See

discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/286439409

Measuring sky view factor of urban canyons

using hacked Gopro hemispheric video
processing
Conference Paper December 2015

CITATIONS

READS

109

2 authors, including:
Marcus White
University of Melbourne
16 PUBLICATIONS 10 CITATIONS
SEE PROFILE

All in-text references underlined in blue are linked to publications on ResearchGate,

letting you access and read them immediately.

Available from: Marcus White

Retrieved on: 02 September 2016

th

R.H. Crawford and A. Stephan (eds.), Living and Learning: Research for a Better Built Environment: 49 International
Conference of the Architectural Science Association 2015, pp.525535. 2015, The Architectural Science Association
and The University of Melbourne.

Measuring sky view factor of urban canyons using hacked

Gopro hemispheric video processing
Marcus White and Geoff Kimm
The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia
mrwhite@unimelb.edu.au, geoff.kimm@unimelb.edu.au

Abstract: Increased urbanisation and densification is producing urban fabric with increasingly deep
urban canyons, trapping longwave radiation and contributing to the Urban Heat Island (UHI)
phenomenon. With global temperatures along with heat related mortality predicted to increase, there is
a critical need to understand urban canyons and heat retention in cities. Methods for analysing urban
canyon through Sky View Factor (SVF), an established contributing parameter in the prediction of UHI,
have until now been limited to relatively manual, time intensive calculations using individual points of
assessment from still photographs. This paper describes a method for rapidly capturing the extent of
urban canyon enclosure by way of mobile video SVF processing. A lightweight GoPro video camera was
hacked to capture on-the-go 180 hemispherical (fisheye) video. This video was analysed using our
custom pixel-based image processing tool calculating SVF. This SVF analysis was synchronised with
logged GPS, air temperature, humidity and light levels data captured by linked Bluetooth sensor and
smartphone to record city wide urban canyon and atmospheric longitudinal cross-sections. The
approach is inexpensive and has potential for continuous, detailed, city wide data collection by
mounting on public transport. This investigation provides a new, rapid analysis tool for urban
researchers enabling further study of the relationship between urban heat retention and urban form.
Keywords: Sky view factor; urban heat island; urban canyon; sensor data.

526 M. White and G. Kimm

1. Introduction
1.1. Aim
The aim of this investigation is to develop and test a tool for rapid Sky View Factor (SVF) evaluation,
from in-situ fisheye video of continuous, city-wide longitudinal cross-sections of urban contexts,
providing an urban form and microclimate analysis tool to aid researchers studying the relationship
between urban canyons and the Urban Heat Island phenomena.

1.2. Urbanisation, densification and heat retention

Many Australian cities are experiencing rapid urban densification (DOI, 2012). Though there is a greater
understanding of the relationship between densification, transport, and sustainability (Newman and
Kenworthy, 1999; Beatley et al., 2009), there is also great pressure to accommodate higher population
densities in established, well serviced, inner urban areas (Dodson and Sipe, 2008) often in the form of
high-rise developments. These forms of development can have the unintended consequence of creating
a denser urban fabric with deep urban canyons [see
Figure ]. These resulting dense urban areas can have a profound impact on local atmospheric conditions
contributing to the phenomena known as the urban heat island (UHI) which can increase temperatures
within urban centres considerably when compared to surrounding rural areas (Oke, 1981, 1988; Mills,
2004; Basara et al., 2010). Temperature differences between central urban areas and nearby rural areas
can be more than 3C on a clear and calm night (Wong and Hogen, 2011) (see
Figure ).

Figure 1: Temperature and urban form relationship diagram of a longitudinal cross-section through
Greater Melbourne overlaid with temperature readings (taken on a clear summer night) from outer
western suburbs, through the CBD to the outer south-eastern suburbs based on diagram from City of
Melbournes Urban Forestry Strategy (Melbourne, 2012) and longwave radiation dispersion diagram by
Grimmond (2007).

Measuring sky view factor of urban canyons using hacked Gopro hemispheric video processing

527

This heat retention in urban centres has been documented since the late 1960s (Bornstein, 1968). As
the UHI can intensify extreme climatic events (Patz et al., 2005) and is considered a major contributing
factor to heat-related mortality in urban regions, acting to worsen the adverse health effects from
exposure to extreme thermal conditions (Luber and McGeehin, 2008; Tan et al., 2010), UHI is now
becoming a key consideration in the design for the growth of cities.

