Carbonate environments

Environments made by organisms

Intended learning outcomes

Describe the typical components of carbonate rocks,
and types of carbonate deposit, and relate them to
environment of deposition
Use Dunhams and Folks classification of
carbonates and be able to discuss their pros and
cons
Be able to place carbonate rocks in Wilsons
scheme
Be able to describe the controls on reefs as a
special carbonate environment
Give examples of fossil reefs and how they differ
from modern ones

Carbonate environments
very different from
siliciclastic ones!

Palaeoecology of carbonates
Different from clastic environments
because organisms themselves make
most of the sediment and thus control
its grain size and distribution.Carbonate
deposition is less related to
hydrodynamic regime than for clastics

Taphonomic feedback
Biogenic carbonate controlled by
organisms, so taphonomic feedback
very important

Grain types
Non-skeletal -oncoids, ooids, grain
aggregates, peloids

peloids

ooids

oncoids

Skeletal grains
Usually dominant: range from huge
corals to complete shells to fragments

Carbonate mud
Generated by bioerosion; also by disintegration of
calcareous algae (Halimeda, Penicillus), and by
coccoliths

coccoliths

Halimeda

Penicillus

Skeletal associations

Two main assemblages found in

modern carbonates: Chlorozoan and
Foramol

Foramol association
Temperate waters: benthic forams,
molluscs, barnacles, bryozoans,
calcareous red algae

Chlorozoan assemblage
Warm water - most of foramol
components, lacks barnacles and has
fewer bryozoans. Includes hermatypic
corals and calcareous green algae
Chloralgal variation has mostly green
algae, found in very saline conditions

Controls on associations

Bryozoans

Scleractinian Corals (Modern),

Framebuilders.

Bioeroders
Rasping gastropods

Bivalve borings

Urchin borings
Parrot Fish,
Prolific mud producer
(Pellets) Rasp at corals

Homotrema Rubrum:
Foraminifera
Minor encruster.
Likes indirect
lighting.
Mobile.

Non-skeletal grains
Three associations:
1 Non-skeletal elements absent
2 Only pellets present
3 Ooids and other aggregates present, with
or without pellets.

Non-skeletal grains
Association 3 found only with
Chlorozoan assemblage:
Association 2 sits in both Foramol and
Chlorozoan
Rest of Foramol has no non-skeletal
grains (Association 1)

Overall distribution
Overall, Chlorozoan association only
found within 30 deg. of the equator minimum temperature of 14-15 dg. C
seems to be required.

Climate
Skeletal grains are dependent on climate
(temperature and salinity).
Chlorazoan assemblage: Warm shallow seas (
always over 15 C) and normal salinity, corals
and calcareous green algae are common.
Chloralgal assemblage: Restricted seas
where salinities are higher, only green algae
flourish.
Foramol assemblage: Temperate carbonates,
cooler waters, with benthic foraminifera and
molluscs.
Ooids are most common in the Chlorazoan and
Chloralgal assemblages.

Conditions
Photosynthetics organisms typically flourish in the
upper 10-15m of the sea, most calcareous organisms
are found here.
Hermaltypic corals are dependent on symbiotic
algae. They like clear water (nutrient starved- too
many nutrients and the water gets clouded with
algae), with little to no sediment input. They prefer
strong currents.
On the other hand, most other benthic marine
organisms prefer quiet waters.

Flux of calcium carbonate from surface waters of the ocean (g

CaCO3 m-2 yr-1). Global flux data provided in this map in
addition to productivity data from sea surface-, sediment trapand benthic/plankton ratio measurements can be employed to
calculate an average global production rate of approximately 3.5
g/m2/yr-1 for planktic foraminifera.

Tidal effects
In macrotidal and mesotidal environments,
tides are the main mechanism for carbonate
sediment transport.
In microtidal shelves and seas, waves and
storms will be the major energy producer.
This is depth dependant of course, which
gives a nice gradually deepening profile on a
carbonate ramp as energy decreases.

Modern distribution of
carbonates and reefs

Carbonate classification

Folks scheme

Dunhams classification

Carbonate Factory (Tucker &

Wright, 1990)

Organisms and Sediment

Producers

Standard Wilson facies belts

Shallow Marine Carbonate

Sediments
Areas of abundant shallow marine
carbonate sedimentation are carbonate
platforms
Platforms may occur on the continental
shelf from the shoreline to the edge of the
shelf. They may cover large portions of
epeiric seas.
Different types of platforms are
recognizable by their morphology.

Carbonate Platforms
Carbonate Ramp: gently sloping, with water
depth gradually increasing (~1 Slope).
Epeiric platform: similar to ramp.
Rimmed shelves: Reef or carbonate bank on
outer margin.
Isolated platform: Shallow water sedimentation
surrounded by deep water.
Drowned platform: relative sea level rise, and
carbonate production cant keep up. Transition
to deep water sedimentation.

Fiji, High Tide

Distribution of Facies:
Carbonate Ramp
Tidal influenced: Shorelines have coarser material
in tidal channels and carbonate muds on tidal flats.
Beach barrier with a lagoon behind it may develop.
Wave dominated: Shoreline may have beach ridge.
Lagoon may also develop here.
Agitated shallow nearshore (unprotected by reef),
produces skeletal debris and ooid sand shoals.
These can produce migrating subaqueous dune
bedforms (10s cm-metre scale),
(grainstone/packstone), and crossbedding.

