Gandhi Life History PDF

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MahatmaGandhiWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia
MahatmaGandhi
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia
MohandasKaramchandGandhi(/ndi,n/[2]
Hindustani:[mond
askrmtnd
and
i]2October1869
30January1948)wasthepreeminentleaderoftheIndian
independencemovementinBritishruledIndia.Employing
nonviolentcivildisobedience,GandhiledIndiatoindependence
andinspiredmovementsforcivilrightsandfreedomacrossthe
world.ThehonorificMahatma(Sanskrit:"highsouled",
"venerable")[3]appliedtohimfirstin1914inSouthAfrica,[4]
isnowusedworldwide.HeisalsocalledBapu(Gujarati:
endearmentfor"father",[5]"papa"[5][6])inIndia.Incommon
parlanceinIndiaheisoftencalledGandhiji.Heisunofficially
calledtheFatheroftheNation.[7][8]
BornandraisedinaHindumerchantcastefamilyincoastal
Gujarat,westernIndia,andtrainedinlawattheInnerTemple,
London,Gandhifirstemployednonviolentcivildisobedienceas
anexpatriatelawyerinSouthAfrica,intheresidentIndian
community'sstruggleforcivilrights.AfterhisreturntoIndiain
1915,hesetaboutorganisingpeasants,farmers,andurban
labourerstoprotestagainstexcessivelandtaxand
discrimination.AssumingleadershipoftheIndianNational
Congressin1921,Gandhilednationwidecampaignsforeasing
poverty,expandingwomen'srights,buildingreligiousandethnic
amity,endinguntouchability,butaboveallforachievingSwaraj
orselfrule.
GandhifamouslyledIndiansinchallengingtheBritishimposed
salttaxwiththe400km(250mi)DandiSaltMarchin1930,and
laterincallingfortheBritishtoQuitIndiain1942.Hewas
imprisonedformanyyears,uponmanyoccasions,inbothSouth
AfricaandIndia.Gandhiattemptedtopractisenonviolenceand
truthinallsituations,andadvocatedthatothersdothesame.He
livedmodestlyinaselfsufficientresidentialcommunityand
worethetraditionalIndiandhotiandshawl,wovenwithyarn
handspunonacharkha.Heatesimplevegetarianfood,andalso
undertooklongfastsasameansofbothselfpurificationand
socialprotest.
Gandhi'svisionofanindependentIndiabasedonreligious
pluralism,however,waschallengedintheearly1940sbyanew
MuslimnationalismwhichwasdemandingaseparateMuslim
homelandcarvedoutofIndia.[9]Eventually,inAugust1947,
Britaingrantedindependence,buttheBritishIndianEmpire[9]
waspartitionedintotwodominions,aHindumajorityIndiaand
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahatma_Gandhi
Mahatma
MohandasGandhi
Born
MohandasKaramchandGandhi
2October1869
Porbandar,KathiawarAgency,
BritishIndianEmpire[1]
(nowinGujarat,India)
Died
30January1948(aged78)
NewDelhi,Delhi,India
Causeof
death
Assassinationbyshooting
Resting
place
AshesscatteredinvariousIndian
rivers
Nationality
Indian
Othernames MahatmaGandhi,Bapu,Gandhiji
Ethnicity
Gujarati
Education
barristeratlaw
Almamater AlfredHighSchool,Rajkot,
SamaldasCollege,Bhavnagar,
UniversityCollege,London
Knownfor
LeadershipofIndianindependence
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MuslimPakistan.[10]AsmanydisplacedHindus,Muslims,and
Sikhsmadetheirwaytotheirnewlands,religiousviolence
brokeout,especiallyinthePunjabandBengal.Eschewingthe
officialcelebrationofindependenceinDelhi,Gandhivisitedthe
affectedareas,attemptingtoprovidesolace.Inthemonths
following,heundertookseveralfastsuntodeathtopromote
religiousharmony.Thelastofthese,undertakenon12January
1948atage78,[11]alsohadtheindirectgoalofpressuringIndia
topayoutsomecashassetsowedtoPakistan.[11]SomeIndians
thoughtGandhiwastooaccommodating.[11][12]Nathuram
Godse,aHindunationalist,assassinatedGandhion30January
1948byfiringthreebulletsintohischestatpointblank
range.[12]
Hisbirthday,2October,iscommemoratedasGandhiJayanti,a
nationalholiday,andworldwideastheInternationalDayof
Nonviolence.
movement,
philosophyofSatyagraha,Ahimsaor
nonviolence,
pacifism
Movement
IndianNationalCongress
Religion
Hinduism,withJaininfluences
Spouse(s)
KasturbaGandhi
Children
Harilal
Manilal
Ramdas
Devdas
Parents
KaramchandGandhi(father)
PutlibaiGandhi(mother)
Signature
Contents
1 Earlylifeandbackground
2 Englishbarrister
3 CivilrightsactivistinSouthAfrica(18931914)
3.1 GandhiandtheAfricans
4 StruggleforIndianIndependence(191547)
4.1 RoleinWorldWarI
4.2 ChamparanandKheda
4.3 Khilafatmovement
4.4 Noncooperation
4.5 SaltSatyagraha(SaltMarch)
4.5.1 Women
4.5.2 Gandhiasfolkhero
4.5.3 Negotiations
4.6 Untouchables
4.7 Congresspolitics
4.8 WorldWarIIandQuitIndiamovement
4.9 Partitionandindependence,1947
5 Assassination
5.1 Ashes
6 Principles,practicesandbeliefs
6.1 Influences
6.2 Tolstoy
6.3 TruthandSatyagraha
6.4 Nonviolence
6.4.1 Muslims
6.4.2 Jews
6.5 Vegetarianism,food,andanimals
6.6 Fasting
6.7 Brahmacharya,celibacy
6.8 NaiTalim,basiceducation
6.9 Swaraj,selfrule
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6.9 Swaraj,selfrule
6.10 Gandhianeconomics
7 Literaryworks
8 Legacyanddepictionsinpopularculture
8.1 Followersandinternationalinfluence
8.2 Globalholidays
8.3 Awards
8.3.1 FatheroftheNation
8.4 Film,theatreandliterature
8.5 CurrentimpactwithinIndia
9 Seealso
10 References
11 Bibliography
11.1 Books
11.2 Primarysources
12 Externallinks
Earlylifeandbackground
MohandasKaramchandGandhi[13]wasbornon2October1869[1]toaHindu
ModhBaniyafamily[14]inPorbandar(alsoknownasSudamapuri),acoastaltown
ontheKathiawarPeninsulaandthenpartofthesmallprincelystateofPorbandar
intheKathiawarAgencyoftheIndianEmpire.Hisfather,Karamchand
UttamchandGandhi(18221885),servedasthediwan(chiefminister)of
Porbandarstate.
TheGandhifamilyoriginatedfromthevillageofKutianainwhatwasthen
JunagadhState.[15]Inthelate17thorearly18thcentury,oneLaljiGandhimoved
toPorbandarandenteredtheserviceofitsruler,theRana.Successivegenerations
ofthefamilyservedascivilservantsinthestateadministrationbeforeUttamchand,
Mohandas'sgrandfather,becamediwanintheearly19thcenturyunderthethen
RanaofPorbandar,Khimojiraji.[15][16]In1831,RanaKhimojirajidiedsuddenly
andwassucceededbyhis12yearoldonlyson,Vikmatji.[16]Asaresult,Rana
Khimojirajji'swidow,RaniRupaliba,becameregentforherson.Shesoonfellout
withUttamchandandforcedhimtoreturntohisancestralvillageinJunagadh.
WhileinJunagadh,UttamchandappearedbeforeitsNawabandsalutedhimwith
hislefthandinsteadofhisright,replyingthathisrighthandwaspledgedto
Porbandar'sservice.[15]In1841,Vikmatjiassumedthethroneandreinstated
Uttamchandashisdiwan.
MohandasKaramchand
Gandhiinhisearliestknown
photo,aged7,c.1876
In1847,RanaVikmatjiappointedUttamchand'sson,Karamchand,asdiwanafterdisagreeingwithUttamchand
overthestate'smaintenanceofaBritishgarrison.[15]Althoughheonlyhadanelementaryeducationandhad
previouslybeenaclerkinthestateadministration,Karamchandprovedacapablechiefminister.[17]Duringhis
tenure,Karamchandmarriedfourtimes.Hisfirsttwowivesdiedyoung,aftereachhadgivenbirthtoadaughter,
andhisthirdmarriagewaschildless.In1857,Karamchandsoughthisthirdwife'spermissiontoremarrythatyear,
hemarriedPutlibai(18441891),whoalsocamefromJunagadh,[15]andwasfromaPranamiVaishnava
family.[18][19][20][21]KaramchandandPutlibaihadthreechildrenovertheensuingdecade,ason,Laxmidas(c.1860
March1914),adaughter,Raliatbehn(18621960)andanotherson,Karsandas(c.18661913).[22][23]
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On2October1869,Putlibaigavebirthtoherlastchild,Mohandas,inadark,windowlessgroundfloorroomofthe
GandhifamilyresidenceinPorbandarcity.Asachild,GandhiwasdescribedbyhissisterRaliatas"restlessas
mercury,eitherplayingorroamingabout.Oneofhisfavouritepastimeswastwistingdogs'ears."[24]TheIndian
classics,especiallythestoriesofShravanaandkingHarishchandra,hadagreatimpactonGandhiinhischildhood.
Inhisautobiography,headmitsthattheyleftanindelibleimpressiononhismind.Hewrites:"IthauntedmeandI
musthaveactedHarishchandratomyselftimeswithoutnumber."Gandhi'searlyselfidentificationwithtruthand
loveassupremevaluesistraceabletotheseepiccharacters.[25][26]
Thefamily'sreligiousbackgroundwaseclectic.Gandhi'sfatherwasHindu[27]andhismotherwasfromaPranami
Vaishnavafamily.Religiousfigureswerefrequentvisitorstothehome.[28]Gandhiwasdeeplyinfluencedbyhis
motherPutlibai,anextremelypiousladywho"wouldnotthinkoftakinghermealswithoutherdailyprayers...she
wouldtakethehardestvowsandkeepthemwithoutflinching.Tokeeptwoorthreeconsecutivefastswasnothing
toher."[29]
IntheyearofMohandas'sbirth,RanaVikmatjiwasexiled,strippedofdirectadministrativepoweranddemotedin
rankbytheBritishpoliticalagent,afterhavingorderedthebrutalexecutionsofaslaveandanArabbodyguard.
Possiblyasaresult,in1874KaramchandleftPorbandarforthesmallerstateofRajkot,wherehebecamea
counsellortoitsruler,theThakurSahibthoughRajkotwasalessprestigiousstatethanPorbandar,theBritish
regionalpoliticalagencywaslocatedthere,whichgavethestate'sdiwanameasureofsecurity.[30]In1876,
KaramchandbecamediwanofRajkotandwassucceededasdiwanofPorbandarbyhisbrotherTulsidas.His
familythenrejoinedhiminRajkot.[31]
On21January1879,Mohandasenteredthelocaltaluk(district)schoolinRajkot,notfarfromhishome.Atschool,
hewastaughttherudimentsofarithmetic,history,theGujaratilanguageandgeography.[31]Despitebeingonlyan
averagestudentinhisyearthere,inOctober1880hesattheentranceexaminationsforKathiawarHighSchool,
alsoinRajkot.Hepassedtheexaminationswithacreditableaverageof64percentandwasenrolledthefollowing
year.[32]Duringhisyearsatthehighschool,MohandasintensivelystudiedtheEnglishlanguageforthefirsttime,
alongwithcontinuinghislessonsinarithmetic,Gujarati,historyandgeography.[32]Hisattendanceandmarks
remainedmediocretoaverage,possiblyduetoKaramchandfallingillin1882andMohandasspendingmoretime
athomeasaresult.[32]Gandhishoneneitherintheclassroomnorontheplayingfield.Oneoftheterminalreports
ratedhimas"goodatEnglish,fairinArithmeticandweakinGeographyconductverygood,badhandwriting".