1.4. Urban canyon modelling using Sky View Factor (SVF)

The modelling of UHI is complex (Shao et al., 2011) with a great number of variables such as wind,
material colour, street orientation, tree coverage, permeability of ground surfaces, and building heights
in relation to street width or urban canyon (Oke, 1988).
The urban canyon is where, in dense urban environments, buildings on each side of a street enclose a
space obscuring the sky and therefore restricting the amount of long-wave radiation that can escape, a
phenomenon particularly acute at night (Wong and Hogen, 2011) [
Figure ]. The urban canyon is considered by many to be the most important contributing factor to
the UHI effect (Ibrahim et al., 2011); it is a critical variable considered by microclimate researchers in the
study of urban heat island (Brandsma and Wolters, 2012; Ewenz et al., 2012) and the measurement of
this variable is the focus of this paper.
The measure of the degree to which the sky is obscured at a given point is commonly calculated as
either Height to Width ratio (H/W) or as Sky View Factor (SVF) (Johnson and Watson, 1984). SVF has
been found to be a more effective measure as it can take into account the complexity of real streets in
which buildings are irregularly aligned and which vary in height and length (Johnson and Watson, 1984).
SVF (sky) is a dimensionless measurement of openness between sky = 0 for totally obscured and
sky = 1 for open spaces where the sky is completely unobstructed allowing all outgoing radiation to
radiate freely to the sky (see Figure 2) (Brown et al., 2001). SVF as a method for modelling has been
shown to have a strong correlation with UHI (Kakon and Nobuo, 2009; Unger, 2009; Ewenz et al., 2012)
and is therefore critical to understanding the impact of densification and urban form.

Figure 2: Conceptual diagram of sky view factor projected onto a hemisphere for a single point.

528 M. White and G. Kimm

2. Calculating SVF
SVF has traditionally been very difficult to measure (Grimmond et al., 2001). There are however several
methods for modelling and assessing SVF. Unger (2009) lists five common modelling methods as:

scale model (Oke, 1981);

analytical method (2D angle measurements, height/width) (Johnson and Watson, 1984;
Johnson, 1985; Bottyan and Unger, 2003);
evaluation using GPS signals (Chapman and Thornes, 2004);
computational evaluation using digital elevation databases describing surface geometric
elements (Brown et al., 2001; Souza et al., 2003; Lindberg, 2005). There are also developments
on this method of generating SVF with the use of Lidar aerial mapping with raster based
three-dimensionalisation of two-dimensional data using Digital Elevation Models in GIS (Kokalj
et al., 2011);
and manual and computer evaluation of fisheye photos (Bradley et al., 2001; Holmer et al.,
2001; Blankenstein and Kuttler, 2004).

In addition to these methods, tools used in forestry to measure leaf area index such as the LAI 2000
have been suggested (Grimmond et al., 2001). There are also relatively recent microclimatic modellers
such as SOLWEIG and Envi-Met which can be used to analyse a low detail street canyon model to a
resolution of 0.5 m (Levermore and Cheung, 2012).
Each of these methods has been shown to have a reasonable level of accuracy, but vary greatly in
speed of application. Scale models involve a great deal of manual labour. The analytical measurement
angle measurement or height/width method of assessment is problematic, as it is a purely two
dimensional approach that does not take into account the complexities of a real street where a section
may change dramatically along its length.
Digital modelling methods such as those described by Brown, Grimmond and Ratti (2001) can be
applied and computed more rapidly to a resolution of a 2x2 metre grid, though restricted to using Digital
Elevation Models which are essentially two dimensional with a height attribute (2.5D), meaning that
they cannot assess more complex three dimensional urban forms such as where a street has weather
protecting canopies at lower levels or has elements of buildings that may cantilever or protrude from a
building at an upper level.
Where fully three dimensional GIS models have been assessed using hundreds of rays projected
from a series of points (Chen et al., 2012; Kidd and Chapman, 2012; Kastendeuch, 2013) it has been
computationally intensive requiring powerful hardware taking up to 10 hours to assess a precinct (Gal
et al., 2009; Unger, 2009). Light-based SVF approaches can be extremely rapid or even real-time (White
and Langenheim, 2014) but still require a full 3D digital model of the city.
Fish-eye still photography can be used without extensive digital elevation model data or 3D mesh
data. Though the fish-eye photography method is very accurate, it has been extremely time consuming
to acquire and process even with greatly improved software (Brown et al., 2001). This method has been
limited to assessing specific points of interest in an existing urban context and extrapolating between
the points for urban scaled analysis (Ewenz et al., 2012).

