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EExxx Basic Electronics

Lecture # 7

The Real Diode

A real diode
o Does Not conduct in the forward direction with

zero resistance
o Does Not offer infinite resistance in the reverse
direction

Forward Direction
Forward current does not start flowing until the voltage

applied to the diode exceeds its threshold or knee voltage

First, a real diode is shown as equivalent to an ideal diode in
series with a small oppositely connected battery of voltage
(emf)

The Real Diode

Second Factor to be considered is Forward dynamic or ac

resistance offered by the diode (In first case, it is considered to

be zero that gives us a straight vertical line in characteristics)

The Real Diode

Large signal operation
o Large signal sources are those whose voltage is much

greater than the diode knee voltage

o Forward current would be large
o So Junction resistance would be negligible
= +
Small signal operation
o Signal voltage is much smaller than knee voltage
o Forward current would be small
o So Junction resistance is very large compared to
= +

The Real Diode

Reverse Direction
An actual or real diode does not have infinite resistance in
reverse direction as it always have some reverse saturation
current below the breakdown
Reverse resistance is very high (thousands of Megaohms)
Diode is considered equivalent to a very high resistance in the
reverse direction (For low frequency signals)
For high frequency signals, we take into account the Capcitive
effects as well

Examples
Discussion in Class: Examples 14.1 to 14.8
Solve Example 14.9, 14.10
Assignment 1

EExxx Basic Electronics

Lecture # 8

Clippers and Clampers

These are diode wave shaping circuits
These circuits are used to control the shape of the voltage and

current waveforms to suit various purposes

Clipper (Clipping circuit):
simply clippes off a portion of the input signal
Clamper (Clamping circuit):
simply clamps (lifts up or down) the input signal

Clippers
A clipping circuit requires a minimum of two components i.e.

diode and resistance

Often DC battery is also used to fix the clipping level
Input waveform can be clipped at different levels by
oSimply changing the battery voltage or
oBy interchanging positions of various elements
We will only use an ideal diode here!!!

Negative Clipper
Example 14.13:
Sine wave has positive half cycle and negative half cycle
Negative portion of the signal has been removed , such circuit
is called Negative Clipper

Negative Clipper
When Positive Half Cycle applied to the clipper
A is +ve with respect to B
In other words, A is at higher potential with respect to B
Thus diode is Reverse Biased and acts as an open switch
Since there is no current flow, no voltage drop across

So the entire positive half cycle appears across the diode

Result: Positive half cycle appears in output

Negative Clipper
When Negative Half Cycle applied to the clipper
A is -ve with respect to B
In other words, B is at higher potential with respect to A
Thus diode is Forward Biased
Diode acts as a closed switch (or short)
So No voltage drop across the diode

Result: Negative half cycle does not appear in output

Positive Clipper
(Example 14.13) Diode and Resistor Interchanged:
Output voltage will drop across the resistance
Positive portion of the signal has been removed, such circuit is
called Positive Clipper

Error in the
book:
Fig14.31(b),
polarity of
diode should
be reversed

Positive Clipper
When Positive Half Cycle applied to the clipper
A is +ve with respect to B
In other words, A is at higher potential with respect to B
Thus diode is Reverse Biased
Diode acts as an open switch
So the entire positive half cycle drops across the diode and

none across the resistance

Result: Positive half cycle does not appear in output

Positive Clipper
When Negative Half Cycle applied to the clipper
A is -ve with respect to B
In other words, B is at higher potential with respect to A
Thus diode is Forward Biased
Diode acts as a closed switch (or short)
So No voltage drop across the diode and the entire negative

half cycle drops across the resistance

Result: Negative half cycle appears in output

Example
Discuss Examples 14.1 to 14.10

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EExxx Basic Electronics

Lecture # 9

Clipper with Battery

Example 14.14: Fig 14.32
Output is the voltage drop across resistance
Battery Voltage of 10 V is opposing the Input Voltage

Clipper with Battery

When Positive Half Cycle applied to the clipper
Battery Voltage is subtracted from the positive Input Voltage
Diode Reverse biased in the start, No current will flow
When input voltage exceeds the opposing battery voltage of

10V, then point A is at higher potential with respect to B

Diode becomes Forward Biased and acts as closed switch
Only after 10V, input
voltage appear as
output voltage

Clipper with Battery

When Negative Half Cycle applied to the clipper
Battery Voltage is subtracted from the negative Input Voltage
So point A is -ve with respect to B for entire negative half

cycle (B is at higher potential with respect to A)

Diode is Reverse Biased and acts as a open switch
So No voltage drop across the resistance

Clipper with Reversed Battery

Example 14.14: Fig 14.33
Reversed battery connection
Battery Voltage of 10 V is enhancing the Input Voltage