More on ramps
Below FWB reworking is reduced. Storms transport
bioclastics to prduces wackestone, packstone, and
grainstone. +/- HCS. +/- patch reefs, mud-mounds.
Below SWB, redeposited mudstone and wackestone.
+/- turbidite. Distally steepened ramps (merges into a
steeper slope at the margin) and homoclinal ramps
(gentle continuation of slope- little reworking by mass
flows)

Distribution of Facies: Rimmed

Carbonate shelves

a)
b)

Distinct break in slope from shallower inner shelf to outer zone. This
point is very high energy, receiving the full force of wave and storm
energy. (Hermatypic corals here, away from muddy input) These
form barrier reefs. (can also have oolitic/ skeletal buildups here).
Behind barrier is the shelf lagoon. Low energy.
Closed lagoon-limited circulation. Lime mud. +/- hypersaline=
restricted fauna. +/- Sabkha.
Open lagoon- subject to tides and waves. Higher energy (shoals,
lenses grain/packstone) Coarse facies are commonest on the side
of lagoon nearest to reef as material is reworked from the reed into
the lagoon.

Coastal facies are low energy tidal flats (usually), beach barriers can
develop if enough energy.

Epeiric Platform Facies

Tidal and storm processes may be
expected (latter more prevalent on
smaller bodies of water less tidal
influence).
Currents in broad shallow seas = ooid
shoals, creates low relief islands. Tidal
flat migration = progradation. Cyclical.

Isolated Platforms
ie: Atolls, also the Bahamas
Distribution of facies dependant on
prevailing winds.
No terrigenous input at all.

Reef facies

High energy. Wave impact direct.

Nutrient rich water upwelling from deep water of continental slope.

No terrigenous input (too much nutrients, and mud interferes with
reef builders) Means that it is not close to a tidal delta, or that any
terrigenous input has been filtered through mangrove swamp (ie)
Reef core- framework of coral. (boundstone, some framestone)
Forereef- carbonate breccia, bioclastic rudstone/grainstone. (broken
in storms)
Backreef- sheltered a bit. Site of deposition. Gradation from
rudstone to grainstone. Broken reef, ooids formed in agitation, shells
etc.

Reefs
Much defined. Organic framework,raised relief,
resistance to waves ,trophic zone, tropical and warm
water.
Obviously, only modern reefs can fulfill all these
requirements!
Highly self-regulated (and thus vulnerable) environments.

Reef composition
Framework, consists of:
Closely packed in situ accumulations of rigid
macro-organisms (eg corals, stromatoporoids etc),
bound together by
Secondary framework of encrusting organisms
such as bryozoans, coralline algae, forams and
sheet-like corals;
Infilling sediment trapped (baffled) by the
framework.
Modern reefs are only 10% frame!

Reef environments

Environments of Different growth

forms

Environmental Associations with

Different Dunhams
Classifications

Grainstone is also found in the beach swash zone. Also, beachrock will form in
this zone as CO2 degasses, and carbonate is precipitated.

Reef succession

Modern Reef environment

Modern Reef Environment

Diagenesis

Cementation by aragonite

First Stage of Diagenesis

Later Burial (Dolomite dependant

on fluid chemistry)

Reefs in the fossil record

Capitan reef, Permian, Texas

Recognition of fossil reefs

Can be hard, as most of the criteria for
reefs (photic zone etc) cannot be
directly seen the rock record.
Thus, any fossil structure with relief and
framework is usually called a reef.

Build-ups
Many fossil structures lack framework.
Then they are called build-ups instead.
Examples include bioherms and mudmounds.
It is possible to have massive structures
without either framework OR relief.
Then they are called Biostromes.
All this terminology is arbitrary and
confused.

Build-up classification

Problems with fossil reefs

Relief is inferred by discontinuity at the
top - suggests reef was able to maintain
net growth against erosion and
transport.
But relief could be caused by differential
compaction, or
Be generated by an older, underlying
structure.

Fossil reef structure

Core: massive frame builders with
cavities
Cap: Low, encrusting frame
Flank: bedded limestone
Inter-reef: normal sedimentation

Idealised reef facies

Facies in the record

Reefs through time

Another interpretation
of history of reefs:
Wood 1999.
Key emphasis here is
placed on the level
of nutrients available
to benthic marine
organisms in reef
environments.

Unusual reefs etc

Precambrian: stromatolites.
Cyanobacteria that baffle and trap
sediment.

Archaeocyaths
Lower-Middle Cambrian

Archaeocyaths

Sponge-like
forms that occur
in low carbonate
banks together
with calcifying
algae. Act as
sediment baffles,
so not real reefs
exactly.

Ordovician/Silurian build-ups
E.g. Osmundsberg, Gotland!
Typical Paleozoic structures
Mostly lack binding framework (Boda
Limestone).
Gotland reefs composed of
stromatoporoids - but they do not bind
either!

Palaeozoic buildups

Stromatactis

Typical component - sparry calcite, unclear origin!

Gotland reefs

Hgklint reef

Gotland Stromatoporoid buildups

Kuppen stromatoporoid biostrome

Halysitis biostrome

Waulsortian mud mounds

Very hard to understand, as they totally
lack any framework - they are really
heaps of mud. Found only in the Early
Carboniferous.
Contain crinoids, bryozoans,
Stromatactis
Genesis very unclear - hydrodynamic??

Prorichthofenia: Late Paleozoic reef-dwelling brachiopods

ww.geol.unipid.it

Common in Ireland
Overlying
black
shales
Mound

Rudists
Dense stands of bizarre, organ-pipe
shaped bivalves from the Late
Cretaceous
Baffle sediment, but no framework, so
not really reefs!
All died out suddenly in the K/T
extinction.

Typical rudist buildup, Northern Sinai