F ndS = Fdxdydz

2010

Email: dsourlas@physics.upatras.gr
www.physics.upatras.gr

,
19 , , , . .
, , . ,

.
, .
, . .


_______________________________________________ 1
____________________________________ 1
1.1 ________________________________________________________ 1
1.2 : ________________________________________ 2
1.3 _________________________ 3
1.4 ___________________________________________ 4
1.5 _____________________________ 5
1.6 ______________________________ 7
1.7 ___ 8
1.8 _______________________________________________ 9
1.9 , . _______________ 10
1.10 __________________________________________________ 13
____________________________________________________ 21

_____________________________________________ 23
__________________________________ 23
2.1 _______________________________________________________
2.2 ________________________________
2.3 _____________________________
2.4 ___________________________
2.5 __________________________
2.6 ___________________________________________________
____________________________________________________

23
25
26
26
30
32
39

_____________________________________________ 41
- - _________ 41
3.1 _______________________________________________________
3.2 .________________________________________
3.3 _____________________________________
3.4 __________________________
3.5 ____________________________
3.6 2 ____________________________________
3.7 . _____________________________________
3.8 f _____________________________________
3.9 ___________________________
3.10 ___
3.11 __________________________________________________
____________________________________________________

41
42
43
43
44
46
48
51
57
61
64
69

 IV_____________________________________________ 71
I - - ________________ 71
4.1 ______________________________________________________
4.2 _________________
4.3
________________________________________
4.4 ________________________________________
4.5 . __________
4.6 _______________
4.7 __________________________________________________
____________________________________________________

71
73
77
82
88
89
90
94

V _____________________________________________ 97
________________________________ 97
5.1 _______________________________________________________ 97
5.2 ______________________________ 97
5.3 . ______________ 99
5.4 ___________ 102
5.5 _____________________________ 106
5.6 __________________ 110
5.7 .____________ 111
5.8 ______________________ 113
5.9 __________________________________________________ 114
___________________________________________________ 116

VI____________________________________________ 119
______________________________________ 119
6.1 ______________________________________________________
6.2 ___________________________
6.3 ___
6.4 ____
6.5 ___________________
6.6 ______________________
6.7 E _________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________

119
119
119
122
129
133
135
137

VII ___________________________________________ 141

_____________________________________ 141
7.1 ______________________________________________________
7.2 ____________________________
7.3 __________________________________________________
___________________________________________________

141
141
153
156

 VIII __________________________________________ 157

_______________________________ 157
8.1 ______________________________________________________
8.2 . ______________________________________
8.3 ____________________________
8.4 ________________________
8.5 . ___________________________________
8.6 ' . _______________
8.7 . __________________________________
8.8 dS ___________________________________
8.9 . ______________
8.10 . ___________
8.11 . ________________________________________________
8.12 ____________________________
8.13 _________________________
8.14 ______________
8.15 _________________
___________________________________________________

157
157
159
163
164
165
167
168
171
176
177
179
180
183
185
187

IX ____________________________________________ 189
GREEN , STOKES GAUSS _________________ 189
9.1 ______________________________________________________ 189
9.1 Green. _______________________________________ 189
9.3 Green ________________________ 196
9.4 Stokes _______________________________________ 197
9.5 Stokes _____________________ 200
9.6 Gauss ( _________________________ 201
9.7 Gauss _____________________ 203
9.8 Gauss Stokes ____________________ 204
9.9 ,
______________________________________________________________ 207
___________________________________________________ 212

____________________________________________ 213
________________________________________ 213
10.1 _____________________________________________________
10.2 , ________________________
10.3 Lagrange __________
10.4 ___________________________
_______________________________________________________

213
213
225
230
233

____________________________________________ 235

 __________________________ 235
11.1 . _____________________________
11.2 ____________________
11.3 ____________
11.4 , . ____________________
11.5 grad, div curl . ___________
11.6 _____
___________________________________________________

235
235
236
238
240
240
244

___________________________________________ 247
_____________________________ 247
12.1 _________________________________________________
12.2 _______________
12.3 _______________________________________
12.4 _____________________________
12.5 _____________________________
12.6 ____________________________________
12.7 _____________________________________
12.8 ___________________
12.9 _________________________
12.10 Christoffel _____________________________________
12.11 ____________________________________
12.12 ____________________________
___________________________________________________

247
249
250
251
252
253
254
256
258
261
262
263
265

__________________________________________ 267
________________________ 267
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

___________________________________________
________
____________________________
________
___________________________

267
270
274
276
278

B____________________________________________ 281
_______________ 281
_______________________________________________________ 286

____________________________________________ 287
______________________________________ 287
______________________________________________________
1. ( ) ______________________
2. () ____________________________
3. ______________________________________

287
288
289
292

4. ____________________________________________ 294
5. _________________________________ 297
6. ___________________________________ 299

____________________________________ 303
(1 ) ________________________________________________ 303

___________________________________ 309
(2 ) ________________________________________________ 309

___________________________________ 317
(3 ) ________________________________________________ 317

____________________________________ 325
(4 ) ________________________________________________ 325

____________________________________ 335
(5 ) ________________________________________________ 335

____________________________________ 341
(6 ) ________________________________________________ 341

____________________________________ 355
(7 ) ________________________________________________ 355

____________________________________ 361
(8 ) ________________________________________________ 361

____________________________________ 383
(9 ) ________________________________________________ 383

____________________________________ 397
(10 ) _______________________________________________ 397

____________________________________ 411
(11 ) _______________________________________________ 411

____________________________________ 419
(12 ) _______________________________________________ 419

________________________________________ 429
I)
_________________________________
) ___________________________________
III) _____________________________________________
IV) _________________________________________
V) _________________________________
VI) _______________________________________
V) _____________________________________

429
430
431
433
433
435
436

V) _______________________________ 437
) GREEN, STOKES, GAUSS_____________________________ 438
X) _________________________________________ 439

_____________________________ 441
I)
)
III)
IV)
V)
VI)
V)
V)
)
X)

_________________________________
_________________________________
_________________________________________
______________________________________
_______________________________
___________________________________
__________________________________
_____________________________
GREEN, STOKES, GAUSS _________________________
_______________________________________

441
443
447
455
458
465
476
479
483
491

MAPLE ______________________________ 497

___________________________________________ 529

1.1
, , , ,
, , ,
.. 6,28 , 22 0C, 220 Volts ...
, . ..
400
300 ,
700 700
. 400 300 , 700 ,
400 2 + 300 2 = 500
, (. 1.1.1).
, .
, ..
, , 300
400
,
,
300
.

. 1.1.1

, , ,
, " ".
(1, (1

,
, , ,
. . .

2 1
, , v=OA (2, (.
1.1.2).

.. OXYZ, v=(vx ,vy ,vz ), (. 1.1.2).

.
R3. v |v| (3
.

v = vx2 + vy2 + vz2

(1.1.1)

|v|=1 .

vz
A

vy

y
O

vx
x
. 1.1.2

. 1.1.2

1.2 :
(2

.. , v,u,w, ...,
.. v, v .

(3

||v||, |v|, .
, ||, R C,
. |||| norm .

v w
:
O,
z
, v
v
w ,
A
r
, O
v w, (.
1.2.1). r,
y
w
, v
w. x
. 1.2.1

w

v.
v w (vx ,vy ,vz ) (wx ,wy ,wz ) ,
v w,
:
r=v+w=(vx+wx , vy+wy , vz+wz)

(1.2.1)

.
1.3

v+v+v 3v . 3v 3 v v 3v v. , v , v v
v.
, v ,
v. =0, v=0
0 , (
,
0=(0,0,0) ).

4 1
v
v, .
.
:
v-w=v+(-1)w

(1.3.1)

v
-w, w.
1.4
v w : v-w=0.
v w
,
v=w (vx ,vy ,vz )=(wx ,wy ,wz ) vx = wx , vy = wy , vz = wz

(1.4.1)

, (), .

, (..
)
, , :
, .
. , ,
.
,
.

1.5
v w, (4
vw , :
vw=|v||w|cos

(1.5.1)

v w.
(1.5.1) :
vw=wv

(1.5.2)

(1.5.1) :

. 1.5.1
|w|cos== w v ,
:
vw= |v|( w v) vw= |w|( v w)
: |v|=1 vw=
w v
vv=|v|2

(1..5.3)

, , , :
(v+w)u=vu+wu

(1.5.4)

. v w vw=0, v w
vw=|v||w|cos=0 cos=0 =/2.
OXYZ
i, j, k OX, OY, OZ,
v w :
(4

.. <v,w> , (v,w)

6 1
v=vxi+vyj+vzk

w=wxi+wyj+wzk

(1.5.5)

vw
(1.5.4) ij=ik=jk=0 ii=jj=kk=1, ( i, j, k, ), :
vw=vxwx+vywy+vzwz

(1.5.6)

(1.5.1), (1.5.6). : (1.5.1)
v w ,
(), v w
, .
. (1.5.6)
, vx , vy , vz wx , wy , wz .
(1.5.1)

vw
vw
1
=
= cos
|v||w |
vv ww

vx wx + v y wy + vz wz

2
2
2
2
2
2
vx + v y + vz wx + wy + wz

= cos 1

= cos

(1.5.7)

(1.5.7) ,
,
.
:
(1.5.1) (1.5.6)
:
1)

vv0 v

2)

vw =wv v,w

3)

vv=0 v=0

(v+u)w=(vw)+(uw) v, u, w , R

(1.5.8)
(1.5.9)
(1.5.10)

: , ( ), , .