Whileathighschool,Mohandascameintocontactwithstudentsofothercastesandfaiths,includingseveralParsis
andMuslims.AMuslimfriendofhiselderbrotherKarsandas,namedSheikhMehtab,befriendedMohandasand
encouragedthestrictlyvegetarianboytotryeatingmeattoimprovehisstamina.HealsotookMohandastoa
brotheloneday,thoughMohandas"wasstruckblindanddumbinthisdenofvice,"rebuffedtheprostitutes'
advancesandwaspromptlysentoutofthebrothel.Asexperimentingwithmeateatingandcarnalpleasuresonly
broughtMohandasmentalanguish,heabandonedbothandthecompanyofMehtab,thoughtheywouldmaintain
theirassociationformanyyearsafterwards.[33]
InMay1883,the13yearoldMohandaswasmarriedto14yearoldKasturbaiMakhanjiKapadia(herfirstname
wasusuallyshortenedto"Kasturba",andaffectionatelyto"Ba")inanarrangedchildmarriage,accordingtothe
customoftheregionatthattime.[34]Intheprocess,helostayearatschool.[35]Recallingthedayoftheirmarriage,
heoncesaid,"Aswedidn'tknowmuchaboutmarriage,forusitmeantonlywearingnewclothes,eatingsweets
andplayingwithrelatives."However,aswasprevailingtradition,theadolescentbridewastospendmuchtimeat
herparents'house,andawayfromherhusband.[36]Writingmanyyearslater,Mohandasdescribedwithregretthe
lustfulfeelingshefeltforhisyoungbride,"evenatschoolIusedtothinkofher,andthethoughtofnightfalland
oursubsequentmeetingwaseverhauntingme."[37]
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Inlate1885,Karamchanddied,onanightwhenMohandashadjustlefthisfathertosleepwithhiswife,despite
thefactshewaspregnant.[38]Thecouple'sfirstchildwasbornshortlyafter,butsurvivedonlyafewdays.The
doubletragedyhauntedMohandasthroughouthislife,"theshame,towhichIhavereferredinaforegoingchapter,
wasthisofmycarnaldesireevenatthecriticalhourofmyfather'sdeath,whichdemandedwakefulservice.Itisa
blotIhaveneverbeenabletoeffaceorforget...Iwasweighedandfoundunpardonablywantingbecausemymind
wasatthesamemomentinthegripoflust.[38][39]MohandasandKasturbahadfourmorechildren,allsons:
Harilal,bornin1888Manilal,bornin1892Ramdas,bornin1897andDevdas,bornin1900.[34]
InNovember1887,hesattheregionalmatriculationexamsinAhmedabad,writingexamsinarithmetic,history,
geography,naturalscience,EnglishandGujarati.Hepassedwithanoverallaverageof40percent,ranking404th
of823successfulmatriculates.[40]InJanuary1888,heenrolledatSamaldasCollegeinBhavnagarState,thenthe
soledegreegrantinginstitutionofhighereducationintheregion.Duringhisfirstandonlytermthere,hesuffered
fromheadachesandstrongfeelingsofhomesickness,didverypoorlyinhisexamsinAprilandwithdrewfromthe
collegeattheendoftheterm,returningtoPorbandar.[41]
Englishbarrister
Asthebesteducatedofhisbrothers,Gandhiwasseenbyhisfamilyasthe
bestcandidatetoonedaysucceedhisfatherandhisuncleTulsidasas
diwan.[42]MavjiDave,aBrahminpriestandfamilyfriend,advisedGandhi
andhisfamilythatheshouldqualifyasabarristerinLondon,afterwhich
hewouldbecertaintoachievethediwanship.[43]Initially,Putlibaididnot
wantheryoungestsontoleaveIndiaandtravelacrossthe"blackwaters",
therebylosinghiscaste.Gandhi'suncleTulsidasalsotriedtodissuadehis
nephew.Finally,GandhimadeavowtohismotherinthepresenceofaJain
monktoobservethepreceptsofsexualabstinenceaswellasabstinence
frommeatandalcohol,afterwhichPutlibaigaveherpermissionand
blessing.[41][44]InJuly,Kasturbagavebirthtothecouple'sfirstsurviving
son,Harilal.[45]
GandhiandhiswifeKasturba(1902)
On10August1888,GandhileftPorbandarforBombay(Mumbai).Uponarrivalintheport,hewasmetbythe
headoftheModhBaniacommunity,whohadknownGandhi'sfamily.HavinglearnedofGandhi'splans,heand
otherelderswarnedGandhithathewouldbeexcommunicatedifhedidnotobeytheirwishesandremaininIndia.
AfterGandhireiteratedhisintentionstoleaveforEngland,theeldersdeclaredhimanoutcast.[45]
InLondon,GandhistudiedlawandjurisprudenceandenrolledattheInnerTemplewiththeintentionofbecoming
abarrister.HistimeinLondonwasinfluencedbythevowhehadmadetohismother.Gandhitriedtoadopt
"English"customs,includingtakingdancinglessons.However,hecouldnotappreciatetheblandvegetarianfood
offeredbyhislandladyandwasfrequentlyhungryuntilhefoundoneofLondon'sfewvegetarianrestaurants.
InfluencedbyHenrySalt'swriting,hejoinedtheVegetarianSociety,waselectedtoitsexecutivecommittee,[46]
andstartedalocalBayswaterchapter.[20]SomeofthevegetarianshemetweremembersoftheTheosophical
Society,whichhadbeenfoundedin1875tofurtheruniversalbrotherhood,andwhichwasdevotedtothestudyof
BuddhistandHinduliterature.TheyencouragedGandhitojointheminreadingtheBhagavadGitabothin
translationaswellasintheoriginal.[46]Nothavingshowninterestinreligionbefore,hebecameinterestedin
religiousthought.
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GandhiwascalledtothebarinJune1891andthenleftLondonforIndia,wherehelearnedthathismotherhad
diedwhilehewasinLondonandthathisfamilyhadkeptthenewsfromhim.[46]Hisattemptsatestablishingalaw
practiceinBombayfailedbecausehewaspsychologicallyunabletocrossquestionwitnesses.Hereturnedto
Rajkottomakeamodestlivingdraftingpetitionsforlitigants,buthewasforcedtostopwhenheranfoulofa
Britishofficer.[20][46]In1893,heacceptedayearlongcontractfromDadaAbdulla&Co.,anIndianfirm,toapost
intheColonyofNatal,SouthAfrica,alsoapartoftheBritishEmpire.[20]
CivilrightsactivistinSouthAfrica(18931914)
Gandhiwas24whenhearrivedinSouthAfrica[47]in1893toworkasa
legalrepresentativefortheMuslimIndianTradersbasedinthecityof
Pretoria.Hespent21yearsinSouthAfrica,wherehedevelopedhis
politicalviews,ethicsandpoliticalleadershipskills.[48]
IndiansinSouthAfricaincludedwealthyMuslims,whoemployedGandhi
asalawyer,andimpoverishedHinduindenturedlabourerswithvery
limitedrights.GandhiconsideredthemalltobeIndians,takingalifetime
viewthat"Indianness"transcendedreligionandcaste.Hebelievedhecould
bridgehistoricdifferences,especiallyregardingreligion,andhetookthat
beliefbacktoIndiawherehetriedtoimplementit.TheSouthAfrican
GandhiinSouthAfrica(1895)
experienceexposedhandicapstoGandhithathehadnotknownabout.He
realisedhewasoutofcontactwiththeenormouscomplexitiesofreligious
andculturallifeinIndia,andbelievedheunderstoodIndiabygettingtoknowandleadingIndiansinSouth
Africa.[49]
InSouthAfrica,Gandhifacedthediscriminationdirectedatallcolouredpeople.Hewasthrownoffatrainat
Pietermaritzburgafterrefusingtomovefromthefirstclass.Heprotestedandwasallowedonfirstclassthenext
day.[50]Travellingfartheronbystagecoach,hewasbeatenbyadriverforrefusingtomovetomakeroomfora
Europeanpassenger.[51]Hesufferedotherhardshipsonthejourneyaswell,includingbeingbarredfromseveral
hotels.Inanotherincident,themagistrateofaDurbancourtorderedGandhitoremovehisturban,whichhe
refusedtodo.[52]IndianswerenotallowedtowalkonpublicfootpathsinSouthAfrica.Mr.Gandhiwaskickedby
apoliceofficeroutofthefootpathontothestreetwithoutwarning.[53]
TheseeventswereaturningpointinGandhi'slifeandshapedhissocialactivismandawakenedhimtosocial
injustice.Afterwitnessingracism,prejudice,andinjusticeagainstIndiansinSouthAfrica,Gandhibeganto
questionhisplaceinsocietyandhispeople'sstandingintheBritishEmpire.[54]
Gandhiwiththestretcherbearersof
theIndianAmbulanceCorps
GandhiextendedhisoriginalperiodofstayinSouthAfricatoassistIndians
inopposingabilltodenythemtherighttovote.HeaskedJoseph
Chamberlain,theBritishColonialSecretary,toreconsiderhispositionon
thisbill.[48]Thoughunabletohaltthebill'spassage,hiscampaignwas
successfulindrawingattentiontothegrievancesofIndiansinSouthAfrica.
HehelpedfoundtheNatalIndianCongressin1894,[20][50]andthroughthis
organisation,hemouldedtheIndiancommunityofSouthAfricaintoa
unifiedpoliticalforce.InJanuary1897,whenGandhilandedinDurban,a
mobofwhitesettlersattackedhim[55]andheescapedonlythroughthe
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effortsofthewifeofthepolicesuperintendent.However,herefusedtopresschargesagainstanymemberofthe
mob,statingitwasoneofhisprinciplesnottoseekredressforapersonalwronginacourtoflaw.[20]
In1906,theTransvaalgovernmentpromulgatedanewActcompellingregistrationofthecolony'sIndianand
Chinesepopulations.AtamassprotestmeetingheldinJohannesburgon11Septemberthatyear,Gandhiadopted
hisstillevolvingmethodologyofSatyagraha(devotiontothetruth),ornonviolentprotest,forthefirsttime.[56]He
urgedIndianstodefythenewlawandtosufferthepunishmentsfordoingso.Thecommunityadoptedthisplan,
andduringtheensuingsevenyearstruggle,thousandsofIndianswerejailed,flogged,orshotforstriking,refusing
toregister,forburningtheirregistrationcardsorengaginginotherformsofnonviolentresistance.Thesmaller
populationofChineseinSouthAfricaalsoalignedthemselveswiththemovementandwerealsojailedfordefying
registrationlaws.[57]Thegovernmentsuccessfullyrepressedtheprotesters,butthepublicoutcryovertheharsh
treatmentofpeacefulIndianprotestersbytheSouthAfricangovernmentforcedSouthAfricanleaderJan
ChristiaanSmuts,himselfaphilosopher,tonegotiateacompromisewithGandhi.Gandhi'sideastookshape,and
theconceptofSatyagrahamaturedduringthisstruggle.
WhenhereturnedtoIndiain1915,hewasproficientatpublicspeaking,fundraising,negotiations,media
relations,andselfpromotion.[58]GandhidevelopedtheseskillsinthecontextofhisSouthAfricanlawpractice.[59]
GandhiandtheAfricans
GandhifocusedhisattentiononIndianswhileinSouthAfricaandopposedtheidea
thatIndiansshouldbetreatedatthesamelevelasnativeAfricanswhileinSouth
Africa.[60][61][62]Healsostatedthathebelieved"thatthewhiteraceofSouthAfrica
shouldbethepredominatingrace."[63]AfterseveralincidentswithWhitesinSouth
Africa,Gandhibegantochangehisthinkingandapparentlyincreasedhisinterest
inpolitics.[64]Whiteruleenforcedstrictsegregationamongallracesandgenerated
conflictbetweenthesecommunities.BhanaandVahedarguethatGandhi,atfirst,
sharedracialnotionsprevalentofthetimesandthathisexperiencesinjail
sensitisedhimtotheplightofSouthAfrica'sindigenouspeoples.[65]
DuringtheBoerWar,Gandhivolunteeredin1900toformagroupofstretcher
bearersastheNatalIndianAmbulanceCorps.HewantedtodisprovetheBritish
Gandhiphotographedin
ideathatHinduswerenotfitfor"manly"activitiesinvolvingdangerandexertion.
SouthAfrica(1909)
GandhiraisedelevenhundredIndianvolunteers.Theyweretrainedandmedically
certifiedtoserveonthefrontlines.TheywereauxiliariesattheBattleofColenso
toaWhitevolunteerambulancecorpsthenatSpionKopGandhiandhisbearersmovedtothefrontlineandhad
tocarrywoundedsoldiersformilestoafieldhospitalbecausetheterrainwastooroughfortheambulances.
GandhiwaspleasedwhensomeonesaidthatEuropeanambulancecorpsmencouldnotmakethetripundertheheat
withoutfoodorwater.GeneralRedversBullermentionedthecourageoftheIndiansinhisdispatch.Gandhiand
thirtysevenotherIndiansreceivedtheBoerWarMedal.[66]
In1906,whentheBritishdeclaredwaragainsttheZuluKingdominNatal,GandhiencouragedtheBritishto
recruitIndians.[67]HearguedthatIndiansshouldsupportthewareffortstolegitimisetheirclaimstofull
citizenship.[67]TheBritishacceptedGandhi'soffertoletadetachmentof20Indiansvolunteerasastretcherbearer
corpstotreatwoundedBritishsoldiers.ThiscorpswascommandedbyGandhiandoperatedforlessthantwo
months.[68]Theexperiencetaughthimitwashopelesstodirectlychallengetheoverwhelmingmilitarypowerof
theBritisharmyhedecideditcouldonlyberesistedinnonviolentfashionbythepureofheart.[69]
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In1910,Gandhiestablishedanidealisticcommunitycalled'TolstoyFarm'nearJohannesburg,wherehenurtured
hispolicyofpeacefulresistance.[70]
IntheyearsafterblackSouthAfricansgainedtherighttovoteinSouthAfrica(1994),Gandhiwasproclaimeda
nationalherowithnumerousmonuments.[71]
StruggleforIndianIndependence(191547)
AttherequestofGokhale,conveyedtohimbyC.F.Andrews,GandhireturnedtoIndiain1915.Hebroughtan
internationalreputationasaleadingIndiannationalist,theoristandorganiser.HejoinedtheIndianNational
CongressandwasintroducedtoIndianissues,politicsandtheIndianpeopleprimarilybyGopalKrishnaGokhale.