Measuring sky view factor of urban canyons using hacked Gopro hemispheric video processing

529

4. Method
The method used to develop and test our video based SVF analysis of in situ hemispheric video involved
five parts. First, capture of 180 video by hacking a GoPro to add a custom Panoramic Fish Eye Lens 180
lens thus overcoming the limitation of the standard 160 lens. Second, development of and application
using the Processing programming language to analyse SVF in hemispheric images on a per-pixel basis.
Third, the accuracy of the technique was verified against known geometry mathematically. Fourth, the
analytical capability of the tool was extended with sky area blob detection and relative angle of sky
area measure. Fifth, the tools applicability to real world data collection was tested with hemispheric
video of urban streetscapes taken in Melbourne with the hacked GoPro, along with GPS and
temperature sensor data.

5. Results
5.1. Hacking the Gopro
To capture the 180 video footage, a mobile and robust video camera was found the popular GoPro
Hero 3 which is relatively affordable (compared with DSLR fisheye cameras), weather proof and light
enough to be strapped to a bike or helmet or car rooftop. The cameras stock proprietary 160 lens was
removed using a heat gun (to melt glue) and pliers then replaced with a custom RageCams 180
circular fisheye lens.

5.2. Analysis of SVF in Processing

Rather than analysing static photographs taken at single points of interest with currently available
software such as HemiView or CAN-EYE, we used the Java-based Processing programming language
to create a bespoke application to sequentially analyse frames of hemispherical video taken in existing
urban context. The application was developed to use three main steps to analyse each source frame: the
image is thresholded, the circular fisheye image within the frame is identified, and pixel-level area
analysis is performed.
The image of the source frame is thresholded on a per-pixel basis by brightness. The pixels
brightness value is then tested against a thresholding limit; if it is above the limit the pixel is set to white
(sky) and if it is below the limit it is set to black (obstructions to viewing the sky such as buildings,
vegetation, and ground)[Figure 3]. Through experimentation a threshold limit of approximately 55% of
the maximum possible brightness value was found to discriminate well between sky and obstructions
for images captured under an overcast, daytime sky however the limit may be set for other conditions. It
should be noted that the thresholding can falsely classify sky as obstruction (such as for dark clouds) and
obstruction as sky (such as for glare on windows and very light coloured materials) and as noted by
Grimmond et al. (2001), uniform, overcast conditions provide the most accurate results.
The circular skydome image within the rectangular source frames is identified and extracted by
centre and radius values given in a configuration file (see Figure 3).

530 M. White and G. Kimm

Figure 3: LHS source frame from fisheye video, centre thresholded frame, RHS hemisphere identified

The area of each pixel is calculated by projecting it onto a unit hemisphere ( see Figure 4). The lens
used for capturing the source images is assumed to be equidistant the radial angle of a pixel projected
onto the unit hemisphere is proportional to its radial distance in the image however the algorithm can
be modified for other lenses. The pseudocode below is used to find the area of each pixel:

a: calculate the radial angle of the pixel projected onto the unit hemisphere;
b: calculate the circumference of a circle on the unit hemisphere at that angle;
c: calculate from this circumference the axial pixel width as projected on the unit hemisphere;
d: calculate the radial pixel width as projected on the unit hemisphere;
e: and calculate the area of the pixel from the axial and radial widths.

Figure 4: a) radial angle of pixel, b) circle on hemisphere at that angle, c) axial width of projected pixel,
d) radial width of projected pixel, e) pixel area.

The method was tested for accuracy against the known area of a unit hemisphere of 2 or
6.2831853. The sum area of projected pixels for a fisheye image of radius 500 pixels with a field of view
of 180 when calculated using this method is 6.2819486 which is an error of -0.02%. For a radius of 50
pixels the error is -0.12%. In general, the greater the radius in pixels of the fisheye image to be analysed
the greater the accuracy of the area found under this method. For any reasonably sized fisheye image
the error is considered to be well below that likely to be introduced by thresholding artefacts. Further,
the error is consistent for images of the same size and so does not vary between frames of source video.
Given the above method of finding the relative area of a pixel within a fisheye image the SVF of a
thresholded fisheye image is found by the sum of the area of all white pixels divided by the total area
[Figure 4].

Measuring sky view factor of urban canyons using hacked Gopro hemispheric video processing

531

Figure 5: Processed fisheye images with LHS 0.07, centre 0.39, and RHS 0.54.

5.3. Sky area blob detection

A custom algorithm was used to detect contiguous areas of sky in the thresholded image and allows
separate calculation of SVF for these areas [Figure 6]. While the exploration of this was limited in this
investigation it has potential for further application such as filling in areas of objects, for example those
with window glare, that are falsely identified as sky during the thresholding process, identification of
foliage, and tracking the permeability to longwave radiation of fragmented surfaces.