1.6
v w,
vw, , |v||w|sin, ,
v w
:
, ( ). vw. vw
v, w, vw , (.1.6.1). ,
.
:
vw=-wv

vw

(1.6.1)

. vw=0, =0,
v w
.

.

wv

,
v(w+u)=vw+vu

(1.6.2)

v w :
vw=(vxi+vyj+vzk)(wxi+wyj+wz k) (vywz -vzwy)i+(vzwx-vxwz)j+(vxwy-vywx)k

8 1

vw =

vy

vz

wy

wz

i+

vz

vx

wz

wx

j+

vx

vy

wx

wy

i
k = vx

j
vy

k
vz

wx

wy

wz

(1.6.3)

(1.6.3)
.

1.7
,
.
, . " ", ( ), " ", (
),
. :
v w
vw=

(1.7.1)

, , .
, (), w
v, v.w=. , v* = v+u u w,
u.w=0 (1.7.1). :
v*w=(v+u )w=vw+uw=+0=
.
.

1.8
,
. .
) v, w, u
:
v(wu)

(1.8.1)

: v, w,
u, , (. 1.8.1).
|wu| , |wu|=|w||u|sin,
w u .
|v|cos. V
:
V=|w||u|sin|v|cos=|wu||v|cos= v(wu)
>/2, v(wu) .
:
V = |v(wu)|

(1.8.2)

wu

. 1.8.1
:

vx

v ( w u ) = wx
ux

vy

vz

wy
uy

wz
uz

(1.8.3)

) v, w, u
:

10 1
v(wu)

(1.8.4)

:
v(wu)=(vu)w-(vw)u

(1.8.5)

(
:
a(bc)=b(ac)-c(ab)

(1.8.6)

back up).

1.9 , .
,
.
,
.
. '
.
, ,
. rF
F , r rF F
. ' r .

.
rF
F .
F. '
F .

.

 11

:

..

. ..
. .
u
, |u|=. u ,
, u1, u2
,
u1, u2.
: 1
1 2, (.
1.9.1). u1
|u1|=1.
2 2
3
u2 |u2|=2.
u3
u1 u2
u2
,

1 3
1

u1
3
u1+u2.
2


u3 . 1.9.1

13. u3 ,
u1 u2. 1=2=/2, u3
u1 u2.

12 1

.
, .
,
, .
: (u1, 1), (u2, 2), (u3, 3)
, 1, 2, 3 .
:
2=1+12=1+(u11)

(1.9.1)

|u11|=1|1|=12=|12|

u11 12 .

3=2+23=2+(u22)

(1.9.2)

(1.9.1) (1.9.2)
3=1+(u11)+u2[1+(u11)]=
= 1+(u1+u2) 1+u2(u11)

(1.9.3)

1, 2 , :
3= 1+(u1+u2) 1

(1.9.4)

(u3,3), :
3= 1+u3 1

(1.9.5)

(1.9.4) (1.9.5) :
u3=u1+u2

.
.

 13

1.10
1) )

A

.
) .

: )
A
, (. 1).
:

. 1

+= =+=-+=1/2(-)=1/2()
)
, (. 2). 1 2
. :

2=+2=+1/2=
=+1/2(-)=1/2(+) (1)

1=1/2=1/2(+)=
=1/2(+)=2

(2)

. 2

(1), (2) 1=AP2. 1 2

2)
, , 2
1.

: ,
.

=1/3,
=1/3.
= (1).

= (2). :
=+=+

(1)

14 1
:
=+

(2)

(1) (2):
+=+

(3)

(3) :
=1/2, =1/2, =-1/2+, =-1/2+

(4)

(4) (3) :
1/2+(-1/2+)=1/2+(-1/2+)
(1/2--1/2)=(1/2--1/2)
B, BA , :
--1/2=0 ==1/3.

--1/2=0,

=1/3,

=1/3

=1/3.
3) ,
/.

:
.
, , , ,
. :

A B
=

=-,

(2) (1):

=-

O OA OB O
=

(1)
(2)
(3)

(3) :
=

OB + OA
+

(4) .

(4)

 15

4) . .
: :

=1/2+1/2=1/2(+)
=1/2(+)
=1/2(+)

(1)

=1/2(+)

+++=0

+=-(+)

(2)

(2) (1) :
=1/2(+)=-1/2(+)=-

(3)

=-1/2(+)=-1/2(+)=-=
(3) .
5)
20km/h.

20km/h .


;
;

:
,
202km/h.
450
.
,
,
. ,

16 1

20

20
20.

20

20

20

6) 250miles/h
. 80miles/h .

;

: v , v1

v2 B

. :
v1=v2+v
v2

v1

(v2)2=(v1)2 +(v)2v

2v1vcos(1350)=311.7miles/h
:

v2
v
0
= 1 sin=0.567 =34.55 .
0
sin 135
sin
, 311.7miles/h
34.550 .
7) , , ||=3 ||=2.
) .
) ,
||=3 ||=2.
)
.

 17

: )
||=3, 3.
, 2

B

2.

3
A
1
5.
) ||=2.


2.
(5,
.
) .

1 5.



1 5.

8) r r
.
cos2 +cos2+cos2=1.
: r=(x,y,z) , , , , . ,
cos=x/r
(1)

(5

8.3.

18 1
r=|r| r.
:

cos=y/r

(2)

cos=z/r

(3)

:
x2+y2+z2=r2
:

(4)

cos2 +cos2+cos2=x2/r2+y2/r2+z2/r2=r2/r2=1

9) ) v(2,4,-5)
, , . ) v(2,5,1)
u(1,1,3).
: ) , , v , , . :
vi=|v||i|cos 2= 4 + 16 + 25 cos cos=

2
=0.298 =730
45

:
vj=|v||j|cos 4= 4 + 16 + 25 cos cos=

4
=0.596 =530
45

vk=|v||k|cos -5= 4 + 16 + 25 cos cos=

5
=-0.745 =1380
45

) v u v
u. v
v
u
.

u
u.
:

 19

u0 =

u
1
=
(1,1,3)
|u|
11

1
3 1
1
,
,
(1,1,3) =

11 11 11 11
1
10
(1,1,3) = (1,1,3)
11
11

( v u0 ) u0 = ( 2,5,1)

1
( 2 + 5 + 3)
11

10) u1, u2 ,
, . :
j
cos(-)=coscos+sinsin (1)
u2
cos(+)=coscos-sinsin

(2)

: 1 :

u1

u1=cosi+sinj
u2=cosi+sinj

u1 u2:

. 1

u1u2=|u1| |u2|cos(-)
coscos+sinsin=cos(-)

2. :

u2

u1=cosi-sinj
u2=cosi+sinj

u1 u2

: u1u2=|u1| |u2|cos(+)
coscos-sinsin=cos(+)

(2)
(1)
.

i
u1

. 2

20 1
11) ,

.
.

,
S3
c
a

b
S1
S2
(6.
c-a
b-a

S1+ S2+ S3+ S4=0

S4

S1, S2, S3, S4,

.

: , a, b,

1
, a b , ( 4). 2
:

1
1
1
1
S1= a b , S2= b c , S3= c a , S4= ( c a ) ( b a )
2
2
2
2
:

1
1
1
1
S1+ S2+ S3+ S4= a b + b c + c a + ( c a ) ( b a ) =
2
2
2
2
=

1
[a b + b c + c a + c b c a a b + a a ] = 0
2

(6

VIII

 21

1.

:
(v+w )u =vu+wu

2.

: |v+u| |v|+|u|

3.

Cauchy-Schwarz: |vu||v||u|

4.

:
S=1/2||=1/2sin ,

, .
5. :
) :

sin

sin

sin

) :
2=2+2-2cos , 2=2+2-2cos , 2=2+2-2cos
' , , .
6. :
)

|v+u|2 -|v-u|2=4 v.u

|v+u|2+|v-u|2=2|v|2+2|u|2

7.

:
) v(uw) = u(vw)-w(vu)

) (vu)w = u(vw)-v(uw)
) (vu)(wr) = (vw)(u.r)-(vr)(uw)
8.

Jacobi:
v(uw) + u(wv) + w(vu) = 0

9. v0 : vu=vw vu = vw
u=w. , uw.
10. a, b, c
. v a, b, c :

22 1

v bc v ac
v ba
v=
a +
b +
c
a b c b ac
cba
11. n e1, e2,
, en . ri ei (i=1,2, , n)
. :
n

p = ei ri
i =1

:
n

R=

p
n

e
i =1

e
i =1

e r
i =1
n

i i

e
i =1

0 .

e
i =1

=0

)
.
) .