GokhalewasakeyleaderoftheCongressPartybestknownforhisrestraintandmoderation,andhisinsistenceon
workinginsidethesystem.GandhitookGokhale'sliberalapproachbasedonBritishWhiggishtraditionsand
transformedittomakeitlookwhollyIndian.[72]
GandhitookleadershipoftheCongressin1920andbeganescalatingdemandsuntilon26January1930theIndian
NationalCongressdeclaredtheindependenceofIndia.TheBritishdidnotrecognisethedeclarationbut
negotiationsensued,withtheCongresstakingaroleinprovincialgovernmentinthelate1930s.Gandhiandthe
CongresswithdrewtheirsupportoftheRajwhentheViceroydeclaredwaronGermanyinSeptember1939
withoutconsultation.TensionsescalateduntilGandhidemandedimmediateindependencein1942andtheBritish
respondedbyimprisoninghimandtensofthousandsofCongressleaders.Meanwhile,theMuslimLeaguedidco
operatewithBritainandmoved,againstGandhi'sstrongopposition,todemandsforatotallyseparateMuslimstate
ofPakistan.InAugust1947theBritishpartitionedthelandwithIndiaandPakistaneachachievingindependence
ontermsthatGandhidisapproved.[73]
RoleinWorldWarI
InApril1918,duringthelatterpartofWorldWarI,theViceroyinvitedGandhitoaWarConferenceinDelhi.[74]
PerhapstoshowhissupportfortheEmpireandhelphiscaseforIndia'sindependence,[75]Gandhiagreedto
activelyrecruitIndiansforthewareffort.[76]IncontrasttotheZuluWarof1906andtheoutbreakofWorldWarI
in1914,whenherecruitedvolunteersfortheAmbulanceCorps,thistimeGandhiattemptedtorecruitcombatants.
InaJune1918leafletentitled"AppealforEnlistment",Gandhiwrote"Tobringaboutsuchastateofthingswe
shouldhavetheabilitytodefendourselves,thatis,theabilitytobeararmsandtousethem...Ifwewanttolearnthe
useofarmswiththegreatestpossibledespatch,itisourdutytoenlistourselvesinthearmy."[77]Hedid,however,
stipulateinalettertotheViceroy'sprivatesecretarythathe"personallywillnotkillorinjureanybody,friendor
foe."[78]
Gandhi'swarrecruitmentcampaignbroughtintoquestionhisconsistencyonnonviolence.Gandhi'sprivate
secretarynotedthat"Thequestionoftheconsistencybetweenhiscreedof'Ahimsa'(nonviolence)andhis
recruitingcampaignwasraisednotonlythenbuthasbeendiscussedeversince."[76]
ChamparanandKheda
Gandhi'sfirstmajorachievementscamein1918withtheChamparanandKhedaagitationsofBiharandGujarat.
TheChamparanagitationpittedthelocalpeasantryagainsttheirlargelyBritishlandlordswhowerebackedbythe
localadministration.ThepeasantrywasforcedtogrowIndigo,acashcropwhosedemandhadbeendecliningover
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twodecades,andwereforcedtoselltheircropstotheplantersatafixed
price.Unhappywiththis,thepeasantryappealedtoGandhiathisashramin
Ahmedabad.Pursuingastrategyofnonviolentprotest,Gandhitookthe
administrationbysurpriseandwonconcessionsfromtheauthorities.[79]
In1918,Khedawashitbyfloodsandfamineandthepeasantrywas
demandingrelieffromtaxes.GandhimovedhisheadquarterstoNadiad,[80]
organisingscoresofsupportersandfreshvolunteersfromtheregion,the
mostnotablebeingVallabhbhaiPatel.[81]Usingnoncooperationasa
technique,Gandhiinitiatedasignaturecampaignwherepeasantspledged
nonpaymentofrevenueevenunderthethreatofconfiscationofland.A
socialboycottofmamlatdarsandtalatdars(revenueofficialswithinthe
district)accompaniedtheagitation.Gandhiworkedhardtowinpublic
supportfortheagitationacrossthecountry.Forfivemonths,the
administrationrefusedbutfinallyinendMay1918,theGovernmentgave
wayonimportantprovisionsandrelaxedtheconditionsofpaymentof
revenuetaxuntilthefamineended.InKheda,VallabhbhaiPatel
representedthefarmersinnegotiationswiththeBritish,whosuspended
revenuecollectionandreleasedalltheprisoners.[82]
Khilafatmovement
Gandhiin1918,atthetimeofthe
KhedaandChamparanSatyagrahas
In1919,Gandhi,withhisweakpositioninCongress,decidedtobroadenhispoliticalbasebyincreasinghisappeal
toMuslims.TheopportunitycameintheformoftheKhilafatmovement,aworldwideprotestbyMuslimsagainst
thecollapsingstatusoftheCaliph,theleaderoftheirreligion.TheOttomanEmpirehadlosttheFirstWorldWar
andwasdismembered,asMuslimsfearedforthesafetyoftheholyplacesandtheprestigeoftheirreligion.[83]
AlthoughGandhididnotoriginatetheAllIndiaMuslimConference,[84]whichdirectedthemovementinIndia,he
soonbecameitsmostprominentspokesmanandattractedastrongbaseofMuslimsupportwithlocalchaptersin
allMuslimcentresinIndia.[85]AsamarkofsolidaritywithIndianMuslimshereturnedthemedalsthathadbeen
bestowedonhimbytheBritishgovernmentforhisworkintheBoerandZuluWars.HebelievedthattheBritish
governmentwasnotbeinghonestinitsdealingswithMuslimsontheKhilafatissue.HissuccessmadehimIndia's
firstnationalleaderwithamulticulturalbaseandfacilitatedhisrisetopowerwithinCongress,whichhad
previouslybeenunabletoinfluencemanyIndianMuslims.In1920Gandhibecameamajorleaderin
Congress.[86][87]Bytheendof1922theKhilafatmovementhadcollapsed.[88]
Gandhialwaysfoughtagainst"communalism",whichpittedMuslimsagainstHindusinIndianpolitics,buthe
couldnotreversetherapidgrowthofcommunalismafter1922.Deadlyreligiousriotsbrokeoutinnumerouscities,
including91inUttarPradeshalone.[89][90]Attheleadershiplevel,theproportionofMuslimsamongdelegatesto
Congressfellsharply,from11%in1921tounder4%in1923.[91]
Noncooperation
InhisfamousbookHindSwaraj(1909)GandhideclaredthatBritishrulewasestablishedinIndiawiththeco
operationofIndiansandhadsurvivedonlybecauseofthiscooperation.IfIndiansrefusedtocooperate,British
rulewouldcollapseandswarajwouldcome.[92]
WithCongressnowbehindhimin1920,Gandhihadthebasetoemploynoncooperation,nonviolenceand
peacefulresistanceashis"weapons"inthestruggleagainsttheBritishRaj.Hiswidepopularityamongboth
HindusandMuslimsmadehisleadershippossibleheevenconvincedtheextremefactionofMuslimstosupport
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MahatmaGandhispinningyarn,in
thelate1920s
peacefulnoncooperation.[85]Thesparkthatignitedanationalprotestwas
overwhelmingangerattheJallianwalaBaghmassacre(orAmritsar
massacre)ofhundredsofpeacefulciviliansbyBritishtroopsinPunjab.
ManyBritonscelebratedtheactionasneededtopreventanotherviolent
uprisingsimilartotheRebellionof1857,anattitudethatcausedmany
IndianleaderstodecidetheRajwascontrolledbytheirenemies.Gandhi
criticisedboththeactionsoftheBritishRajandtheretaliatoryviolenceof
Indians.HeauthoredtheresolutionofferingcondolencestoBritishcivilian
victimsandcondemningtheriotswhich,afterinitialoppositionintheparty,
wasacceptedfollowingGandhi'semotionalspeechadvocatinghisprinciple
thatallviolencewasevilandcouldnotbejustified.[93]
Afterthemassacreandsubsequentviolence,Gandhibegantofocuson
winningcompleteselfgovernmentandcontrolofallIndiangovernmentinstitutions,maturingsoonintoSwarajor
completeindividual,spiritual,politicalindependence.[94]Duringthisperiod,Gandhiclaimedtobea"highly
orthodoxHindu"andinJanuary1921duringaspeechatatempleinVadtal,hespokeoftherelevanceofnonco
operationtoHinduDharma,"Atthisholyplace,Ideclare,ifyouwanttoprotectyour'HinduDharma',non
cooperationisfirstaswellasthelastlessonyoumustlearnup."[95]
InDecember1921,Gandhiwasinvestedwithexecutiveauthorityonbehalf
oftheIndianNationalCongress.Underhisleadership,theCongresswas
reorganisedwithanewconstitution,withthegoalofSwaraj.Membership
inthepartywasopenedtoanyonepreparedtopayatokenfee.Ahierarchy
ofcommitteeswassetuptoimprovediscipline,transformingtheparty
fromaneliteorganisationtooneofmassnationalappeal.Gandhiexpanded
hisnonviolenceplatformtoincludetheswadeshipolicytheboycottof
foreignmadegoods,especiallyBritishgoods.Linkedtothiswashis
advocacythatkhadi(homespuncloth)bewornbyallIndiansinsteadof
Britishmadetextiles.GandhiexhortedIndianmenandwomen,richor
poor,tospendtimeeachdayspinningkhadiinsupportoftheindependence
movement.[96]
SabarmatiAshram,Gandhi'shomein
Gandhieveninventedasmall,portablespinningwheelthatcouldbefolded
Gujaratasseenin2006.
intothesizeofasmalltypewriter.[97]Thiswasastrategytoinculcate
disciplineanddedicationtoweedingouttheunwillingandambitiousandto
includewomeninthemovementatatimewhenmanythoughtthatsuchactivitieswerenotrespectableactivities
forwomen.InadditiontoboycottingBritishproducts,GandhiurgedthepeopletoboycottBritisheducational
institutionsandlawcourts,toresignfromgovernmentemployment,andtoforsakeBritishtitlesandhonours.[98]
"Noncooperation"enjoyedwidespreadappealandsuccess,increasingexcitementandparticipationfromallstrata
ofIndiansociety.Yet,justasthemovementreacheditsapex,itendedabruptlyasaresultofaviolentclashinthe
townofChauriChaura,UttarPradesh,inFebruary1922.Fearingthatthemovementwasabouttotakeaturn
towardsviolence,andconvincedthatthiswouldbetheundoingofallhiswork,Gandhicalledoffthecampaignof
masscivildisobedience.[99]ThiswasthethirdtimethatGandhihadcalledoffamajorcampaign.[100]Gandhiwas
arrestedon10March1922,triedforsedition,andsentencedtosixyears'imprisonment.Hebeganhissentenceon
18March1922.HewasreleasedinFebruary1924foranappendicitisoperation,havingservedonlytwoyears.[101]
WithoutGandhi'sunifyingpersonality,theIndianNationalCongressbegantosplinterduringhisyearsinprison,
splittingintotwofactions,oneledbyChittaRanjanDasandMotilalNehrufavouringpartyparticipationinthe
legislatures,andtheotherledbyChakravartiRajagopalachariandSardarVallabhbhaiPatel,opposingthismove.
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Furthermore,cooperationamongHindusandMuslims,whichhadbeenstrongattheheightofthenonviolence
campaign,wasbreakingdown.Gandhiattemptedtobridgethesedifferencesthroughmanymeans,includinga
threeweekfastintheautumnof1924,butwithlimitedsuccess.[102]Inthisyear,Gandhiwaspersuadedtopreside
overtheCongresssessiontobeheldinBelgaum.Gandhiagreedtobecomepresidentofthesessiononone
condition:thatCongressmenshouldtaketowearinghomespunkhadi.Inhislongpoliticalcareer,thiswastheonly
timewhenhepresidedoveraCongresssession.[103]
SaltSatyagraha(SaltMarch)
Gandhistayedoutofactivepoliticsand,assuch,thelimelightformostof
the1920s.HefocusedinsteadonresolvingthewedgebetweentheSwaraj
PartyandtheIndianNationalCongress,andexpandinginitiativesagainst
untouchability,alcoholism,ignorance,andpoverty.Hereturnedtothefore
in1928.Intheprecedingyear,theBritishgovernmenthadappointedanew
constitutionalreformcommissionunderSirJohnSimon,whichdidnot
includeanyIndianasitsmember.Theresultwasaboycottofthe
commissionbyIndianpoliticalparties.Gandhipushedthrougharesolution
attheCalcuttaCongressinDecember1928callingontheBritish
governmenttograntIndiadominionstatusorfaceanewcampaignofnon
cooperationwithcompleteindependenceforthecountryasitsgoal.
