is shown in gure below.
5.6
=
Nx
M
2a
(444)
= N =
The other two components of the pre-buckling membrane forces vanish Nxx
100
1 2
2
C w,xxxx + Nx
4 w,x = 0
2
a
a
(445)
In view of the presence of odd-ordered derivatives in the above equation, the sep
arable form of the solution for w (x, ), assumed previously, does not satisfy the
equation.
Under torsional loading, the buckling deformation consists of circumferential
waves that spiral around the cylindrical shell from one end to the other. Such
waves can be represented by a deection function of the form:
x
(446)
w (x, ) = C sin m
n
a
with
ma
(447)
L
where m and n are integers. The alone displacement eld satisfy the dierential
equation and the periodical condition is the circumferential direction, but does not
satisfy any commonly used boundary at the cylinder ends. Consequently, this
simple examples can be used only for long cylinders.
For such cylinders, introduction of the additional displacement eld into the
governing equation, yields:
2
2
m
+ n2 D
m
3
+
(448)
1 v2 C
Nx =
2
2
2m
n a
2 (m
2 + n2 ) n
m
=
For suciently long cylinders, the shell buckles in two circumferential waves, n = 2.
Also, the term m
2 is small compared with 4. Then, the approximate expression is:
=
Nx
4 D
m
3
+
1 v2 C
2
m
a
64
(449)
Upon substitution, the nal expression for the buckling force, or better, critical
shear strain causing buckling is:
3/2
N
0.272 E
h
cr = x =
(451)
3/4
2
h
a
(1 )
The above solution was given by Donnell. As noted, the above solution is invalid
for short shells due to the diculties in satisfying boundary condition. A more
rigorous analytical-numerical solution is shown in the gure below.
As the radius of the shell approaches innity, the critical stress coecient for
simply supported and clamped edge approaches respectively the value 5.35 and 8.98
corresponding to plates under the shear loading.
5.7
Reduction in the
buckling strength
due to imperfection
Comparison of theoretical and experimental results for four dierent type of loads:
102
Axial compression
Torsion
Lateral pressure
Hydrostatic pressure
are shown in the subsequent two pages. Note that the graphs were presented
in log log scale. Replotting the results for axially loaded plate yields the graph
shown below.
1.1
Theory
cr = 0.605 Eh/a
exp
1.0
0.8
0.6
A design recommendation
0.4
0.2
500
1,000
1,500 a 2,000
2,500
3,000
3,500
of steel constructions for the design of columns and beam. The reason is that col
umn are not sensitive to imperfection as far as the ultimate strength is concerned.
104