2.1

,
, :
r=rxi+ryj+rzk
rx ,ry,rz , .. r=3i-2j+6k.


, ..
,
.
,
.

k
j

i
x

,
t, r :
r=x(t)i+y(t)j+z(t)k

(2.1.1)

.
:
r: IR AR3

r: tI r(t)

(2.1.2)

,
, . x=x(t), y=y(t), z=z(t) (2.1.1) .

24

: :
1.

r(t) = Rcosti + Rsintj t[0,2)

XY
R.
, x=Rcost y=Rsint : x2+y2=R2.
2.

r(t) = costi + sintj t[0,2)

XY .
, x=cost y=sint :
3.

x2

y2

=1.

r(t) = costi + sintj + tk t[t1 ,t2]R

OXYZ.
4. r(t) = coshti + sinhtj tR
x2-y2=1. cosh2t-sinh2t=1 x=cosht, y=sinht . x=cosht>0,
.

.

t
.

:

 25

1.

2.

r ( t ) = R cos ti + R sin t t [0,2 ), r ( t ) = a cos ti + sin t t [0,2 )

3.
r(t) = costi + 2sintj + t/2k t[0 ,4]

4. ( )
r(t) = coshti + sinhtj tR

2.2
r=rx(t)i+ry(t)j+rz(t)k
l=lxi+lyj+lzk t t0, :

26

limt t0 rx (t ) = lx , limt t0 ry (t ) = l y , limt t0 rz (t ) = lz

: limt t0 r (t ) = l

(2.2.1)

t t

l
r(t)

1 :

limt t0 r(t ) = l limt t0 | r(t ) l |= 0

(>0)((,t0)>0)[|t-t0|< |r(t)-l|<]

(2.2.2)

2 limt t0 r (t ) = l limt t0 | r(t ) |=| l |

;
3 l .

2.3
r(t)=rx(t)i+ry(t)j+rz(t)k
t0
t=t0,

limt t0 r(t ) = r(t0 )

(2.3.1)

t0 :

limt t0 rx (t ) = rx (t0 ) , limt t0 ry (t ) = ry (t0 ) , limt t0 rz (t ) = rz (t0 )

:

t t 0
r(t )
r(t 0 )

2.4
r(t) t0 :

r (t + h) r (t0 )
dr (t0 )
= r(t0 ) = lim h 0 0
=
dt
h

 27

=lim h 0

+lim h 0

r (t + h ) ry (t0 )
rx (t0 + h ) rx (t0 )
i + lim h 0 y 0
j+
h
h

rz (t0 + h) rz (t0 )
k = rx(t0)i+ry(t0)j+rz(t0)k
h

:
r(t)=

dr(t )
= rx(t0)i+ry(t0)j+rz(t0)k
dt

(2.4.1)

.
2.4.1,

r(t0)
,
r(t0+h)-r(t0)
z z

r(t).
:
(x,y,z) ,

t, x,y,z t :

r(t0+h) r(t0)
y
x

. 2.4.1

x=x(t), y=y(t), z=z(t).

:
:

v (t ) =

r(t) = x(t)i + y(t)j + z(t)k

dr (t ) dx(t ) dy (t )
dz (t )
j+
k
=
i+
dt
dt
dt
dt

a (t ) =

d v (t ) d 2 r (t ) d 2 x ( t )
d 2 y (t )
d 2 z (t )
=
=
i
+
j
+
k
dt
dt 2
dt 2
dt 2
dt 2

1: (t)r(t), r(t)v(t)
r(t)w(t)
:
. :

28

d
d (t)
dr (t)
r (t) + (t)
[(t)r(t)] =
dt
dt
dt

(2.4.2)

d
dr(t )
dv(t )
v(t ) + r(t )
[r(t ) v(t )] =
dt
dt
dt

(2.4.2)

d
dr(t )
dv(t )
v(t ) + r(t )
[r(t ) v(t )] =
dt
dt
dt

(2.4.2)

C r(t)
dr/dt .
,
.
1: r(t) , :

r (t )

dr (t )
= 0 tI
dt

(2.4.3)

: . |r(t)|=r(t)=.
r2(t)=r.r=.

2r (t )

d
dr (t )
dr (t )
r (t ) + r (t )
=0
[r(t ) r (t )] = 0
dt
dt
dt

d r (t )
dr (t )
=0
= 0 r (t )
dt
dt

: r (t )

dr (t )
= 0 . : r2(t) =rr
dt

d 2
dr (t )
r (t ) = 2r (t )
=0
dt
dt
r2(t)=. r(t)=|r(t)|=.
2: r(t) , :

r(t )

dr (t )
=0
dt

tI

: : :

(2.4.4)

 29

r0(t)=

r (t )
r (t )
=
| r (t ) | r (t )

|r0(t)|=1 , r0(t) r0(t)=0.

:

r(t)=r(t)r0(t) r(t)=r(t)r0(t)+r(t)r0(t)=r(t)r0(t)
r(t)r(t)=r(t)r(t)r0(t)= =r(t)r(t)

r ( t ) r ( t )
r(t)r(t)=0
=
r (t ) r (t )

r(t)r(t)=0

: r(t)

dr (t )
=0. :
dt

d r0 (t ) d r (t )
r ( t )
1
= 2 r (t ) +
=
r ( t ) =
dt
dt r (t )
r (t )
r (t )

r(t)r(t )r(t ) + r 2 (t )r(t )

=
r3 (t )

r2(t)=r(t)r(t) 2r(t)r(t)=2r(t)r(t)

r(t)r(t)=r(t)r(t)

(2.4.5)

(2.4.6)

(2.4.5) (2.4.6) :

dr0 (t ) [r(t ) r(t )] r(t ) + [r(t ) r(t )] r(t )

=
=
dt
r 3 (t )
1
{r (t ) r (t )} r (t ) {r (t ) r (t )} r (t ) =
r (t )
1
= 3 r (t ) {r (t ) r (t )}
r (t )
3

r(t)r(t)=0

dr0 (t )
= 0 r0(t)=.
dt

r(t) .
:
r v. :
r2=rr=,

v2=vv=

, (2.4.3),
:

30

2 r

dr
=0 rv=0
dt

2v

dv
= 0 v=0
dt

(2.4.7)
(2.4.8)

rv=0 :

dr
dv
v +r
= 0 vv+r=0 r=-v2
dt
dt

(2.4.9)

(2.4.7) v
r. (2.4.8)
v . r r
0 180 . (2.4.9) :
r=|r|||cos=-v2 cos<0 =1800

|r|||(-1)=-v2 =v2/r

,
, v2/r v .

2.5
:
r(t)=x(t)i+y(t)j+z(t)k

(2.5.1)

r(t) u(t) :

du(t )
= r(t )
dt

(2.5.2)

u(t ) = r(t ) dt + c
c .

(2.5.3)

 31

1:
r(t)=(t2+1)i+2j-t3k.
:

u(t ) = r (t ) dt =

( ( t + 1) i + 2 j t k ) dt =
2

t3

t4

= + t + c1 i + ( 2t + c2 ) j c3 k =
3

t3
t4
+ t i + ( 2t ) j k + c c=c1i+c2j+c3k.
3

1:
, . :

u(t ) = r(t ) dt + c = x(t ) dti + y(t ) dtj + z(t ) dtz +c

(2.5.4)

,
, , :

t2

t1

r(t ) dt = [ x(t )i + y(t ) j + z(t )k ] dt

t2

(2.5.5)

t1

2: :

((t

+ 1) i + 2 j t 3k dt

(
2

t3
t4
( t + 1) i + 2 j t k dt = 3 + t i + ( 2t ) j 4 k =

2
2

22
65
8
81
= [9 + 3] + 2 i + ( 6 4) j 4 k = i + 2 j
3
4
3
4

, :

32

t2

t1

r(t ) v(t ) dt

(2.5.6)

t2

t1

r(t ) v(t ) dt

(2.5.7)

3: :
)

r(t ) v(t ) dt

r(t)=t2i+(t+1)j-t3k,

r(t ) v(t ) dt

v(t)=2i-tj+t2k

: ) r(t)v(t)=2t2-t2-t-t5=-t5=t2-t.

t6 t3 t 2
r
(
t
)

v
(
t
)
dt
-t
+t
-t
dt
=

+
= 117
=
)
0
0 (
6 3 20
3

) r(t)v(t)=(t3+t2-t4)i+(-2t2-t4)j+(-t-2t-2)k.

r(t ) v(t ) dt = ( t 4 + t 3 + t 2 ) i + ( t 4 2t 3 ) j + ( t 3 2t 2) k dt =
0
0

t 5 t 4 t 3 t 5 t 4 t 4 2

4
72
= + + i + j + t 2t k = i j 12k
5
0 15
5 4 3 5 2 4
2.6
1) a(t)=t2i+sintj-t3k. t.
t=0
.
: a =

dv
:
dt

v = adt = t 2i + sin tj t 3k dt =

t3
t4
i cos tj k + c1
3
4

 33

c1 , :
t=0 v(0)=0

v=

-j+c1=0 c1=j.