GandhihadnotonlymoderatedtheviewsofyoungermenlikeSubhas
ChandraBoseandJawaharlalNehru,whosoughtademandforimmediate
independence,butalsoreducedhisowncalltoaoneyearwait,insteadof
two.[104]
OriginalfootageofGandhiandhis
followersmarchingtoDandiinthe
SaltSatyagraha
TheBritishdidnotrespond.On31December1929,theflagofIndiawasunfurledinLahore.26January1930was
celebratedasIndia'sIndependenceDaybytheIndianNationalCongressmeetinginLahore.Thisdaywas
commemoratedbyalmosteveryotherIndianorganisation.GandhithenlaunchedanewSatyagrahaagainstthetax
onsaltinMarch1930.ThiswashighlightedbythefamousSaltMarchtoDandifrom12Marchto6April,where
hemarched388kilometres(241mi)fromAhmedabadtoDandi,Gujarattomakesalthimself.Thousandsof
Indiansjoinedhimonthismarchtothesea.ThiscampaignwasoneofhismostsuccessfulatupsettingBritishhold
onIndiaBritainrespondedbyimprisoningover60,000people.[105]
Women
Gandhistronglyfavouredtheemancipationofwomen,andhewentsofarastosaythat"thewomenhavecometo
lookuponmeasoneofthemselves."Heopposedpurdah,childmarriage,untouchability,andtheextreme
oppressionofHinduwidows,uptoandincludingsati.Heespeciallyrecruitedwomentoparticipateinthesalttax
campaignsandtheboycottofforeignproducts.[106]SarmaconcludesthatGandhi'ssuccessinenlistingwomenin
hiscampaigns,includingthesalttaxcampaign,theantiuntouchabilitycampaignandthepeasantmovement,gave
manywomenanewselfconfidenceanddignityinthemainstreamofIndianpubliclife.[107]
Gandhiasfolkhero
Congressinthe1920sappealedtopeasantsbyportrayingGandhiasasortofmessiah,astrategythatsucceededin
incorporatingradicalforceswithinthepeasantryintothenonviolentresistancemovement.Inthousandsofvillages
playswereperformedthatpresentedGandhiasthereincarnationofearlierIndiannationalistleaders,orevenasa
demigod.TheplaysbuiltsupportamongilliteratepeasantssteepedintraditionalHinduculture.Similarmessianic
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imageryappearedinpopularsongsandpoems,andinCongress
sponsoredreligiouspageantsandcelebrations.Theresultwasthat
GandhibecamenotonlyafolkherobuttheCongresswaswidelyseen
inthevillagesashissacredinstrument.[108]
Negotiations
Thegovernment,representedbyLordEdwardIrwin,decidedto
negotiatewithGandhi.TheGandhiIrwinPactwassignedinMarch
1931.TheBritishGovernmentagreedtofreeallpoliticalprisoners,in
returnforthesuspensionofthecivildisobediencemovement.Alsoasa
resultofthepact,GandhiwasinvitedtoattendtheRoundTable
ConferenceinLondonasthesolerepresentativeoftheIndianNational
Congress.TheconferencewasadisappointmenttoGandhiandthe
nationalists,becauseitfocusedontheIndianprincesandIndian
minoritiesratherthanonatransferofpower.LordIrwin'ssuccessor,
LordWillingdon,takingahardlineagainstnationalism,begananew
campaignofcontrollingandsubduingthenationalistmovement.
Gandhiwasagainarrested,andthegovernmenttriedandfailedto
negatehisinfluencebycompletelyisolatinghimfromhis
followers.[109]
MahadevDesai(left)readingoutaletter
toGandhifromtheViceroyatBirla
House,Bombay,7April1939
InBritain,WinstonChurchill,a
prominentConservativepolitician
whowasthenoutofoffice,became
avigorousandarticulatecriticof
Gandhiandopponentofhislong
termplans.Churchilloftenridiculed
Gandhi,sayinginawidelyreported
1931speech:
Itisalarmingandalsonauseatingto
seeMrGandhi,aseditiousMiddle
Templelawyer,nowposingasa
fakirofatypewellknowninthe
East,stridinghalfnakedupthe
stepsoftheViceregalpalace....to
parleyonequaltermswiththe
representativeoftheKing
Emperor.[110]
A1932cartoonLordWillingdongoesonhungerstriketoforceGandhitoadmit
thenewconstitutionas"touchable"
Untouchables
In1932,throughthecampaigningoftheDalitleaderB.R.Ambedkar,thegovernmentgranteduntouchables
separateelectoratesunderthenewconstitution,knownastheCommunalAward.Inprotest,Gandhiembarkedona
sixdayfaston20September1932,whilehewasimprisonedattheYerwadaJail,Pune.[111]Theresultingpublic
outcrysuccessfullyforcedthegovernmenttoadoptanequitablearrangement(PoonaPact)throughnegotiations
mediatedbyMadanMohanMalviyaandPalwankarBaloo.[111]ThiswasthestartofanewcampaignbyGandhito
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improvethelivesoftheuntouchables,whomhenamedHarijans,thechildrenofGod.[112]On8September1931,
GandhiwhowassailingonSSRajputana,tothesecondRoundTableConferenceinLondon,metMeherBabain
hiscabinonboardtheship,anddiscussedissuesofuntouchables,politics,stateIndependenceandspirituality.[113]
On8May1933,Gandhibegana21dayfastofselfpurificationandlaunchedaoneyearcampaigntohelpthe
Harijanmovement.[114]ThisnewcampaignwasnotuniversallyembracedwithintheDalitcommunity,as
AmbedkarcondemnedGandhi'suseofthetermHarijansassayingthatDalitsweresociallyimmature,andthat
privilegedcasteIndiansplayedapaternalisticrole.AmbedkarandhisalliesalsofeltGandhiwasundermining
Dalitpoliticalrights.Gandhihadalsorefusedtosupporttheuntouchablesin192425whentheywere
campaigningfortherighttoprayintemples.BecauseofGandhi'sactions,Ambedkardescribedhimas"devious
anduntrustworthy".[100]Gandhi,althoughbornintotheVaishyacaste,insistedthathewasabletospeakonbehalf
ofDalits,despitethepresenceofDalitactivistssuchasAmbedkar.[115]GandhiandAmbedkaroftenclashed
becauseAmbedkarsoughttoremovetheDalitsoutoftheHinducommunity,whileGandhitriedtosaveHinduism
byexorcisinguntouchability.AmbedkarcomplainedthatGandhimovedtooslowly,whileHindutraditionalists
saidGandhiwasadangerousradicalwhorejectedscripture.Guhanotedin2012that,"Ideologueshavecarried
theseoldrivalriesintothepresent,withthedemonizationofGandhinowcommonamongpoliticianswhopresume
tospeakinAmbedkar'sname."[116]
Congresspolitics
In1934GandhiresignedfromCongresspartymembership.Hedidnotdisagreewiththeparty'spositionbutfelt
thatifheresigned,hispopularitywithIndianswouldceasetostifletheparty'smembership,whichactuallyvaried,
includingcommunists,socialists,tradeunionists,students,religiousconservatives,andthosewithprobusiness
convictions,andthatthesevariousvoiceswouldgetachancetomakethemselvesheard.Gandhialsowantedto
avoidbeingatargetforRajpropagandabyleadingapartythathadtemporarilyacceptedpoliticalaccommodation
withtheRaj.[117]
Gandhireturnedtoactivepoliticsagainin1936,withtheNehrupresidencyandtheLucknowsessionofthe
Congress.AlthoughGandhiwantedatotalfocusonthetaskofwinningindependenceandnotspeculationabout
India'sfuture,hedidnotrestraintheCongressfromadoptingsocialismasitsgoal.GandhihadaclashwithSubhas
ChandraBose,whohadbeenelectedpresidentin1938,andwhohadpreviouslyexpressedalackoffaithin
nonviolenceasameansofprotest.[118]DespiteGandhi'sopposition,BosewonasecondtermasCongress
President,againstGandhi'snominee,Dr.PattabhiSitaramayyabutlefttheCongresswhentheAllIndialeaders
resignedenmasseinprotestofhisabandonmentoftheprinciplesintroducedbyGandhi.[119][120]Gandhideclared
thatSitaramayya'sdefeatwashisdefeat.[121]
WorldWarIIandQuitIndiamovement
Gandhiinitiallyfavouredoffering"nonviolentmoralsupport"totheBritisheffortwhenWorldWarIIbrokeoutin
1939,buttheCongressionalleaderswereoffendedbytheunilateralinclusionofIndiainthewarwithout
consultationofthepeople'srepresentatives.AllCongressmenresignedfromoffice.[122]Afterlongdeliberations,
GandhideclaredthatIndiacouldnotbepartytoawarostensiblybeingfoughtfordemocraticfreedomwhilethat
freedomwasdeniedtoIndiaitself.Asthewarprogressed,Gandhiintensifiedhisdemandforindependence,calling
fortheBritishtoQuitIndiainaspeechatGowaliaTankMaidan.ThiswasGandhi'sandtheCongressParty'smost
definitiverevoltaimedatsecuringtheBritishexitfromIndia.[123]
GandhiwascriticisedbysomeCongresspartymembersandotherIndianpoliticalgroups,bothproBritishand
antiBritish.SomefeltthatnotsupportingBritainmoreinitsstruggleagainstNaziGermanywasunethical.Others
feltthatGandhi'srefusalforIndiatoparticipateinthewarwasinsufficientandmoredirectoppositionshouldbe
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taken,whileBritainfoughtagainstNazism,it
continuedtorefusetograntIndiaIndependence.Quit
Indiabecamethemostforcefulmovementinthe
historyofthestruggle,withmassarrestsandviolence
onanunprecedentedscale.[124]
In1942,althoughstillcommittedinhiseffortsto
"launchanonviolentmovement",Gandhiclarifiedthat
themovementwouldnotbestoppedbyindividualacts
ofviolence,sayingthatthe"orderedanarchy"of"the
presentsystemofadministration"was"worsethanreal
anarchy."[125][126]HecalledonallCongressmenand
Indianstomaintaindisciplineviaahimsa,andKaroya
maro("Doordie")inthecauseofultimate
freedom.[127]
GandhiandtheentireCongressWorkingCommittee
werearrestedinBombaybytheBritishon9August
1942.GandhiwasheldfortwoyearsintheAgaKhan
PalaceinPune.ItwasherethatGandhisufferedtwo
terribleblowsinhispersonallife.His50yearold
GandhiandNehruin1942
secretaryMahadevDesaidiedofaheartattack6days
laterandhiswifeKasturbadiedafter18months'
imprisonmenton22February1944sixweekslater
Gandhisufferedaseveremalariaattack.Hewas
releasedbeforetheendofthewaron6May1944
becauseofhisfailinghealthandnecessarysurgerythe
Rajdidnotwanthimtodieinprisonandenragethe
nation.Hecameoutofdetentiontoanalteredpolitical
scenetheMuslimLeagueforexample,whichafew
yearsearlierhadappearedmarginal,"nowoccupiedthe
centreofthepoliticalstage"[128]andthetopicof
MuhammadAliJinnah'scampaignforPakistanwasa
majortalkingpoint.GandhimetJinnahinSeptember
1944inBombaybutJinnahrejected,onthegrounds
GandhiandMuhammadAliJinnah,Bombay,1944
thatitfellshortofafullyindependentPakistan,his
proposaloftherightofMuslimprovincestooptoutof
substantialpartsoftheforthcomingpoliticalunion.[129][130]
WhiletheleadersofCongresslanguishedinjail,theotherpartiessupportedthewarandgainedorganizational
strength.UndergroundpublicationsflailedattheruthlesssuppressionofCongress,butithadlittlecontrolover
events.[131]Attheendofthewar,theBritishgaveclearindicationsthatpowerwouldbetransferredtoIndian
hands.AtthispointGandhicalledoffthestruggle,andaround100,000politicalprisonerswerereleased,including
theCongress'sleadership.[132]
Partitionandindependence,1947
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Asarule,Gandhiwasopposedtotheconceptof
partitionasitcontradictedhisvisionofreligious
unity.[133]ConcerningthepartitionofIndiatocreate
Pakistan,whiletheIndianNationalCongressand
GandhicalledfortheBritishtoquitIndia,theMuslim
Leaguepassedaresolutionforthemtodivideand
quit,in1943.[134]Gandhisuggestedanagreement
whichrequiredtheCongressandMuslimLeagueto
cooperateandattainindependenceundera
provisionalgovernment,thereafter,thequestionof
partitioncouldberesolvedbyaplebisciteinthe
districtswithaMuslimmajority.[135]WhenJinnah
calledforDirectAction,on16August1946,Gandhi
wasinfuriatedandpersonallyvisitedthemostriot
proneareastostopthemassacres.[136]Hemadestrong
effortstounitetheIndianHindus,Muslims,and
Christiansandstruggledfortheemancipationofthe
"untouchables"inHindusociety.[137]
Gandhiin1947,withLordLouisMountbatten,Britain'slast
ViceroyofIndia,andhiswifeVicereineEdwina
Mountbatten.