Clipper with Reversed Battery

During the Positive Half Cycle:
Output voltage would be sum of the positive input signal and
battery voltage
Diode will always be Forward biased
In the output, Signal voltage would be lifted up by 10 V

Clipper with Reversed Battery

During the Negative Half Cycle:
Output voltage would be sum of the negative input signal and
battery voltage, Diode is Forward biased in the start
When Input signal is below -10 V, Diode becomes Reverse
biased, Lower peak portions of the input signal is clipped off

Some Clipping Circuits

Biased Series Clippers
Diode in Series with the load Resistance
Portion of the signal shown in dotted line is clipped off
Fig 14.37

Some Clipping Circuits

Biased Parallel Clippers
Diode in Parallel with the
load Resistance (Load
Resistance not shown in
the circuit)
Portion of the signal
shown in dotted line
is clipped off
Fig 14.38

Some Clipping Circuits

Biased Parallel Clippers
Fig 14.38

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EE182 Basic Electronics

Lecture # 10

Zener Diode
A reverse biased heavily doped (silicon or germanium) P-N

junction diode which is operated in breakdown region

Symbol:
Zener Breakdown occurs due to breaking of covalent bonds
by strong electric field set up in the depletion region by the
reverse voltage (this is also called Zener effect). It produces large
number of electrons and holes which constitute the reverse
saturation current called Zener Current (Iz)
Avalanche Breakdown occurs at higher reverse voltages
when thermally-generated electrons acquire sufficient energy
to produce more carriers by collision

Zener Breakdown
Zener effect Vs Avalanche effect:

Zener effect: reverse voltage< 6V

Avalanche effect: reverse voltage> 6V
When a diode breakdowns, both Zener and Avalanche effects
are present but it is called Zener Diode for both types
Zener Current (Iz) is limited only by the external resistance
Zener Current (Iz) is independent of the applied voltage

V/I Characteristic

V/I Characteristic
Forward characteristic
Simply that of an ordinary forward biased junction diode
As the applied potential increases, the current increases
exponentially

V/I Characteristic
Reverse characteristic
As the reverse bias increases across the Zener Diode,
breakdown occurs at voltage Vz
Current Iz increases rapidly in the reverse direction
Vz= Zener breakdown voltage
Iz,min= Minimum current to sustain breakdown
Iz,max= Maximum Zener current

V/I Characteristic
Reverse characteristic is not exactly vertical because of some

resistance called Zener dynamic impedance(Zz). It is

negligible as compared to large external resistance
We neglect Zz, assuming that characteristics is truly vertical
That means we assume Ideal Zener Diode
For Ideal Zener in the breakdown,
Vz remains constant even
when Iz increases considerably
Fig (b) shows equivalent circuit of Zener
Fig (c) shows equivalent circuit of Ideal
Zener (where small Zz is neglected)

Examples
Solve Example 15.1, 15.2, 15.3

EE182 Basic Electronics

Lecture # 11

Zener Voltage
Zener diodes are available having of 2.4 V to 200V
Zener voltage is temperature-dependent
Power dissipation is given by

Maximum ratings: 150mW to 50W

Zener Biasing
For proper working of a Zener diode in any circuit, it must:
Be reverse biased
Have voltage across it greater than
Be in a circuit where current is less than ,

Uses of Zener Diode

As voltage regulator
As a fixed reference voltage in a network for

1. Biasing
2. Comparison
3. Calibrating voltmeter
As peak clippers
For meter protection

Voltage Regulation
Voltage regulation is a measure of a circuits ability to maintain

a constant output voltage even when either input voltage or load

current varies
Zener diode, working in reverse biased, can serve as voltage
regulator

Voltage Regulations
is input DC voltage whose variations are to be regulated
Zener diode is reverse connected across input voltage

When potential difference across the diode is greater than ,

it conducts and draws relatively large current through the

series resistance

Voltage Regulation
The load resistance across which a constant voltage is

required, is connected in parallel with the diode

Total current = +
Under all conditions =
Hence
= +
= +
= ( + ) +

=
( + )

How Voltage Regulation works?

CASE 1:
Suppose is fixed and is increased, this increases .
Increased current will be absorbed by Zener diode. Increase in
voltage will be dropped across , keeping
constant
Conversely, if decreases, Zener diode takes a smaller
current and voltage dropped across is also reduced, again
keeping constant

Voltage Regulations
CASE 2:
is fixed, is changed. When increases, Zener diode
current decreases, thereby keeping and drop constant.
In this way, remains constant
Conversely, When decreases, Zener diode current
increases, thereby keeping and drop constant. Again,
remains constant

Examples
Solve Examples 15.4, 15.5, 15.6

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