t3
t4
i + (1 cos t ) j k
3
4

r(t)
:

t3
t4
r (t ) = v(t )dt = i + (1 cos t ) j k dt =
4
3
=

t4
t5
i + (t sin t ) j k + c 2
12
20

r(0)=0 : c2=0.

r (t ) =

t4
t5
i + (t sin t ) j
k
12
20

2)
. (
r
).
: Fc = f ( r )

r
r

: L = r mv
:

h=

1
rv.
2

(1)
(2)

.
f(r)>0 f(r)<0.
: Newton: ma=Fc :

d 2r
r
= f (r )
2
dt
r

(3) r:

(3)

34

d 2r
r

r m 2 = r f (r ) = 0
r

dt

mr

d 2r
d
dr
dr
0
r
0
r
m
m
=

=c

dt 2
dt
dt
dt

L = r mv =c
m , :

h=

1
11
c =
(r v ) =
2
2m

f(r)<0 a(t)
r(t)
, . .
f(r)>0 a(t) r(t) .
f(r)<0.
3) , ,
.
.
: , . 2.6.1 r(t), r(t)
t t. z

r(t) r(t) .
h
r=r-r t=t-t.

t r
O

r
, , :
y
r

1
= r r
r

. 2.6.1

,
r ,
:

 35

1
r
= r
t 2
t
, :

dE
1
dr 1
= lim t 0
= r
= r v
dt
dt 2
t 2
v .
h =

1
r v .
2

r :
hr=0
h, r .
h
, h.
m

:

F = G

mM
r
r3

m
.

.
:
. 2.6.2

d 2r
mM
= G 3 r
2
dt
r

d 2r
M
= G 3 r
2
dt
r

, .
Kepler .
tAB
t, tAB=t , :

36

()=(BAO)
4) ,
:

d 2r
M
= G 3 r
2
dt
r

(1)

1
dr
r
= h =
2
dt

(2)

.
.
: r0 , r,

r=r r0
(3):

(3)

dr dr
dr
= v = r 0 + r0
dt
dt dt

(4)

dr
dr0 dr
+ r0 = mr 2r0 0
dt
dt dt

L=2mh=mrv= mrr0 r

(5)

(1) (5):

d 2r
dv
Mm
L =
L = G 2 r0 L
2
dt
dt
r

(6)

(5) (6):

dr
dv
Mm

L = G 2 r0 r 2r0 0 =
dt
r
dt

dr
dr
dr
= GmM r0 0 r0 ( r0 r0 ) 0 = GmM 0
dt
dt
dt

(7)

( :
v(uw) = u(vw)-w(vu) 1).
L , :

dv
d
L = ( v L)
dt
dt

(8)

 37

(7), (8) :

dr
d
( v L ) = GmM 0
dt
dt

(9)

(9):
vL=GmMr0+c

(10)

c . (10) r :
r(vL)=GmMrr0+rc=GmMr+rr0c= GmMr+rc cos

(11)

r0 c.

r(vL)=(rv)L=(L/m)L=L2/m

(11) :

L2=GmMr+rc cos

(12)

L2
L2
GmM
r=
=
c
GmM + cm cos 1 +
GmM cos

(13)

r=

b
1 + e cos

(14)

b e . (13)
e =

c
.
GmM

e=1
e>1 . , , e<1. ,
.
5)

r=costi+sintj , , , .
: : h=1/2rv.
: v=dr/dt=-sinti+costj . :
h=1/2rv=1/2(costi+sintj)(-sinti+costj)=1/2k.

38

6) ,
: x=cost, y=sint, z=0 0t2 .
.
: :
r=r(t), t1tt2 :
) dr/dt
t1tt2
) tatb r(ta)r(tb) ( )
)

dr/dt0 t, t1tt2

:
r(t)=costi+sintj dr/dt=-sinti+costj
dr/dt
. )
). 0t2 dr/dt0. .
r(0)=r(2). r(0)=i r(2)=i.
.
,
t ,
:
dr/dt=-sinti+costj

, ( ).

 39

1.

d
d (t )
dr (t )
r (t ) + (t )
[ (t )r (t )] =
dt
dt
dt
d
dr (t )
dv (t )
v (t ) + r (t )
[r (t ) v(t )] =
dt
dt
dt
d
dr (t )
dv(t )
v(t ) + r (t )
[r(t ) v(t )] =
dt
dt
dt
2. r(t)
t r(t), (
, r(t) t ), :
) (x-5)2+(y-3)2=9

(7

) 4x2+9y2=36

) y=x2

'

) y=x3

'

3.

:
r1(t)=(et-1)i+2sintj+ln(t+1)k

r2(u)=(u+1)i+(u2-1)j+(u3+1)k

. .
4. r(t) [0,2], r(0)=i
r(t) :

x2

y2

= 1 :

)
)
)
)

(7

.
.

40

5. x(t)=e-t, y(t)=2cos3t, z(t)=2sin3t, t . )

t. )
t=0.
6. x(t)=2t2, y(t)=t2-4t, z(t)=3t-5, t .

u=i-3j+2k t=1.
7. C x=x(s),
y=y(s), z=z(s), s C
C. r o C, dr/ds C.
8. )
x(t)=t2+1, y(t)=4t-3, z(t)=2t2-6t. )
t=2.
9. :

1
t

v(t)= e t i + j t 3k

r(t)=2costi+sintk,

:
)

/2

r(t ) dt , )

/2

v(t ) dt , )

d 2 r (t )
10.
r
(
t
)

dt :

dt 2

r(2)=3i+1j+1k,
r(4)=6i+7j+3k,

dr(t )
= 0,
dt t =2

dr(t )
= i + j+k
dt t =4

/2

r(t ) v(t ) dt

-
-
3.1

. .. '
. ' '
. (x,y,z) r=xi+yj+zk , :
=(x,y,z)=T(r)
f :
f: ARn BR
f: (x1 ,x2 ,...,xn )A f(x1 ,x2 ,...,xn)B

(3.1.1)

n .
: z=f(x,y),
R3, ..
2
2
2
z = R x y

R.
: w=f(x,y,z),
R4
.
f(x1 ,x2 ,...,xn) n ' n+1-.

42
(x,y,z),
(8.
.
3.2 .
f=f(r)
:

, r r0 ,

(>0)(>0)[|r-r0|< |f(r)- |<]

(3.2.1)

lim r r0 f (r ) =

r r0
f (r )

(3.2.2)

(3.2.1) f(r)
f(x) .
1. f(r)
r0 . , ,
f(r) .
. f ( x, y ) =

xy + y3
x2 + y 2

(0,0). :
) (0,0) X, (
y=0), :
f(x,y)=f(x,0)=0 0 x 0
) (0,0) Y, (
x=0), :
f(x,y)=f(0,y)=y 0 y 0
) (0,0) y=2x,
:

f ( x , y ) = f ( x, 2 x ) =

2 x 2 + 8 x3 2 8
2
x 0
= + x

2
2
x + 4x
5 5
5

f (0,0), .
(8

, t,
f=f(x,y,x,t). .

 43

2.

3.3
f=f(r) r0 :

lim r r0 f (r ) = f (r0 )

(3.3.1)

,
. ..
)

f ( r ) =

xy yz 2
R3
x2 + y 2 + z 2

(0,0,0)
)

f ( r ) =

x4
R2
x y

y=x
)

f ( r ) =

x2 + yz 2
R2
2
x y

y=x2
) f(r)= f ( r ) =

x5 y
R3
x + y + z

x+y+z=0.

xz 2

+
x
y

) f ( r ) = tan 1

tan-1

xz 2

x+ y

x+y=0. R3 s x+y=0.

3.4
f=f(x,y), ( , , ). f

44
(x0, y0)
x :

limxx0 f (x, y0 ) = f (x0 , y0 )

(3.4.1)

f (x0, y0) y :

lim y y0 f ( x0 , y ) = f ( x0 , y0 )

(3.4.2)

.
, . .