India'spartitionandindependencewereaccompaniedbymorethanhalfamillionkilledinriotsas1012million
Hindus,SikhsandMuslimscrossedthebordersdividingIndiaandPakistan.[138]Gandhi,havingvowedtospend
thedayofindependencefastingandspinning,wasinCalcuttaon15August1947whereheprayed,confronted
riotersandworkedwithHuseynShaheedSuhrawardytostopthecommunalkilling.[139]Butforhisteachings,the
effortsofhisfollowers,andhisownpresence,thereperhapscouldhavebeenmuchmorebloodshedduringthe
partition,accordingtoprominentNorwegianhistorian,JensArupSeip.[140]
StanleyWolperthasargued,the"plantocarveupBritishIndiawasneverapprovedoforacceptedbyGandhi...who
realisedtoolatethathisclosestcomradesanddisciplesweremoreinterestedinpowerthanprinciple,andthathis
ownvisionhadlongbeencloudedbytheillusionthatthestruggleheledforIndia'sindependencewasanonviolent
one."[141]
Assassination
MohandasKaramchandGandhiwasassassinatedinthegardenoftheformerBirlaHouse(nowGandhiSmriti)at
5:17pmon30January1948.Accompaniedbyhisgrandnieces,Gandhiwasonhiswaytoaddressaprayer
meeting,whenhisassassin,NathuramGodse,firedthreebulletsfromaBeretta9mmpistolintohischestatpoint
blankrange.[142]GodsewasaHindunationalistwithlinkstotheextremistHinduMahasabha,whoheldGandhi
guiltyoffavouringPakistanandstronglyopposedthedoctrineofnonviolence.[143]Godseandhiscoconspirator
weretriedandexecutedin1949.Gandhi'smemorial(orSamdhi)atRjGht,NewDelhi,bearstheepigraph"H
Ram"(Devanagari:
!or,HeRm),whichmaybetranslatedas"OhGod".Thesearewidelybelievedtobe
Gandhi'slastwordsafterhewasshot,thoughtheveracityofthisstatementhasbeendisputed.[144]PrimeMinister
JawaharlalNehruaddressedthenationthroughradio:[145]
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MemorialattheformerBirlaHouse,New
Delhi,whereGandhiwasassassinatedat
5:17pmon30January1948onhiswayto
aprayermeeting.Stylisedfootstepsare
shownleadingtothememorial.
Friendsandcomrades,thelighthasgoneoutofourlives,andthereisdarknesseverywhere,andIdo
notquiteknowwhattotellyouorhowtosayit.Ourbelovedleader,Bapuaswecalledhim,thefather
ofthenation,isnomore.PerhapsIamwrongtosaythatnevertheless,wewillnotseehimagain,as
wehaveseenhimforthesemanyyears,wewillnotruntohimforadviceorseeksolacefromhim,and
thatisaterribleblow,notonlyforme,butformillionsandmillionsinthiscountry.Jawaharlal
Nehru'saddresstoGandhi[146]
Gandhi'sdeathwasmournednationwide.Overtwomillionpeoplejoinedthefivemilelongfuneralprocessionthat
tookoverfivehourstoreachRajGhatfromBirlahouse,wherehewasassassinated.Gandhi'sbodywas
transportedonaweaponscarrier,whosechassiswasdismantledovernighttoallowahighfloortobeinstalledso
thatpeoplecouldcatchaglimpseofhisbody.Theengineofthevehiclewasnotusedinsteadfourdragropes
mannedby50peopleeachpulledthevehicle.[147]AllIndianownedestablishmentsinLondonremainedclosedin
mourningasthousandsofpeoplefromallfaithsanddenominationsandIndiansfromalloverBritainconvergedat
IndiaHouseinLondon.[148]
WhileIndiamournedandcommunal(interreligious)violenceescalated,therewerecallsforretaliation,andeven
aninvasionofPakistanbytheIndianarmy.NehruandPatel,thetwostrongestfiguresinthegovernmentandin
Congress,hadbeenpullinginoppositedirectionstheassassinationpushedthemtogether.Theyagreedthefirst
objectivemustbetocalmthehysteria.[149]TheycalledonIndianstohonourGandhi'smemoryandevenmorehis
ideals.[150]TheyusedtheassassinationtoconsolidatetheauthorityofthenewIndianstate.Thegovernmentmade
sureeveryoneknewtheguiltypartywasnotaMuslim.Congresstightlycontrolledtheepicpublicdisplaysofgrief
overatwoweekperiodthefuneral,mortuaryritualsanddistributionofthemartyr'sashesasmillions
participatedandhundredsofmillionswatched.Thegoalwastoassertthepowerofthegovernmentandlegitimise
theCongressParty'scontrol.ThismovebuiltuponthemassiveoutpouringofHinduexpressionsofgrief.The
governmentsuppressedtheRSS,theMuslimNationalGuards,andtheKhaksars,withsome200,000arrests.
Gandhi'sdeathandfunerallinkedthedistantstatewiththeIndianpeopleandmademoreunderstandwhyreligious
partieswerebeingsuppressedduringthetransitiontoindependencefortheIndianpeople.[151]
Ashes
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ByHindutraditiontheashesweretobespreadonariver.Gandhi'sasheswerepouredintournswhichweresent
acrossIndiaformemorialservices.[152]MostwereimmersedattheSangamatAllahabadon12February1948,but
someweresecretlytakenaway.In1997,TusharGandhiimmersedthecontentsofoneurn,foundinabankvault
andreclaimedthroughthecourts,attheSangamatAllahabad.[153][154]SomeofGandhi'sasheswerescatteredat
thesourceoftheNileRivernearJinja,Uganda,andamemorialplaquemarkstheevent.On30January2008,the
contentsofanotherurnwereimmersedatGirgaumChowpatty.AnotherurnisatthepalaceoftheAgaKhanin
Pune[153](whereGandhihadbeenimprisonedfrom1942to1944)andanotherintheSelfRealizationFellowship
LakeShrineinLosAngeles.[155]
Principles,practicesandbeliefs
GandhismdesignatestheideasandprinciplesGandhipromoted.Ofcentralimportanceisnonviolentresistance.A
Gandhiancanmeaneitheranindividualwhofollows,oraspecificphilosophywhichisattributedto,Gandhism.[79]
M.M.SankhdherarguesthatGandhismisnotasystematicpositioninmetaphysicsorinpoliticalphilosophy.
Rather,itisapoliticalcreed,aneconomicdoctrine,areligiousoutlook,amoralprecept,andespecially,a
humanitarianworldview.Itisaneffortnottosystematisewisdombuttotransformsocietyandisbasedonan
undyingfaithinthegoodnessofhumannature.[156]HoweverGandhihimselfdidnotapproveofthenotionof
"Gandhism",asheexplainedin1936:
Thereisnosuchthingas"Gandhism",andIdonotwanttoleaveanysectafterme.Idonotclaimto
haveoriginatedanynewprincipleordoctrine.Ihavesimplytriedinmyownwaytoapplytheeternal
truthstoourdailylifeandproblems...TheopinionsIhaveformedandtheconclusionsIhavearrivedat
arenotfinal.Imaychangethemtomorrow.Ihavenothingnewtoteachtheworld.Truthand
nonviolenceareasoldasthehills.[157]
Influences
HistorianR.B.CribbarguesthatGandhi'sthoughtevolvedovertime,with
hisearlyideasbecomingthecoreorscaffoldingforhismaturephilosophy.
InLondonhecommittedhimselftotruthfulness,temperance,chastity,and
vegetarianism.HisreturntoIndiatoworkasalawyerwasafailure,sohe
wenttoSouthAfricaforaquartercentury,whereheabsorbedideasfrom
manysources,mostofthemnonIndian.[158]Gandhigrewupinaneclectic
religiousatmosphereandthroughouthislifesearchedforinsightsfrom
manyreligioustraditions.[159]HewasexposedtoJainideasthroughhis
motherwhowasincontactwithJainmonks.ThemesfromJainismthat
Gandhiabsorbedincludedasceticismcompassionforallformsoflifethe
importanceofvowsforselfdisciplinevegetarianismfastingforself
purificationmutualtoleranceamongpeopleofdifferentcreedsand
"syadvad",theideathatallviewsoftrutharepartial,adoctrinethatliesat
therootofSatyagraha.[160]HereceivedmuchofhisinfluencefromJainism
particularlyduringhisyoungeryears.[161]
Gandhiwithfamouspoet
RabindranathTagore,1940
Gandhi'sLondonexperienceprovidedasolidphilosophicalbasefocusedontruthfulness,temperance,chastity,and
vegetarianism.WhenhereturnedtoIndiain1891,hisoutlookwasparochialandhecouldnotmakealivingasa
lawyer.Thischallengedhisbeliefthatpracticalityandmoralitynecessarilycoincided.Bymovingin1893toSouth
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Africahefoundasolutiontothisproblemanddevelopedthecentralconceptsofhismaturephilosophy.[162]N.A.
Toothi[163]feltthatGandhiwasinfluencedbythereformsandteachingsofSwaminarayan,stating"Closeparallels
doexistinprogramsofsocialreformbasedontononviolence,truthtelling,cleanliness,temperanceandupliftment
ofthemasses."[164]VallabhbhaiPatel,whogrewupinaSwaminarayanhouseholdwasattractedtoGandhidueto
thisaspectofGandhi'sdoctrine.[165]
Gandhi'sethicalthinkingwasheavilyinfluencedbyahandfulofbooks,whichherepeatedlymeditatedupon.They
includedespeciallyPlato'sApologyandJohnRuskin'sUntothisLast(1862)(bothofwhichhetranslatedintohis
nativeGujarati)WilliamSalter'sEthicalReligion(1889)HenryDavidThoreau'sOntheDutyofCivil
Disobedience(1849)andLeoTolstoy'sTheKingdomofGodIsWithinYou(1894).Ruskininspiredhisdecisionto
liveanausterelifeonacommune,atfirstonthePhoenixFarminNatalandthenontheTolstoyFarmjustoutside
Johannesburg,SouthAfrica.[49]
BalkrishnaGokhalearguesthatGandhitookhisphilosophyofhistoryfromHinduismandJainism,supplemented
byselectedChristiantraditionsandideasofTolstoyandRuskin.HinduismprovidedcentralconceptsofGod'srole
inhistory,ofmanasthebattlegroundofforcesofvirtueandsin,andofthepotentialofloveasanhistoricalforce.