2 xy
(x,y) (0,0)

f ( x, y) = x 2 + y 2
0
(x,y)=(0,0)

f(x,0)=0 x f(0,y)=0 y

lim x0 f ( x,0) = 0 = f (0,0)

lim y 0 f (0, y ) = 0 = f (0, 0)

(0,0) f
x y. , (0,0), (0,0) y=x :

f ( x, y) y = x =

2 x2
=1
x2 + x2

lim(x,y)(0,0) f ( x, y) = 1 0
y= x

3.5
f=f(x,y,z). :
)

x f :

lim h0

f ( x + h, y, z ) f ( x, y, z )
f ( x, y , z )
= f x ( x, y , z ) =
(3.5.1)
h
x

 45

y f :

limh0
)

f ( x, y + h, z ) f ( x, y, z )
f ( x, y, z )
= f y ( x, y, z ) =
(3.5.2)
y
h

z f :

lim h0

f ( x, y , z + h ) f ( x, y , z )
f ( x, y , z )
(3.5.3)
= f z ( x, y , z ) =
h
z

, .
. f=f(x,y)=exy +ln(x2+y). :

f(x,y)
2x
f(x,y)
1
= ye xy + 2
= xe xy + 2

x
x +y
y
x +y

f(2,1) 2
4
4
=e +
= e 2 +
4 +1
5
x

f x (2,1).

f(2,1)
1
1
= 2e2 +
= 2e2 + y
4 +1
5

f y (2,1)
. , , f(x), . , ,
, .. :

2 xy

f ( x, y) = x 2 + y 2
0

( x, y) (0,0)
( x, y) = (0, 0)

2
2
f ( x, y ) 2 y ( y x )
=
2
x
( x2 + y2 )

(x,y)(0,0)

2
2
f ( x, y ) 2 x ( x y )
=
2
y
( x2 + y2 )

(x,y)(0,0)

46
: f(x,0)=0 f(0,y)=0,

f ( x,0)
f (0, y )
= 0
x x=0
y

=0
y =0

(x,y)
(0,0).
(0,0). :

f(x0 , y0 )
x

f (x0+h,y0).

f(x0 , y0 )
y

f (x0 ,y0+k).
f (x0,y0)
f (x0+h,y0+k).
f , f
f .
:
, .
:
.

3.6 2
f=f(x,y).

f
f

x y,
y
x

f 2 f
=
x x x2

f 2 f
=
y x y x

 47

f 2 f
=
y y y 2

f 2 f
=
(3.6.1)
x y x y

2 f.
1: f=sin(x2y) :

f
=2xycosx2y
x

f 2
=x cosx y
y

2 :

2f
= 4 x 2 y 2 sin x 2 y + 2 y cos x 2 y
2
x
2f
= 2 x3 y sin x2 y + 2 x cos x2 y
y x

2f
= 2 x3 y sin x2 y + 2 x cos x2 y
x y

2f
= x4 sin x2 y
2
y
2: f=ln(x2+y3) :

f
3y2
=
y x 2 + y3

f
2x
= 2 3
x x +y

2 :

2 f ( x 2 + y 2 )2 2 x(2 x) 2( y 3 x 2 )
=
=
2
2
3 2
x2
+
x
y
(
)
( x2 + y3 )
2f
2 x (3 y 2 )
6 xy 2
=
=
y x ( x 2 + y 3 )2 ( x 2 + y 3 )2
2f
3 y 2 (2 x )
6 xy 2
=
=
x y ( x 2 + y 3 )2 ( x 2 + y 3 )2
2f (x 2 + y 2 )6y 3y 2 (3y 2 ) 3y(2x 2 y 3 )
=
=
2
2
y 2
x2 + y3
x2 + y3

48
K

2f
2f
=
y x x y

, x
y, . , ( Schwartz),
f :

2f
2f
f
f
,
,
,
y x y y x
x
, :

2f
2f
=
y x x y

(3.6.2)

3.7 .
T(x,y,z)
, T0(x0,y0,z0) r0=x0i+y0j+z0k.
:

(x0,y0,z0)
'
(x,y,z)(9.


.


' .

(9

u
P0

s
P

r0
r

. 3.7.1

(x,y,z) (x0,y0,z0) x=x0+x, y=y0+y,

z=z0+z x, y, z , .

 49

. , .
, /s, s
.
dT/ds :

dT

= lim s 0
ds
s

(3.7.1)

f=f(x,y,z)
df/ds P0(x0,y0,z0) (10 u=i+j+k 2+2+2=1, (. 3.7.1).
, P0(x0,y0,z0
) u :
x=x0+s

y=y0+s

z=z0+s

(3.7.2)

s
P(x,y,z) P0(x0,y0,z0). (3.7.2)
:

( x x0 )2 + ( y y0 )2 + ( z z0 )2 = ( s)2 + ( s)2 + ( s)2 = 2 + 2 + 2 s = s

f
(3.7.2), f
, s.
f = f(x,y,z) = f(x0+s, y0+s, z0+s) = f(s)
, ( 1 . 3.10), :

df ( P0 ) f ( P0 ) dx f ( P0 ) dy f ( P0 ) dz
=
+
+
=
ds
x ds
y ds
z ds
=

f ( P0 )
f ( P0 )
f ( P0 )
+
+

x
y
z

(3.7.3)

(3.7.3) :
u=i+j+k
, :

(10

u u
.

50

f (P0 ) f (P0 ) f (P0 )

,
,

y
z
x
f (P0) gradf(P0) :

f (P0 ) =gradf (P0 ) =

f (P0 ) f (P0 ) f (P0 )

i+
j+
k
x
y
z

(3.7.4)

f 0.
(x,y,z) :
f =gradf=

f
f
f
i+
j+
k
x y
z

(3.7.4)

, f 0
:

df (P0 )
=f(0)u
ds

(3.7.5)

:
f(r: u) (11

f (r )
u

r .
(3.7.3) f(x,y,z)
:

df =

f
f
f
dx +
dy +
dz
x
y
z

(3.7.6)

(3.7.5) : df=(fu)ds
1:
. :
(11

f(r: u) : f
r u.

 51

) u=i

df
f (r )
= f(r: i)=f(r)i=
x
ds

) u=j

f (r )
df
= f(r: j)=f(r)j=
y
ds

) u=k

df
f (r )
= f(r: k)=f(r)k=
ds
z

2: (3.7.5).
fu : , u, , f. ,
f,
f. f
f.
3: 3.10.

3.8 f
)

(3.7.5) :

df
= f u = f u cos = f cos
ds

(3.8.1)

df/ds
f
z
u, (.3.8.1). |df/ds||f|
f
=0 180 ,

u
f .
r
u
df/ds
=0, u=f/|f|
df/ds
, |f|.
y
O
: f

. 3.8.1
x
,
df/ds, (

52
f ),
.
1: f=x2y+xz u=2i2j+k. f r=i+2j-k u.

.
: u . ' :

u0 =

u
=
| u|

1
u
= (2i 2j + k )
4+4+1 3

f:
f=

f
f
f
i+
j+
k =(2xy+z)i+x2j+xk
x y
z

r=i+2j-k, . x=1, y=2, z=-1,

:
f(r) = 3i+j+k
:

1
2 1 5
df
=fu0 =(3i+j+k) (2i-2j+k)=2- + =
3
3 3 3
ds

f(r), f(r)=3i+j+k :

df
= |f(r)|= 9 + 1 + 1 = 11
ds
:
f (x, y) . .
z=f(x,y)
(x, y). ' f=

f
f
i+
j .
x y

. ,

 53

z
. , . dz
ds: dz/ds . , u=f/|f|
dz/ds=fu=|f|. (3.8.1) , . z, =180
.
90 , (12 .
.

z = f ( x, y ) = z = f ( x, y ) = R 2 x 2 y 2
:

f =

x
R x y
2

y
R x y
2

j=

r
R r2
2

.
,
, .
.
, ,
, .
, .
f
.

, .
E , ( f), f ,
c.

(12

, . z=f(x,y)
z .

54
, , c Lc .
:
Lc={(x,y,z)AR3 / f(x,y,z)=c}
2: f(r)=f(x,y,z)=

(3.8.2)

1
=
r

1
x2 + y 2 + z 2

. , f=c =. c>0,

1
x2 + y 2 + z 2

= c x2 + y 2 + z 2 =

1
c2

1/c.
f=1/r, Coulomb
. . f ,
.
f f
:
) f ' Lc
.
, , (
, ),
,
,
. , Lc , (. 3.8.2).
:
r(t) = x(t)i + y(t)j + z(t)k

 55

d r (t )
dt

P
r(t)

y
O

. 3.8.2
x
f

dr (t )
=0 t, tP
dt

, :
f, ,
, t, :
f=f(x(t),y(t),z(t))=g(t)=c

(3.8.3)

c Lc.
(3.8.3) t, :
0=

dg (t ) f dx(t ) f dy(t ) f dz (t )
dr (t )
=
+
+
= f
dt
x dt
y dt
z dt
dt
f ( r (t P ) )

(3.8.4)

d r (t )
=0
dt t =tP

, f

dr(t )
dt t =tP

. , (

56
r(t)), f
, Lc . f
Lc .
(3.8.4),

dr (t )

dt

dr (t )
df
u = dt

= f ( r (t P ) : u ) = 0
dr (t )
ds
dt
, Lc,
, , .
,
, , c, .
)

L c1 L c2

c2-c1=c<<1 1 L c1 , (. 3.8.3). :
1, ,
L c2
;
:
2. r1 r2 1 2 :
s=|r|=|r2-r1|
:
c=c2-c1 =f(r2)-f(r1)=f=

f (r1 )
f (r1 )
f (r1 )
x +
y +
z =
x
y
z

=f(r1).(xi+yj+zk)=f(r1).r=|f(r1)||r|cos=|f(r1)|scos

(3.8.5)

 57

L c2

f(r1)

P1

P2
s

r
r2

r2

r1

L c1

3.8.4

f(r1) r.
(3.8.5) :
s=

c
| f (r1 ) | cos

(3.8.6)

s, 1 2 cos ,
( c |f(r1)| ),
=0, . r, ( s),
f(r1). f(r1)
1 L c1 L c2 .
3.9
: f=f(x,y).
f z, z=f(x,y) ,
f.
1: : f=f(x,y)=x2+y2
z=x2+y2, :

58

.
: x2+y2=c c>0
c:

 59

, . z . Oxy
.
2: f=x2-y2. :

(13 . :

(13

, ( ).