FromJainism,GandhitooktheideaofapplyingnonviolencetohumansituationsandthetheorythatAbsolute
Realitycanbecomprehendedonlyrelativelyinhumanaffairs.[166]
HistorianHowardSpodekarguesfortheimportanceofthecultureofGujaratinshapingGandhi'smethods.Spodek
findsthatsomeofGandhi'smosteffectivemethodssuchasfasting,noncooperationandappealstothejusticeand
compassionoftherulerswerelearnedasayouthinGujarat.Lateron,thefinancial,cultural,organizationaland
geographicalsupportneededtobringhiscampaignstoanationalaudienceweredrawnfromAhmedabadand
Gujarat,hisIndianresidence19151930.[167]
Tolstoy
Alongwiththebookmentionedabove,in1908LeoTolstoywroteALetter
toaHindu,whichsaidthatonlybyusingloveasaweaponthroughpassive
resistancecouldtheIndianpeopleoverthrowcolonialrule.In1909,Gandhi
wrotetoTolstoyseekingadviceandpermissiontorepublishALettertoa
HinduinGujarati.Tolstoyrespondedandthetwocontinueda
correspondenceuntilTolstoy'sdeathin1910(Tolstoy'slastletterwasto
Gandhi).[168]Thelettersconcernpracticalandtheologicalapplicationsof
nonviolence.[169]GandhisawhimselfadiscipleofTolstoy,fortheyagreed
MohandasK.Gandhiandother
regardingoppositiontostateauthorityandcolonialismbothhatedviolence
residentsofTolstoyFarm,South
andpreachednonresistance.However,theydifferedsharplyonpolitical
Africa,1910
strategy.Gandhicalledforpoliticalinvolvementhewasanationalistand
waspreparedtousenonviolentforce.Hewasalsowillingto
compromise.[170]ItwasatTolstoyFarmwhereGandhiandHermannKallenbachsystematicallytrainedtheir
disciplesinthephilosophyofnonviolence.[171]
TruthandSatyagraha
Gandhidedicatedhislifetothewiderpurposeofdiscoveringtruth,orSatya.Hetriedtoachievethisbylearning
fromhisownmistakesandconductingexperimentsonhimself.HecalledhisautobiographyTheStoryofMy
ExperimentswithTruth.[172]
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BruceWatsonarguesthatGandhibasedSatyagrahaontheVedanticidealof
selfrealization,andnotesitalsocontainsJainandBuddhistnotionsof
nonviolence,vegetarianism,theavoidanceofkilling,and'agape'(universal
love).GandhialsoborrowedChristianIslamicideasofequality,the
brotherhoodofman,andtheconceptofturningtheothercheek.[173]
"Godistruth.Thewaytotruthlies
throughahimsa(nonviolence)"
Sabarmati13March1927
Gandhistatedthatthemostimportantbattletofightwasovercominghis
owndemons,fears,andinsecurities.Gandhisummarisedhisbeliefsfirst
whenhesaid"GodisTruth".Hewouldlaterchangethisstatementto
"TruthisGod".Thus,satya(truth)inGandhi'sphilosophyis"God".[174]
TheessenceofSatyagraha(anameGandhiinventedmeaning"adherenceto
truth"[175])isthatitseekstoeliminateantagonismswithoutharmingthe
antagoniststhemselvesandseekstotransformor"purify"ittoahigherlevel.Aeuphemismsometimesusedfor
Satyagrahaisthatitisa"silentforce"ora"soulforce"(atermalsousedbyMartinLutherKingJr.duringhis
famous"IHaveaDream"speech).Itarmstheindividualwithmoralpowerratherthanphysicalpower.Satyagraha
isalsotermeda"universalforce",asitessentially"makesnodistinctionbetweenkinsmenandstrangers,young
andold,manandwoman,friendandfoe."[176]
Gandhiwrote:"Theremustbenoimpatience,nobarbarity,noinsolence,nounduepressure.Ifwewanttocultivate
atruespiritofdemocracy,wecannotaffordtobeintolerant.Intolerancebetrayswantoffaithinone'scause."[177]
CivildisobedienceandnoncooperationaspractisedunderSatyagrahaarebasedonthe"lawofsuffering",[178]a
doctrinethattheenduranceofsufferingisameanstoanend.Thisendusuallyimpliesamoralupliftmentor
progressofanindividualorsociety.Therefore,noncooperationinSatyagrahaisinfactameanstosecuretheco
operationoftheopponentconsistentlywithtruthandjustice.[179]
Nonviolence
AlthoughGandhiwasnottheoriginatoroftheprincipleofnonviolence,hewasthefirsttoapplyitinthepolitical
fieldonalargescale.[180]Theconceptofnonviolence(ahimsa)andnonresistancehasalonghistoryinIndian
religiousthought.GandhiexplainshisphilosophyandwayoflifeinhisautobiographyTheStoryofMy
ExperimentswithTruth.Gandhirealisedlaterthatthislevelofnonviolencerequiredincrediblefaithandcourage,
whichhebelievedeveryonedidnotpossess.Hethereforeadvisedthateveryoneneednotkeeptononviolence,
especiallyifitwereusedasacoverforcowardice,saying,"wherethereisonlyachoicebetweencowardiceand
violence,Iwouldadviseviolence."[181][182]
Gandhithuscameundersomepoliticalfireforhiscriticismofthosewhoattemptedtoachieveindependence
throughmoreviolentmeans.HisrefusaltoprotestagainstthehangingofBhagatSingh,Sukhdev,UdhamSingh
andRajguruweresourcesofcondemnationamongsomeparties.[183][184]
Ofthiscriticism,Gandhistated,"TherewasatimewhenpeoplelistenedtomebecauseIshowedthemhowtogive
fighttotheBritishwithoutarmswhentheyhadnoarms...buttodayIamtoldthatmynonviolencecanbeofno
availagainstthe[HinduMuslimriots]and,therefore,peopleshouldarmthemselvesforselfdefense."[185]
Gandhi'sviewscameunderheavycriticisminBritainwhenitwasunderattackfromNaziGermany,andlater
whentheHolocaustwasrevealed.HetoldtheBritishpeoplein1940,"Iwouldlikeyoutolaydownthearmsyou
haveasbeinguselessforsavingyouorhumanity.YouwillinviteHerrHitlerandSignorMussolinitotakewhat
theywantofthecountriesyoucallyourpossessions...Ifthesegentlemenchoosetooccupyyourhomes,youwill
vacatethem.Iftheydonotgiveyoufreepassageout,youwillallowyourselves,man,woman,andchild,tobe
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slaughtered,butyouwillrefusetooweallegiancetothem."[186]
GeorgeOrwellremarkedthatGandhi'smethodsconfronted'an
oldfashionedandrathershakydespotismwhichtreatedhimin
afairlychivalrousway',notatotalitarianPower,'where
politicalopponentssimplydisappear.'[187]
Inapostwarinterviewin1946,hesaid,"Hitlerkilledfive
millionJews.Itisthegreatestcrimeofourtime.ButtheJews
shouldhaveofferedthemselvestothebutcher'sknife.They
shouldhavethrownthemselvesintotheseafromcliffs...It
wouldhavearousedtheworldandthepeopleofGermany...As
itistheysuccumbedanywayintheirmillions."[188]Gandhi
believedthisactof"collectivesuicide",inresponsetothe
Holocaust,"wouldhavebeenheroism".[189]
Muslims
OneofGandhi'smajorstrategies,firstinSouthAfricaandthen
inIndia,wasunitingMuslimsandHindustoworktogetherin
oppositiontoBritishimperialism.In191922hewonstrong
MuslimsupportforhisleadershipintheKhilafatMovementto
supportthehistoricOttomanCaliphate.By1924,thatMuslim
supporthadlargelyevaporated.[190][191]
GandhiwithtextileworkersatDarwen,
Lancashire,26September1931.
Jews
In1931,hesuggestedthatwhilehecouldunderstandthedesireofEuropeanJewstoemigratetoPalestine,he
opposedanymovementthatsupportedBritishcolonialismorviolence.MuslimsthroughoutIndiaandtheMiddle
EaststronglyopposedtheZionistplanforaJewishstateinPalestine,andGandhi(andCongress)supportedthe
Muslimsinthisregard.Bythe1930sallmajorpoliticalgroupsinIndiaopposedaJewishstateinPalestine.[192]
ThisledtodiscussionsconcerningthepersecutionoftheJewsinGermanyandtheemigrationofJewsfrom
EuropetoPalestine,whichGandhiframedthroughthelensofSatyagraha.[139][193]In1937,Gandhidiscussed
ZionismwithhiscloseJewishfriendHermannKallenbach.[194]HesaidthatZionismwasnottherightanswerto
theJewishproblem[195]andinsteadrecommendedSatyagraha.GandhithoughttheZionistsinPalestine
representedEuropeanimperialismandusedviolencetoachievetheirgoalshearguedthat"theJewsshould
disclaimanyintentionofrealizingtheiraspirationundertheprotectionofarmsandshouldrelywhollyonthe
goodwillofArabs.NoexceptioncanpossiblybetakentothenaturaldesireoftheJewstofoundahomein
Palestine.ButtheymustwaitforitsfulfillmenttillArabopinionisripeforit."[139]In1938,Gandhistatedthathis
"sympathiesareallwiththeJews.IhaveknownthemintimatelyinSouthAfrica.Someofthembecamelifelong
companions."PhilosopherMartinBuberwashighlycriticalofGandhi'sapproachandin1939wroteanopenletter
tohimonthesubject.GandhireiteratedhisstanceontheuseofSatyagrahainPalestinein1947.[196]
Vegetarianism,food,andanimals
StephenHayarguesthatGandhilookedintonumerousreligiousandintellectualcurrentsduringhisstayinLondon
.Heespeciallyappreciatedhowthetheosophicalmovementencouragedareligiouseclecticismandanantipathyto
atheism.HaysaysthevegetarianmovementhadthegreatestimpactforitwasGandhi'spointofentryintoother
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reformistagendasofthetime.[197]TheideaofvegetarianismisdeeplyingrainedinHinduandJaintraditionsin
India,especiallyinhisnativeGujarat.[198]GandhiwasclosetothechairmanoftheLondonVegetarianSociety,Dr.
JosiahOldfield,andcorrespondedwithHenryStephensSalt,avegetariancampaigner.Gandhibecameastrict
vegetarian.HewrotethebookTheMoralBasisofVegetarianismandwrotefortheLondonVegetarianSociety's
publication.[199]Gandhiwassomewhatofafoodfaddist.ThereisawidespreadrumourthatGandhitookhisown
goatallthewaytoLondonwhichiswrong.[200]
GandhinotedinTheStoryofMyExperimentswithTruth,thatvegetarianismwasthebeginningofhisdeep
commitmenttoBrahmacharyawithouttotalcontrolofthepalate,hissuccessinfollowingBrahmacharyawould
likelyfalter."YouwishtoknowwhatthemarksofamanarewhowantstorealiseTruthwhichisGod",hewrote.
"Hemustreducehimselftozeroandhaveperfectcontroloverallhissensesbeginningwiththepalateor
tongue."[201][202]Gandhialsostatedthathefollowedafruitariandietforfiveyearsbutdiscontinueditdueto
pleurisyandpressurefromhisdoctor.Hethereafterresumedavegetariandiet.Gandhialsoopposedvivisection:
"Vivisectioninmyopinionistheblackestofalltheblackestcrimesthatmanisatpresentcommittingagainstgod
andhisfaircreation."[203]
Fasting
Gandhiusedfastingasapoliticaldevice,oftenthreateningsuicideunless
demandsweremet.Congresspublicisedthefastsasapoliticalactionthat
generatedwidespreadsympathy.Inresponsethegovernmenttriedto
manipulatenewscoveragetominimisehischallengetotheRaj.Hefasted
in1932toprotestthevotingschemeforseparatepoliticalrepresentationfor
DalitsGandhididnotwantthemsegregated.Thegovernmentstoppedthe
Londonpressfromshowingphotographsofhisemaciatedbody,becauseit
wouldelicitsympathy.Gandhi's1943hungerstriketookplaceduringa
twoyearprisontermfortheanticolonialQuitIndiamovement.The
governmentcalledonnutritionalexpertstodemystifyhisaction,andagain
nophotoswereallowed.However,hisfinalfastin1948,afterIndiawas
independent,waslaudedbytheBritishpressandthistimedidincludefull
lengthphotos.[204]
Fasting,withyoungIndiraGandhi,
mid1920s
AlterarguesthatGandhi'sfixationondietandcelibacyweremuchdeeperthanexercisesinselfdiscipline.Rather,
hisbeliefsregardinghealthofferedacritiqueofboththetraditionalHindusystemofayurvedicmedicineand
Westernconcepts.Thischallengewasintegraltohisdeeperchallengetotraditionandmodernity,ashealthand
nonviolencebecamepartofthesameethics.[205]
Brahmacharya,celibacy
In1906Gandhi,althoughmarriedandafather,vowedtoabstainfromsexualrelations.Inthe1940s,inhismid
seventies,hebroughthisgrandnieceManubehntosleepnakedinhisbedaspartofaspiritualexperimentinwhich
Gandhicouldtesthimselfasa"brahmachari".Severalotheryoungwomenandgirlsalsosometimessharedhisbed
aspartofhisexperiments.[206]Mostofthegirlswerepostpubertal,butsomewereyounger.[207]Gandhi'sbehaviour
waswidelydiscussedandcriticisedbyfamilymembersandleadingpoliticians,includingNehru.His"halfnaked"
costumehadlongbeenthetopicofridiculeinBritainandAmerica.[208]Somemembersofhisstaffresigned,
includingtwoeditorsofhisnewspaperwholeftafterrefusingtoprintpartsofGandhi'ssermonsdealingwithhis
sleepingarrangements.ButGandhisaidthatifhewouldn'tletManusleepwithhim,itwouldbeasignof
weakness.[209]
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Gandhidiscussedhisexperimentwithfriendsandrelationsmostdisagreedandtheexperimentceasedin1947.[210]
ReligiousstudiesscholarVeenaHowardarguesthatGandhimade"creativeuse"[211]:130ofhiscelibacyandhis
authorityasamahatma"toreinterpretreligiousnormsandconfrontunjustsocialandreligiousconventions
relegatingwomentolowerstatus."[211]:130AccordingtoHoward,Gandhi"developedhisdiscourseasareligious
renouncerwithinIndia'straditionstoconfrontrepressivesocialandreligiouscustomsregardingwomenandto
bringthemintothepublicsphere,duringatimewhenthediscourseoncelibacywastypicallyimbuedwith
masculinerhetoricandmisogynistinferences....hiswritingsshowaconsistentevolutionofhisthoughttoward
creatinganequalplayingfieldformembersofbothsexesandevenelevatingwomentoahigherplaneall
throughhisdiscourseandunorthodoxpracticeofbrahmacharya."[211]:137
NaiTalim,basiceducation
Gandhi'seducationalpoliciesreflectedNaiTalim('BasicEducationforall'),aspiritualprinciplewhichstatesthat
knowledgeandworkarenotseparate.ItwasareactionagainsttheBritisheducationalsystemandcolonialismin
general,whichhadthenegativeeffectofmakingIndianchildrenalienatedandcareerbaseditpromoteddisdain
formanualwork,thedevelopmentofaneweliteclass,andtheincreasingproblemsofindustrialisationand
urbanisation.ThethreepillarsofGandhi'spedagogywereitsfocusonthelifelongcharacterofeducation,its
socialcharacteranditsformasaholisticprocess.ForGandhi,educationis'themoraldevelopmentoftheperson',
aprocessthatisbydefinition'lifelong'.[212]
NaiTalimevolvedoutofthespirituallyorientededucationprogramatTolstoyFarminSouthAfrica,andGandhi's
workattheashramatSevagramafter1937.[213]After1947theNehrugovernment'svisionofanindustrialised,
centrallyplannedeconomyhadscantplaceforGandhi'svillageorientedapproach.[214]
Swaraj,selfrule
RudolpharguesthatafterafalsestartintryingtoemulatetheEnglishinanattempttoovercomehistimidity,
GandhidiscoveredtheinnercouragehewasseekingbyhelpinghiscountrymeninSouthAfrica.Thenewcourage
consistedofobservingthetraditionalBengaliwayof"selfsuffering"and,infindinghisowncourage,hewas
enabledalsotopointoutthewayof'Satyagraha'and'ahimsa'tothewholeofIndia.[215]Gandhi'swritings
expressedfourmeaningsoffreedom:asIndia'snationalindependenceasindividualpoliticalfreedomasgroup
freedomfrompovertyandasthecapacityforpersonalselfrule.[216]
Gandhiwasaselfdescribedphilosophicalanarchist,[217]andhisvisionofIndiameantanIndiawithoutan
underlyinggovernment.[218]Heoncesaidthat"theideallynonviolentstatewouldbeanorderedanarchy."[219]
Whilepoliticalsystemsarelargelyhierarchical,witheachlayerofauthorityfromtheindividualtothecentral
governmenthaveincreasinglevelsofauthorityoverthelayerbelow,Gandhibelievedthatsocietyshouldbethe
exactopposite,wherenothingisdonewithouttheconsentofanyone,downtotheindividual.Hisideawasthattrue
selfruleinacountrymeansthateverypersonruleshisorherselfandthatthereisnostatewhichenforceslaws
uponthepeople.[220]
Thiswouldbeachievedovertimewithnonviolentconflictmediation,aspowerisdivestedfromlayersof
hierarchicalauthorities,ultimatelytotheindividual,whichwouldcometoembodytheethicofnonviolence.