60

.

:

: f=f(x,y,z) , , . . .
f=x2+y2+z2,
.

 61

3.10
f(r) (14
R3 r. , ( ' ), u0. f
r u , ( ):

lim h0

f (r + hu) f (r )
f (r )
= f (r : u) =
h
u

(3.10.1)

1. f(r) ,
,
r u.
2. f(r) ,
f'(r:u), ( ), r
u,
(>0)(r,r1A)(uR3)(>0)[0|r-r1|<|f(r:u)-f(r: u)|<]

(3.10.2)

1 . ( ). f(r) ,
' R3, r r1
, r+tr1A t[0,1], (.3.10.1).
(0,1) :
f(r+r1)-f(r)=f(w: r1) w=r+r1

(3.10.3)

: g(t), :
g(t)=f(r+tr1)

0t1

(14

R (,) ,
, (,) , . :
(pA)(>0)[(,)A]

62
g(t)

g ( t ) = lim h0

f ( r + (t + h)r1 ) f (r + tr1 )
g (t + h) g (t )
= lim h0
=
h
h

= f (r + tr1 : r1 )
g(t) [0,1], :
z
g(1)-g(0)=g() 0<<1
r1
r+r1
:
r+tr1
f(r+r1)-f(r)=f(r+r1:r2)=f(w: r1)
r
r1
O
y
x

2. ( ). f(r)

, :

.3.10.1
f(r: cu)=cf(r: u) cR

(3.10.4)

: c=0 , (3.10.4) . :
f(r: 0)= lim h 0

f (r ) f (r )
=0
h

c0 :

f (r + hcu) f (r )
f (r + hcu) f (r )
f (r + tu) f (r )
=c
=c
, t=hc
h
ch
t
h 0, t 0 cf(r: u).
3. ( ). f(r) ,
r, u, w , f'(r:u) f'(r:w), :
f(r:u+w)=f(r:u)+f(r:w)
: :

(3.10.5)

 63

f (r + hu + hw ) f (r )
h
f(r+hu) :

1
{[ f (r + hu) f (r)] + [ f (r + hu + hw) f (r + hu)]}
h
,
:
f(r+hu+hw)-f(r+hu) = f'(r+hu+hw:hw)
0<<1. ( h). :
f(r+hu+hw: hw) = hf(r+hu+hw: w)
:

f (r + hu + hw ) f (r ) f (r + hu) f (r )
=
+ f (r + hu + hw : w )
h
h

h 0, :
f(r: u+w) = f(r: u)+f(r: w)
: f'(r:w)
r, :

lim h 0 f(r+hu+hw: w)=f(r:w)

2 3, , , .
4. ( ). f(r) . :
f(r:u+w+v)=f(r:u)+ f(r:w)+ f(r:v)

(3.10.6)

(3.14)
:
f(r:u)=f(r:i+j+k)=f(r:i)+f(r:j)+f(r:k)=
=

f (r ) f (r ) f (r )
+
+
=f(r).u
y
x
z

64
1: f(r) '
CR3 r(s), s[s1, s2], .
g f(r) r(s), .

g(s) = f(r(s)) = f(x(s), y(s), z(s))

(3.10.7)

dr ( s )
r(s), ds

f(r(s))=g(s)

dr ( s )
:
ds
dg ( s )
dr ( s )
= f (r ( s ))
=
ds
ds

f (r( s)) f (r( s)) f (r( s)) dx( s) dy( s) dz ( s)

=
i+
j+
k
i+
j+
k =
y
z
ds
ds
x
ds
f dx f dy f dz df ( s)
=
+
+
=
ds
x ds y ds z ds
(3.7.3).

3.11
1)
:

f=f(x,y) x=x(t), y=y(t). -

df d 2 f
,
dt
dt 2
: :

df f dx f dy
=
+
dt x dt y dt

(1)

d2 f
(1)
dt 2

d 2 f d df
=
dt 2 dt dt

2
2
d f dx f d x d f dy f d y
=
+
+
+

2
dt y dt y dt 2
dt x dt x dt

(2)

 65

d f
,
dt x

d f

dt y

d f 2 f dx 2 f dy
+
=
dt x x2 dt xy dt

(3)

d f 2 f dx 2 f dy
+
=
dt y xy dt y 2 dt

(4)

:
(1):

(3), (4) (2):

2

d 2 f f d 2 x 2 f dx
2 f dx dy 2 f dy f d 2 y
=
+
+
2
+

+
dt 2
x dt 2 x 2 dt
xy dt dt y 2 dt y dt 2
2) f x, y, z, t, f=f(x,y,z,t). x=x(t), y=y(t), z=z(t)
t,

df f
dr
= + f
dt t
dt
r(t)=x(t)i+y(t)j+z(t)k
: f:

df =

f
f
f
f
dx + dy + dz + dt
x
y
z
t

df f dx f dy f dz f
dr f
=
+
+
+ = f +
dt x dt y dt z dt t
dt t
3) f(x,y,z) 5 (2,1,3), f(2,1,3)=5. :

f ( 2,1,3)
x

= 2,

f ( 2,1,3)
y

= 2,

f ( 2,1,3)
z

=3

:
) f(2.1, 0.8, 3.1)

) f(1.9, 0.9, 3).

: :

66

f =

f
f
f
x + y + z
x
y
z

(1)

) f(2.1, 0.8, 3.1) f(2,1,3)

.
x=0.1, y=-0.2, z=0.1

(2)

(2) (1) :

f ( 2,1,3)
f ( 2,1,3)
f ( 2,1,3)
x +
y +
z =
x
y
z
= 2(0.1) + (2)(0.2) + 3(0.1) = 0.9

f =

f :
f(2.1, 0.8, 3.1)= f(2,1,3)+f=5+0.9=5.9

) (1.9, 0.9, 3) :
x=-0.1, y=-0.1, z=0
f=2(-0.1)+(-2)(-0.1)+3(0)=0 . f(1.9, 0.9, 3)=5.
4) ,
(2,1,4). : f(x,y,z)=x3+y2+z.

;

: f f.

. -f
.
:

f
f
f
f ( 2,1, 4 ) = i + j + k
=
z (2,1,4)
x y
= 3x 2 i + 2 yj + k

( 2,1,4)

= 12i 2 j k

5)
: V-, T-, P-, U- .
.

.
:

 67

U
P
T
+P =0
V
T

(1)

V, T . (1) :

T
P
T
+T
P
=0
V
U
U

V, U

(2)

U
V
V
+T
+P
=0
P
T
P

P, T

(3)

( P, V )
V
P
1 = 0
( T, U )
U

T, U

(4)

( V, T )
T
V
T
+P
=0
P
U
( U, P )

U, P

(5)

V, P

(6)

TP

( T, U )
T
+T
=0
P
( V, P )

: (1) U, P
V, T:
U=U(V,T),

P=P(V,T)

dU=AdV+BdT dP=CdV+DdT

A=

U
U
P
P
, B=
, C=
, D=
V
T
V
T

(7)
(8)
(9)

(1) :
-TD+P=0

(10)

(2), V, U T, P V, U:
T=T(V,U),

P=P(V,U)

(11)

(11):

dT=dV+dU,

dP=dV+dU

(12)

dU=(1/)d-(/)dV,

dP=(-/)dV+(/)dT

(13)

(8) (13) :
=-/, D=-/,

(14)

68
(10) , , ,
:

+ = 0

(15)

T
(15) :
V
+-=0

T
P
T
+T
P
=0
V
U
U

(16)

(3) .
(4) T U .
P=P(T,U),
V=V(T,U) :
dP=dT+dU,

dV=dT+dU

(17)

(17) dP dU:
dP=(/)dV+(-/)dT dU=(1/)dV-(/)dT

(18)

(8) (18) :
=1/, D=-/

(19)

(19) (10) :
1/-(-/)+=0

(-)--1=0

P V P V

=
T U U T

(20)

P
T

P
U
=

V
T

V
U

( P, V )
( T, U )

( P, V )
P, V T, U.
( T, U )

H (20) :

( P, V )
V
P
1 = 0
( T, U )
U

(21)

 69

(5) (6).

1.

f(r) = 3x2y-y3z2 f =(1,-2,-1)

2.

f ) f(r)=ln|r|=lnr ) f(r)=1/r, r=xi+yj+zk

3.

rn =nrn-2r, r=xi+yj+zk

4.
, :
x2y+2xz=4 =(2,-2,3).
5.
f(r)=x2yz+4xz2
=(1,-2,-1) u=2i-j-2k.
6.
f=x2yz3 =(2,1,-1) .
.
7. : f1=x2+y2+z2-9=0 f2=x2+y2-z-3=0.
=(2,-1,2) ,
.
8. f(x,y)=3x2+y2 , (x,y)
x2+y2 =R2 .
9. ,,, f(x,y,z) = xy2+yz+z2x3 (1,2,-1)
64 .
10. f(x,y) ) 2 (1,2) 1(2,2) )
-2 (1,2)
2(1,1). f
(1,2) 3(4,6) f.
11. R P(x,y,z)
(,,). R
R=.
12. .
, ( ), , .