Ratherthanasystemwhererightsareenforcedbyahigherauthority,peopleareselfgovernedbymutual
responsibilities.OnreturningfromSouthAfrica,whenGandhireceivedaletteraskingforhisparticipationin
writingaworldcharterforhumanrights,herespondedsaying,"inmyexperience,itisfarmoreimportanttohave
acharterforhumanduties."[221]
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AnindependentIndiadidnotmeanmerelytransferringtheestablishedBritishadministrativestructureintoIndian
hands.Hewarned,"youwouldmakeIndiaEnglish.AndwhenitbecomesEnglish,itwillbecallednotHindustan
butEnglishtan.ThisisnottheSwarajIwant."[222]TewariarguesthatGandhisawdemocracyasmorethana
systemofgovernmentitmeantpromotingbothindividualityandtheselfdisciplineofthecommunity.Democracy
wasamoralsystemthatdistributedpowerandassistedthedevelopmentofeverysocialclass,especiallythe
lowest.Itmeantsettlingdisputesinanonviolentmanneritrequiredfreedomofthoughtandexpression.For
Gandhi,democracywasawayoflife.[223]
Gandhianeconomics
AfreeIndiaforGandhimeanttheflourishingofthousandsofselfsufficientsmallcommunitieswhorule
themselveswithouthinderingothers.Gandhianeconomicsfocusedontheneedforeconomicselfsufficiencyatthe
villagelevel.Hispolicyof"sarvodaya"[224]calledforendingpovertythroughimprovedagricultureandsmallscale
cottageindustriesineveryvillage.[225]GandhichallengedNehruandthemodernizersinthelate1930swhocalled
forrapidindustrialisationontheSovietmodelGandhidenouncedthatasdehumanisingandcontrarytotheneeds
ofthevillageswherethegreatmajorityofthepeoplelived.[226]AfterGandhi'sdeath,NehruledIndiatolarge
scaleplanningthatemphasisedmodernisationandheavyindustry,whilemodernisingagriculturethrough
irrigation.HistorianKuruvillaPandikattusays"itwasNehru'svision,notGandhi's,thatwaseventuallypreferred
bytheIndianState."[227]AfterGandhi'sdeath,activistsinspiredbyhisvisionpromotedtheiroppositionto
industrialisationthroughtheteachingsofGandhianeconomics.AccordingtoGandhi,"Povertyistheworstformof
violence."
Literaryworks
Gandhiwasaprolificwriter.OneofGandhi'searliestpublications,HindSwaraj,
publishedinGujaratiin1909,isrecognisedastheintellectualblueprintofIndia's
independencemovement.ThebookwastranslatedintoEnglishthenextyear,with
acopyrightlegendthatread"NoRightsReserved".[228]Fordecadesheedited
severalnewspapersincludingHarijaninGujarati,inHindiandintheEnglish
languageIndianOpinionwhileinSouthAfricaand,YoungIndia,inEnglish,and
Navajivan,aGujaratimonthly,onhisreturntoIndia.Later,Navajivanwasalso
publishedinHindi.Inaddition,hewrotelettersalmosteverydaytoindividualsand
newspapers.[229]
Gandhialsowroteseveralbooksincludinghisautobiography,TheStoryofMy
ExperimentswithTruth(Gujart""),ofwhichhe
boughttheentirefirsteditiontomakesureitwasreprinted.[100]Hisother
YoungIndia,aweekly
autobiographiesincluded:SatyagrahainSouthAfricaabouthisstrugglethere,
journalpublishedbyGandhi
HindSwarajorIndianHomeRule,apoliticalpamphlet,andaparaphrasein
from1919to1932
GujaratiofJohnRuskin'sUntoThisLast.[230]Thislastessaycanbeconsideredhis
programmeoneconomics.Healsowroteextensivelyonvegetarianism,dietand
health,religion,socialreforms,etc.GandhiusuallywroteinGujarati,thoughhealsorevisedtheHindiandEnglish
translationsofhisbooks.[231]
Gandhi'scompleteworkswerepublishedbytheIndiangovernmentunderthenameTheCollectedWorksof
MahatmaGandhiinthe1960s.Thewritingscompriseabout50,000pagespublishedinaboutahundredvolumes.
In2000,arevisededitionofthecompleteworkssparkedacontroversy,asitcontainedalargenumberoferrorsand
omissions.[232]TheIndiangovernmentlaterwithdrewtherevisededition.[233]
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Legacyanddepictionsinpopularculture
ThewordMahatma,whileoftenmistakenforGandhi'sgivennameintheWest,istakenfromtheSanskrit
wordsmaha(meaningGreat)andatma(meaningSoul).RabindranathTagoreissaidtohaveaccordedthe
titletoGandhi.[234]Inhisautobiography,Gandhineverthelessexplainsthathenevervaluedthetitle,andwas
oftenpainedbyit.[235][236][237]
Innumerablestreets,roadsandlocalitiesinIndiaarenamedafterM.K.Gandhi.TheseincludeM.G.Road(the
mainstreetofanumberofIndiancitiesincludingMumbaiandBangalore),GandhiMarket(nearSion,
Mumbai)andGandhinagar(thecapitalofthestateofGujarat,Gandhi'sbirthplace).[238]
Followersandinternationalinfluence
Gandhiinfluencedimportantleadersandpoliticalmovements.Leadersof
thecivilrightsmovementintheUnitedStates,includingMartinLuther
King,JamesLawson,andJamesBevel,drewfromthewritingsofGandhi
inthedevelopmentoftheirowntheoriesaboutnonviolence.[239][240][241]
Kingsaid"ChristgaveusthegoalsandMahatmaGandhithetactics."[242]
KingsometimesreferredtoGandhias"thelittlebrownsaint."[243]Anti
apartheidactivistandformerPresidentofSouthAfrica,NelsonMandela,
wasinspiredbyGandhi.[244]OthersincludeKhanAbdulGhaffarKhan,[245]
SteveBiko,andAungSanSuuKyi.[246]
StatueofMahatmaGandhiatYork
University.
Inhisearlyyears,theformerPresidentofSouthAfricaNelsonMandela
wasafollowerofthenonviolentresistancephilosophyofGandhi.[244]
BhanaandVahedcommentedontheseeventsas"Gandhiinspiredsucceedinggenerations
ofSouthAfricanactivistsseekingtoendWhiterule.ThislegacyconnectshimtoNelson
Mandela...inasenseMandelacompletedwhatGandhistarted."[65]
Gandhi'slifeandteachingsinspiredmanywhospecificallyreferredtoGandhiastheir
mentororwhodedicatedtheirlivestospreadingGandhi'sideas.InEurope,Romain
RollandwasthefirsttodiscussGandhiinhis1924bookMahatmaGandhi,andBrazilian
anarchistandfeministMariaLacerdadeMourawroteaboutGandhiinherworkon
pacifism.In1931,notableEuropeanphysicistAlbertEinsteinexchangedwrittenletters
withGandhi,andcalledhim"arolemodelforthegenerationstocome"inaletterwriting
abouthim.[247]EinsteinsaidofGandhi:
MahatmaGandhiona
1969postagestamp
oftheSovietUnion
MahatmaGandhi'slifeachievementstandsuniqueinpoliticalhistory.Hehas
inventedacompletelynewandhumanemeansfortheliberationwarofan
oppressedcountry,andpractiseditwithgreatestenergyanddevotion.The
moralinfluencehehadontheconsciouslythinkinghumanbeingoftheentire
civilisedworldwillprobablybemuchmorelastingthanitseemsinourtime
withitsoverestimationofbrutalviolentforces.Becauselastingwillonlybe
theworkofsuchstatesmenwhowakeupandstrengthenthemoralpowerof
theirpeoplethroughtheirexampleandeducationalworks.Wemayallbe
happyandgratefulthatdestinygifteduswithsuchanenlightened
contemporary,arolemodelforthegenerationstocome.
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Generationstocomewillscarcebelievethatsuchaoneasthiswalkedthe
earthinfleshandblood.
LanzadelVastowenttoIndiain1936intendingtolivewithGandhihelater
returnedtoEuropetospreadGandhi'sphilosophyandfoundedtheCommunityof
theArkin1948(modelledafterGandhi'sashrams).MadeleineSlade(knownas
"Mirabehn")wasthedaughterofaBritishadmiralwhospentmuchofheradult
lifeinIndiaasadevoteeofGandhi.[248][249]
Inaddition,theBritishmusicianJohnLennonreferredtoGandhiwhendiscussing
hisviewsonnonviolence.[250]AttheCannesLionsInternationalAdvertising
Festivalin2007,formerUSVicePresidentandenvironmentalistAlGorespoke
ofGandhi'sinfluenceonhim.[251]
MahatmaGandhiatPraa
TlioFontoura,SoPaulo,
Brazil.StatuebyGautamPal
USPresidentBarackObamaina2010addresstotheParliamentofIndia
saidthat:
IammindfulthatImightnotbestandingbeforeyoutoday,as
PresidentoftheUnitedStates,haditnotbeenforGandhiand
themessagehesharedwithAmericaandtheworld.[252]
ObamainSeptember2009saidthathisbiggestinspirationcamefrom
MahatmaGandhi.Hisreplywasinresponsetothequestion'Whowasthe
oneperson,deadorlive,thatyouwouldchoosetodinewith?'.He
continuedthat"He'ssomebodyIfindalotofinspirationin.HeinspiredDr.
Kingwithhismessageofnonviolence.Heendedupdoingsomuchand
changedtheworldjustbythepowerofhisethics."[253]
StatueofMahatmaGandhiat
ParliamentSquareinLondon,2015.
StandinginfrontareBritishPrime
MinisterDavidCameron,Indian
P.M.NarendraModi,andothers.
TimeMagazinenamedThe14thDalaiLama,LechWasa,MartinLuther
King,CesarChavez,AungSanSuuKyi,BenignoAquino,Jr.,DesmondTutu,andNelsonMandelaasChildrenof
Gandhiandhisspiritualheirstononviolence.[254]TheMahatmaGandhiDistrictinHouston,Texas,UnitedStates,
anethnicIndianenclave,isofficiallynamedafterGandhi.[255]
Globalholidays
In2007,theUnitedNationsGeneralAssemblydeclaredGandhi'sbirthday2Octoberas"theInternationalDayof
Nonviolence."[256]FirstproposedbyUNESCOin1948,astheSchoolDayofNonviolenceandPeace(DENIPin
Spanish),[257]30JanuaryisobservedastheSchoolDayofNonviolenceandPeaceinschoolsofmany
countries[258]IncountrieswithaSouthernHemisphereschoolcalendar,itisobservedon30March.[258]
Awards
TimemagazinenamedGandhitheManoftheYearin1930.GandhiwasalsotherunneruptoAlbertEinsteinas
"PersonoftheCentury"[259]attheendof1999.TheGovernmentofIndiaawardedtheannualGandhiPeacePrize
todistinguishedsocialworkers,worldleadersandcitizens.NelsonMandela,theleaderofSouthAfrica'sstruggle
toeradicateracialdiscriminationandsegregation,wasaprominentnonIndianrecipient.In2011,Timemagazine
namedGandhiasoneofthetop25politicaliconsofalltime.[260]
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31/08/2016
GandhididnotreceivetheNobelPeacePrize,althoughhewasnominatedfive
timesbetween1937and1948,includingthefirstevernominationbytheAmerican
FriendsServiceCommittee,[261]thoughhemadetheshortlistonlytwice,in1937
and1947.[137]Decadeslater,theNobelCommitteepubliclydeclareditsregretfor
theomission,andadmittedtodeeplydividednationalisticopiniondenyingthe
award.[137]Gandhiwasnominatedin1948butwasassassinatedbeforenominations
closed.Thatyear,thecommitteechosenottoawardthepeaceprizestatingthat
"therewasnosuitablelivingcandidate"andlaterresearchshowsthatthe
possibilityofawardingtheprizeposthumouslytoGandhiwasdiscussedandthat
thereferencetonosuitablelivingcandidatewastoGandhi.[137]GeirLundestad,
SecretaryofNorwegianNobelCommitteein2006said,"Thegreatestomissionin
our106yearhistoryisundoubtedlythatMahatmaGandhineverreceivedtheNobel
Peaceprize.GandhicoulddowithouttheNobelPeaceprize,whetherNobel
committeecandowithoutGandhiisthequestion".[262]Whenthe14thDalaiLama
wasawardedthePrizein1989,thechairmanofthecommitteesaidthatthiswas"in
partatributetothememoryofMahatmaGandhi".[137]
MonumenttoM.K.Gandhi
inNewBelgrade,Serbia.On
themonumentiswritten
"Nonviolenceistheessence
ofallreligions".
FatheroftheNation
IndianswidelydescribeGandhiasthefatherofthenation(Hindi:).[7][8]Thetitle"TheFatherofthe
Nation"forGandhiisnotanofficialtitleandhasnotbeenofficiallyaccordedbyGovernmentofIndia.AnRTI
queryfiledbya10yearoldgirlfromLucknowinFebruary2012revealedthatPMOhasnorecordsofever
accordingsuchtitletoGandhi.MHAandNationalArchivesofIndiaalsocommunicatedofnothavingany
records.Originofthistitleistracedbacktoaradioaddress(onSingaporeradio)on6Jul1944bySubhash
ChandraBosewhereBoseaddressedGandhias"TheFatheroftheNation".On28April1947,SarojiniNaidu
duringaconferencealsoreferredGandhias"FatheroftheNation".[263][264]TheRTIapplicanthadalsopleadedfor
Gandhitobeofficiallydeclaredas"FatheroftheNation"towhichtheMHAinformedthatGandhicannotbe
accordedwiththetitlebyGovernmentofIndiasincetheIndianconstitutiondoesnotpermitanytitlesexcept
educationalandmilitarytitles.[264]
Film,theatreandliterature
A5hours,9minuteslongbiographicaldocumentaryfilm,[265]Mahatma:LifeofGandhi,18691948,madeby
VithalbhaiJhaveri[266]in1968,quotingGandhi'swordsandusingblack&whitearchivalfootageandphotographs,
capturesthehistoryofthosetimes.BenKingsleyportrayedhiminRichardAttenborough's1982filmGandhi,
whichwontheAcademyAwardforBestPicture.The1996filmTheMakingoftheMahatmadocumentedGandhi's
timeinSouthAfricaandhistransformationfromaninexperiencedbarristertorecognisedpoliticalleader.[267]
Gandhiwasacentralfigureinthe2006BollywoodcomedyfilmLageRahoMunnaBhai.JahnuBarua'sMaine
GandhiKoNahinMara(IdidnotkillGandhi),placescontemporarysocietyasabackdropwithitsvanishing
memoryofGandhi'svaluesasametaphorforthesenileforgetfulnessoftheprotagonistofhis2005film,[268]
writesVinayLal.[269]
AntiGandhithemeshavealsobeenshowcasedthroughfilmsandplays.The1995MarathiplayGandhiVirudh
GandhiexploredtherelationshipbetweenGandhiandhissonHarilal.The2007film,Gandhi,MyFatherwas
inspiredonthesametheme.The1989MarathiplayMeNathuramGodseBoltoyandthe1997HindiplayGandhi
AmbedkarcriticisedGandhiandhisprinciples.[270][271]
26/38
31/08/2016
SeveralbiographershaveundertakenthetaskofdescribingGandhi'slife.AmongthemareD.G.Tendulkarwith
hisMahatma.LifeofMohandasKaramchandGandhiineightvolumes,andPyarelalandSushilaNayyarwiththeir
MahatmaGandhiin10volumes.The2010biography,GreatSoul:MahatmaGandhiandHisStruggleWithIndia
byJosephLelyveldcontainedcontroversialmaterialspeculatingaboutGandhi'ssexuallife.[272]Lelyveld,however,
statedthatthepresscoverage"grosslydistort[s]"theoverallmessageofthebook.[273]The2014filmWelcome
BackGandhitakesafictionalisedlookathowGandhimightreacttomoderndayIndia.[274]
"MahatmaGandhi"isusedbyColePorterinhislyricsforthesongYou'retheTopwhichisincludedinthe1934
musicalAnythingGoes.InthesongPorterrhymes"MahatmaGandhi'with"NapoleonBrandy."
CurrentimpactwithinIndia
India,withitsrapideconomicmodernisationandurbanisation,hasrejected
Gandhi'seconomics[275]butacceptedmuchofhispoliticsandcontinuesto
reverehismemory.ReporterJimYardleynotesthat,"modernIndiais
hardlyaGandhiannation,ifiteverwasone.Hisvisionofavillage
dominatedeconomywasshuntedasideduringhislifetimeasrural
romanticism,andhiscallforanationalethosofpersonalausterityand
nonviolencehasprovedantitheticaltothegoalsofanaspiringeconomic
andmilitarypower."BycontrastGandhiis"givenfullcreditforIndia's
politicalidentityasatolerant,seculardemocracy."[276]
Gandhi'sbirthday,2October,isanationalholidayinIndia,GandhiJayanti.
Gandhi'simagealsoappearsonpapercurrencyofalldenominationsissued
byReserveBankofIndia,exceptfortheonerupeenote.[277]Gandhi'sdate
ofdeath,30January,iscommemoratedasaMartyrs'DayinIndia.[278]
TheGandhiMandapam,atemplein
Kanyakumari,TamilNaduinIndia.
Thistemplewaserectedtohonour
M.K.Gandhi.
TherearethreetemplesinIndiadedicatedtoGandhi.[279]OneislocatedatSambalpurinOrissaandthesecondat
NidaghattavillagenearKadurinChikmagalurdistrictofKarnatakaandthethirdoneatChityalinthedistrictof
Nalgonda,Telangana.[279][280]TheGandhiMemorialinKanyakumariresemblescentralIndianHindutemplesand
theTamukkamorSummerPalaceinMadurainowhousestheMahatmaGandhiMuseum.[281]
Seealso
Listofpeaceactivists
Listofcivilrightsleaders
DaridraNarayana,anaxiomenunciatedbySwamiVivekanandathatespousesserviceofthepooras
equivalentinimportanceandpietytotheserviceofGodpopularisedbyMahatmaGandhi
Gandhicap
GandhiTeerthGandhiInternationalResearchInstituteandMuseumforGandhianstudy,researchon
MahatmaGandhianddialogue.
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2."Gandhi"(http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/gandhi).RandomHouseWebster'sUnabridgedDictionary.
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3.McGregor,RonaldStuart(1993).TheOxfordHindiEnglishDictionary.OxfordUniversityPress.p.799.ISBN9780
198643395.Retrieved31August2013.Quote:(mah(S."great,mighty,large,...,eminent")+tm(S."1.soul,
spirittheself,theindividualthemind,theheart2.theultimatebeing."):"highsouled,ofnoblenatureanobleor
venerableman."
4.Gandhi,Rajmohan(2006)p.172(https://books.google.com/?id=FauJL7LKXmkC&pg=PA172):"...Kasturbawould
accompanyGandhionhisdeparturefromCapeTownforEnglandinJuly1914enroutetoIndia....IndifferentSouth
Africantowns(Pretoria,CapeTown,Bloemfontein,Johannesburg,andtheNatalcitiesofDurbanandVerulam),the
struggle'smartyrswerehonouredandtheGandhi'sbadefarewell.AddressesinDurbanandVerulamreferredtoGandhias
a'Mahatma','greatsoul'.Hewasseenasagreatsoulbecausehehadtakenupthepoor'scause.Thewhitestoosaidgood
thingsaboutGandhi,whopredictedafuturefortheEmpireifitrespectedjustice."(p.172).
5.McAllister,Pam(1982).ReweavingtheWebofLife:FeminismandNonviolence.NewSocietyPublishers.p.194.
ISBN9780865710177.Retrieved31August2013.Quote:"Withlove,Yours,Bapu(Youclosedwiththetermof
endearmentusedbyyourclosefriends,thetermyouusedwithallthemovementleaders,roughlymeaning'Papa.'"
Anotherletterwrittenin1940showssimilartendernessandcaring.
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Gandhi'Bapu,'meaningnot'father,'butthefamiliar,'daddy.'"(p.210)
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300120783.Retrieved1September2013.Quote:"SouthAsianslearnedthattheBritishIndianempirewouldbe
partitionedon3June1947.Theyheardaboutitontheradio,fromrelationsandfriends,byreadingnewspapersand,later,
throughgovernmentpamphlets.Amongapopulationofalmostfourhundredmillion,wherethevastmajoritylivedinthe
countryside,...,itishardlysurprisingthatmany...didnothearthenewsformanyweeksafterwards.Forsome,the
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11.Brown(1991),p.380:"DespiteandindeedbecauseofhissenseofhelplessnessDelhiwastobethesceneofwhathe
calledhisgreatestfast....Hisdecisionwasmadesuddenly,thoughafterconsiderablethoughthegavenohintofiteven
toNehruandPatelwhowerewithhimshortlybeforeheannouncedhisintentionataprayermeetingon12January1948.
Hesaidhewouldfastuntilcommunalpeacewasrestored,realpeaceratherthanthecalmofadeadcityimposedbypolice
andtroops.Patelandthegovernmenttookthefastpartlyascondemnationoftheirdecisiontowithholdaconsiderable
cashsumstilloutstandingtoPakistanasaresultoftheallocationofundividedIndia'sassets,becausethehostilitiesthat
hadbrokenoutinKashmir...Butevenwhenthegovernmentagreedtopayoutthecash,Gandhiwouldnotbreakhis
fast:thathewouldonlydoafteralargenumberofimportantpoliticiansandleadersofcommunalbodiesagreedtoajoint
planforrestorationofnormallifeinthecity.Althoughthissixdayfastwasaconsiderablephysicalstrain,duringit
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mediaortextrelatedtothis
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MohandasK.Gandhi
p://www.dli.ernet.in/handle/2015/502501/)
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GandhiAshramatSabarmati(http://www.gandhiashramsabarmati.org/)
GandhiSmritiGovernmentofIndiawebsite(http://www.gandhismriti.gov.in/indexb.asp)
ManiBhavanGandhiSangrahalayaGandhiMuseum&Library(http://www.gandhimanibhavan.org/)
WorksbyMahatmaGandhi(http://www.gutenberg.org/author/Gandhi,+Mahatma)atProjectGutenberg
WorksbyoraboutMahatmaGandhi(https://archive.org/search.php?query=%28%28subject%3A%22Gandh
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Retrievedfrom"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mahatma_Gandhi&oldid=736952280"
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