70
13. f(x,y,z)=xey+yz
P(x,y,z) 0(2,0,0) 1(4,1,-2) , s=0.1 .
14. f(x,y,z)
v=i+j-k.
23. ) f . )
f i+j.
15.
: T=T(x,y)=eysinx. , ""
.

 IV

I -
4.1

, ..
, '
..
, , (
t).
.
, F, :
F: W V

(4.1.1)

W, V , R2 R3, W=R2
R3 V=R2 R3. :
F: r = xi+yj+zk F(r) = F(x,y,z)R3

: F =

r
=
r3

(4.1.2)

(x

+ y2 + z2 )2

, , ( ), Coulomb
.

72 IV
F

F(r)=F(x,y,z)=F1(x,y,z)i+F2(x,y,z)j+F3(x,y,z)k

(4.1.3)

F1, F2, F3 x,
y, z .
:

"" .
.
.
F=xi+yj
.
4.1.1 .

, .

. 4.1.1

.
F=-yi+xj. , .

.
' , (. 4.1.2).

,
M, m,

m
. 4.1.2

(x,y,z).
:

 - - 73

F = G

Mm
r
r3

, (. 4.1.3), F
.

F
0 (x0,y0,z0) (x,y,z)
. , :
. 4.1.3
x=x0+s y=y0+s

z=z0+s

(4.1.4)

, , u,
, ( u=i+j+k 2+2+2=1). s
0 . (4.1.4) (4.1.3), F ,
0 , :
F=F(s)=F1(x+s,y+s,z+s)i+F2(x+s,y+s,z+s)j+F3(x+s,y+s,z+s)k

(4.1.5)
F , s.
4.2

F
(x,y,z) u, :

F ( r : u ) =

dF dF1
dF dF
=
i+ 2 j 3 k
ds
ds
ds ds

(4.2.1)

74 IV
F
,
F1 , F2 , F3 F .

dF1
dF2
dF3
=F2u,
=F3u
=F1u,
ds
ds
ds

(4.2.1) :
(4.2.2)
(4.2.2)
, :

F1
F1 F1
F1
x + y + z

F2
F2 F2
F1 u F2
+
+

dF

y
z = x
= F2 u = x
ds


F3 u

F3
F3
F3 F3
+
+

y
z x
x

F1
y
F2
y
F3
y

F1
z

F2

z


F3

(4.2.3)

F
:

F1

F2
D (F) = x

F3

F1
y
F2
y
F3
y

F1
z

F2
z

F3

(4.2.4)

F, (
F), :

 - - 75

u, :
F(r: u)=D(F)u

(4.2.5)

1:
f(x,y,z), :

(4.2.5) .
u,
. ,
D(F), F, ,
F. :
)
n, ij
:
n

tr = ij

(4.2.6)

i =1

.
.
D(F), :

F1 F2 F3
+
+
x y z

(4.2.7)

F. (4.2.7) ,
, "" .
(4.2.7) "" , ( ,
), F,

F1 F2 F3

+
+
=
i+
j+
k ( F1i + F2 j + F3k )
x y z x y z

(4.2.8)

76 IV
T "" : F divF , ( div
diverge=), F. :
divF=F=

F1 F2 F3
+
+
x y z

(4.2.9)

( v) +

=0
t

(4.2.10)

E =

(4.2.11)

Maxwell.
) D(F) ,
( ),
:

F3 F2 F1 F3 F2 F1

i +
k
j+

(4.2.12)

F
: curlF rotF. ( curl curlation= rot rotation=).
F :

F=

T :

F1

F2

F3

(4.2.13)

 - - 77

curlF=rotF=F=

F1

F2

F3

F F F F F F
= 3 2 i + 1 3 j+ 2 1 k
y z z x x y

(4.2.14)

2: , , (
), :

i+
j+
k
x y z

(4.2.15)

,
. , ( i, j, k,),
, ( (/x,
/y, /z ).
:
) f f,
.
) F , F.
) F , F.
4.3

) : '
F , () ' .
F=xi+yj 4.1.1
F=2>0 .
F=-xi-yj F=-2<0
.
, . (x,y,z) -

78 IV
v(x,y,z)
(x,y,z). F(x,y,z)= (x,y,z)v(x,y,z)
:

[F] =

( ) ( )

(4.3.1)

v (x,y,z). F, F,
(x,y,z).
:
x,
y, z, (. 4.3.1). x, y, z ,
' F (15. (x,y,z). :
F(x,y,z)j(xz) , j
.
, F(x,y+y,z)j(xz)

j .
z

y
y

O
. 4.3.1
x

(16

[F(x,y+y,z)-F(x,y,z)]j(xz)

(15

F . F
.
(16

[F(x,y+y,z)-F(x,y,z)]j(xz) ,

 - - 79

,
j.
:
[F(x+x,y,z)-F(x,y,z)]i(yz)
[F(x,y,z+z)-F(x,y,z)]k(xy)

. xyz , :

[F( x + x, y, z ) F( x, y, z ] i (yz )
lim x0
+
xyz
y 0
z 0

[F( x, y + y, z ) F( x, y, z ] j(xz )
+
xyz

[F( x, y, z + z ) F( x, y, z ] k (xy )
=
xyz

= lim x 0

[F ( x + x, y , z ) F ( x, y , z )] i
+
x

+ limy0

[F( x, y + y, z) F( x, y, z )] j
+
y

+ lim z 0

[F ( x, y , z + z ) F ( x, y , z )] k
=
z

= lim x 0

[ F1 ( x + x, y , z ) F1 ( x, y , z )]
+
x

+ limy0

[ F2 ( x, y + y, z) F2 ( x, y, z)]
+
y

j . [F(x,y+y,z)F(x,y,z)]j(xz) ,
j .

80 IV
+ lim z 0

[ F3 ( x, y , z + z ) F3 ( x, y , z )]
=
z

F1 ( x, y, z) +
F2 ( x, y, z) +
F ( x, y, z ) =F(x,y,z)
x
y
z 3

(4.3.2)

, F
(x,y,z)
B(x,y,z).
:
F(x,y,z)>0 :
) (x,y,z) ""
)
(x,y,z) .
F(x,y,z)<0 :
) (x,y,z) ""
)
(x,y,z) .
, , , ,
v
. :
v=0 .

= v=0.

+(v)=0,
t

F , F
, ,
, ( ), :
F= lim V 0

1
F dS
V
S

(4.3.3)

V S , dS=dSn, n -

 - - 81

dS S

.
) :
F , ,

, , =k. R
, (x,y,z) , (.
4.3.2). :
r = Rcosti+Rsintj+zk
v=

dr
=(-Rsinti+Rcostj)=-yi+xj
dt

j
i

v=
x y

y x

=2k=2
z

, ,
v 2=,

.
R
z
v
.

F , (
),
r
:
(F).n= limS 0

1
F dr
S C

(4.3.5)

S

C, n
S
-

. 4.3.2

82 IV
,

.
F , F
.
F :

F = limV 0

1
V

n FdS

(4.3.6)

: . ,

, v ' , . ,
, .
. , '
. .
4.4

f =

1
. , r

, .
.. f =

1 Q
,
4 0 r

Q, . f = G

M

r

, , . :

 - - 83

1 Q
Q r
E = f =
,
=
3
4 r 4 r
M
r

E = f = G = GM 3
r
r

. ,
q m, q m :

F=

Qq r
,
4 r 3

F=G

Mm
r
r3

, :
: F
;
;
:

F f
f=F;
: , F=0.
f,
F f f .
F=F1i+F2j+F3k f=F :

f f
f
i+
j+
k =F1i+F2j+F3k
x y
z
f
= F1
x

f
= F2
y

f
= F3
z

(4.4.1)

(4.4.1) :

2 f F1
=
y x y

2 f F2
=
x y x

2 f F1
=
z x z

2 f F3
=
x z x

(4.4.2)

84 IV

2 f F3
=
y z y

2 f F2
=
z y y
:

F3 F2

=0
y z
F2 F1

=0
x y

F1 F3

=0
z x

F=0

(4.4.3)

(4.4.3) f f=F.
: f=F F =
(f)=0.
, , (4.4.3) f,
f=F .
f1 , :

f1
= F1
x

(4.4.4)

f1
, :

f1
= F2 ,
y

f1
= F3
z

(4.4.4) :
x

f1(x,y,z)= F1 (t , y, z)dt

(4.4.5)

x0

(x0,y0,z0) (x,y,z)
x. f1 (4.4.5) f1 /x=F1
f1 /y=F2 f1 /z=F3 .
f1+f2 , f2 y z. f1+f2 :

( f1 + f 2 )
= F1
x

 - - 85

( f1 + f 2 )
f2
f
= F2
= F2 1
y
y
y

f1 F2 2 f1 F2 f1 F2 F1

F
=

=0
x 2 y x x y x y x x y

F2-

f1
=g(y,z)
y
y

f2(y,z)= g(t , z)dt

(4.4.6)

y0

f1+f2
(4.4.1), :

( f1 + f 2 )
= F1
x

( f1 + f 2 )
= F2
y

f3(z) :

( f1 + f 2 + f 3 )
= F3
z

f3(z)=F3-

( f1 + f 2 )
z

( f1 + f 2 ) F3
F3 F1

=0
F3 =
[ f1 + f 2 ] =
x
z
x z
x z x

( f1 + f 2 )
F = F
F3 F2
y 3
z
3

=0

[ f1 + f 2 ] =
y z y
y z
F3 -

( f1 + f 2 )
z. :
z
( f1 + f 2 )

h(z)=F3-

86 IV
z

f3(z)= h (t )dt

(4.4.7)

z0

: F F=0, f=f1+f2+f3 f=F :

x

f1 ( x, y, z ) = F1 ( x, y, z )dx ,
x0

f
f2 ( y, z ) = F2 1 dy ,
y

y0

f f

f3 ( z ) = F3 1 2 dz
z z

(4.4.8)

z0

:
F=xyz(2z+3x)i+z(x2z-3y2+x3)j+y(2x2z-y2+x3)k.
F=0. f
f=F. :

f
=F1 =xyz(2z+3x)
x

(4.4.9)

f
=F2 = z(x2z-3y2+x3)
y

(4.4.10)

f
=F3 = y(2x2z-y2+x3)
z

(4.4.11)

(4.4.9) x y z :

f= Fdx
+c1(y,z)= xyz (2 z + 3 x) dx +c1(y,z)=x2yz2+x3yz+c1(y,z)
1

(4.4.12)
c1
y z.
(4.4.12) (4.4.10) :

 - - 87

f
x 2 yz 2 +x 3 yz+c1 (y,z) =F2 = z(x2z-3y2+x3)
=
y y
x2z2+x3z+

c1 (y,z) =x2z2-3y2z+x3z
c (y,z) =-3y2z
y
y 1

c1(y,z)= 3y 2zdy +c2(z)=-y3z+c2(z)

(4.4.13)

c2 ,
z.
(4.4.12) (4.4.13) :
f=x2yz2+x3yz-y3z+c2(z)

(4.4.14)

(4.4.14) (4.4.11) :

f
d
=2x2yz+x3y-y3+
c2(z)= F3 =y(2x2z-y2+x3)
dz
z
d
c2(z)=0 c2(z)=c=.
dz
: f=x2yz2+x3yz-y3z+c
1: F ,
F=0, , ,
F=0, .
: F=x3yi+yx2j+xzk. F, F .

: F ,
f F=f. :

f
= F1 = x 3 y (1)
x

f
f
= F2 = yx 2 (2)
= F3 = xz (3)
y
z

f , ,
, .
F ,
F1, F2, F3 x, y,
z .
:

88 IV

2 f
2 f
=
xy yx
(1) y :

2 f
= x3
yx

(4)

(2) x :

2 f
= 2 xy
xy

(5)

2 f
2 f

f
yx xy

F=f. F .

. . . F=yk, , curlF=i0.
4.5 .
: F=F1i+F2j+F3k , G=G1i+G2j+G3k :
F=G

(4.5.1)

: F=0

(4.5.2)

F=G
F=(G)=0.

, ,
(4.5.1) G.
(4.5.1) :

G3 G2
G2 G1
G1 G3

= F1 ,

= F3

= F2 ,
x y
y z
z x

(4.5.3)

 - - 89

G1, G2, G3. (4.5.1)
:
G = G1i+G2j+G3k
x

G1 =0

G2= F3 (t , y, z )dt F1 ( x0 , y, u )du

x0

z0

G3=- F2 (t , y, z )dt
x0

1: G, (4.5.1),
G+, , (4.5.1). :
(G+)=G+()=F+0=F
4.6

f F G
.
1.(f+)=f+

grad(f+)=gradf+grad

2. (F+G)=F+G

div(F+G) = divF + divG

3. (F+G)= F+G

curl(F+G)=curlF+curlG

4. (fF)=(f)F+f(F)

div(fF)=gradf.F+fdivF

5. (fF)=(f) F+f(F)

curl(fF)=gradfF+fcurlF

6. (FG)=G(F)-F(G)

div(FxG)=GcurlF-FcurlG

7. (FG)=(G)F-G(F)-(F)G+F(G)
8. (FG)=(G)F+(F)G+G(F)+F(G)

9.

2f 2f 2f
+ 2+ 2
2
y z
(f)=2f= x

2=

10 (f)=0
(17

2 2 2
+
+
x2 y 2 z 2

(17

o Laplace.

curlgradf=0

f(x,y,z) 2f(x,y,z)=0 -

90 IV
11. (F)=0 divcurlF = 0
12. (F) = (F) - 2F
4.7
1) ,
:

+(v)=0
t

(1)

=(x,y,z,t) v=v(x,y,z,t)
. :

+()v+v=0
t

(2)

D
+v=0
Dt

(3)

D dx dy dz
=
+
+
+
Dt x dt y dt z dt t

(4)

Stokes.
: :
(fF)=(f)F+f(F) f=, F=v

(v)=()v+(v).

(1) :

+()v+v=0
+(v)=
t
t
(2).
(3), v :
v=dx/dti+dy/dtj+dz/dtk, (2) :

dx dy dz

i+
j + k i + j + k + v=
+()v+v=
+
y
z dt
dt
dt
t x
t
=

dx dy dz
D
+
+
+
+ v=
+v=0
Dt
t x dt y dt z dt

 - - 91

D

Dt

.
2) :
v=(y,0,0). .
y
.
t=1/3,
t=0

x
x=0, x=1, y=0,
y=1, z=0, z=1.

:
, ,

. 4.7.1

+(v)=0
t

t=1

t=0

v=0.
v

v=0
1
x
.
.

1
.
4.7.1.
z

. 4.7.2


. t=0 ,
().
() .
t=1/3
()
(), , . 4.7.2.

92 IV
3) :
v=(x,0,0). . .
t=1, y
t=0
x=0,
x=1, y=0, y=1, z=0, z=1.

: . 4.7.3. x x=0,
,

,
z
. 4.7.3
OX |x|. v=10
.
v(x,0,0)
. :

v=

dr dx

= , 0, 0 = ( x, 0, 0 )
dt dt

dx
= x x = ce t
dt
c
, t=0.

. 4.7.4


,
x=cet c=0 . x=0.
, ..
CKLH, x=1 t=0.
t=0 1=ce0 c=1 x(t)=et.
t=1 x=et=e MCKL
ABOMGDEF,
GDEF x=e, . 4.7.4. V=e11=e.

 - - 93

4) o ,
T=T(x,y,z).

(1)

T T ( x + x, y + y, z + z ) T ( x, y, z )
=
s
s

(2)

s0.

dT
dr
= T
ds
ds

(3)

:
. .

.
f, F,
, , : f=F.
f .
, . , ,
,
,
. :

94 IV
T(x,y,z) (x,y,z), T(x+x y+y,
z+z) (x+x y+y, z+z).
s
.

(x,y,z) (x+x y+y, z+z). (x,y,z):

d =

T
T
T
dx +
dy +
dz
x
y
z

lims 0

dT T dx T dy T dz
=
=
+
+
=
s ds x ds y ds z ds

T
dz
dr
T
T dx dy
= i+
j+
k i + j + k = T
y
z ds
ds
ds
ds
x

1. :

r
=0
3
r

r
=0
3
r

1
r

) 2 = 0

2. r=xi+yj+zk r=|r| n div[rnr]=0

3. =(x,y,z),
d/dz=0 (0,0,z)=0. :
F(x,y,z)=(x3+3y2z)i+6xyzj+k

f. f.

 - - 95
u2

4. F=4u. e -i , u=yj+zk,
.
5. f(r),
f(r)r .
6.

) 2f(r)=

df
2 df
+
2
dr
r dr

) f(r) 2 f(r)=0
7. :

) 2[lnr]=1/r2

) 2rn=n(n+1)rn-2

) [r3r]=6r3

8. F=F1i+F2j+F3k
.
(x,y,z), F
. , F
. ,

F1(x,y)dx+F2(x,y)dy=0 .
9. F G , FG
.
10. Mxwell
:
E=B=

B
t

E
t

E=0
B=0

.
:
2u=

2u
t2

: (F)=-2F+(F)

11. ;

1) culr divF

2) curl curlF

3) grad gradf

4) div divF

5) div gradf

6) grad divf

7) grad divF

8) grad curlF

9) div curlF

10)curl gradf

96 IV
(. 1) OXI

2) NAI

3) OXI

4) OXI

5) NAI

6) OXI

7) NAI

8) OXI

9) NAI

10) NAI