Figure 6: Raw image, thresholded image, thresholded image with detected blobs coloured based on sky
view area in which the SVFs due to open sky and shading device can be calculated independently.

5.4. Measurement of relative angle of sky area

The ability to measure the radial angle and relative area of each pixel was used to create a metric of
the enclosure of the sky due to objects in an image. By summing the SVF of pixels with a radial angle
45 from the zenith, and comparing this to the total SVF, a measure of overhead obstruction is obtained
[Figure 7].

Figure 7: LHS and centre thresholded fisheye images with high levels of overhead obstruction, RHS
thresholded fisheye image with equally distributed areas of obstruction, bottom graph of total SVF
(blue) and SVF 45 from the zenith (white) with points corresponding to fisheye images marked.

532 M. White and G. Kimm

5.5. Testing with Melbourne video

The applicability of the Processing application was tested with fisheye video taken of existing urban
context in Melbourne. The hemispherical video was captured with the hacked GoPro with custom 180
field of view equidistant lens concurrently with the GPS route data from a smartphone and temperature
sensor data from a Bluetooth Sensordrone Tricorder. These data sets were obtained simultaneously
mounted on a bicycle riding from lower density suburbs through the city centre, in a mobile data
collection approach similar to that used by Brandsma and Wolters (2012).
The resulting animation allows rapid evaluation of changing SVF along the route of the video [Figure
7]. The SVF record is displayed in a graph that allows the overall profile to be seen and locations of
interest to be identified. The graph also displays temperature as well as SVF 45 from the zenith that
allows locations with particular levels of overhead obstruction to be easily determined. The thresholded
fisheye frame has five display overlays to assist analysis: the raw frame thumbnail shows the original
context, a map pulled from openstreetmap.de gives the current location, the overall SVF, angle from the
zenith in 10 bands, and separate SVF labels for any large contiguous areas.
The application successfully synced these various sources of data so that as the camera moved
through the urban fabric, SVF was calculated alongside microclimatic measurements.

Figure 8: Progressive screen grabs of analysis output. In each image is, clockwise from top left, the raw
frame, the thresholded frame with degrees from the zenith and SVF for large areas marked, the SVF for
the frame, a location map, and a graph showing the SVF, SVF 45 from the zenith, and temperature.

6. Discussion
The hacked GoPro video Processing based SVF analysis method described in this paper has proven to
give very accurate results and its application is considerably more rapid for multi-point analysis than
other existing methods of SVF analysis where detailed 3D models do not exist. As the analysis can be
done on video footage, not just still photographs, larger areas of cities can be assessed.
Our initial applicability testing of the tool showed that it is possible to synchronise the SVF analysis
data captured with GPS location, temperature, humidity, wind and other sensors allowing lateral
cross-sectional urban form and microclimate studies to be done by riding through suburbs into the CBD
and out again, building upon the cross-sectional data collection approach by Brandsma and Wolters
(2012) allowing the studies to be done in cities without 3D urban data. In addition, the synchronised

Measuring sky view factor of urban canyons using hacked Gopro hemispheric video processing

533

data and analysis can be displayed simultaneously in visually compelling animated video showing SVF
analysis with subscreens displaying actual fish eye video footage alongside mapped GPS location and
graphed microclimatic readings [Figure 8]. This data synchronisation has great potential for aiding
further analysis of the relationship between SVF and UHI in different climate areas and cities potentially
allowing microclimate researchers, urban planners and designers to rapidly analyse existing urban
context for SVF and thereby assist better understanding of existing city forms and enable identification
of potential UHI problem areas.
The measure of SVF of pixels with a radial angle greater than or equal to a given angle from the
zenith currently uses 45 to measure the level of overhead obstruction. Further research could be
undertaken to find the most meaningful cut-off angle for particular urban condition or area and be
extended as a metric.
In addition to the urban cross-sectional analysis, the rapid video processing method allows the
possibility of distributed collection of SVF information to build SVF maps of an area or whole city.
Cameras, along with GPS sensors, could be attached to public transport or fleet vehicles such as buses
and taxis. With the appropriate hardware the gathered data could be wirelessly uploaded to base for
processing. This SVF map data could also be integrated with GIS applications or with online mapping
platforms such as Google Maps through the Google Maps API v3.
The method is financially accessible to researchers given the relatively low cost of the GoPro (under
$500), custom lens ($200), Sensordrone ($200) and logging with any recent Android phone.
The method could also potentially be implemented as a smartphone application for real-time,
on-site analysis that either accounts for a smartphones native camera and lens characteristics or links to
a GoPro via its wireless capacity.

7. Conclusion
Using a hacked GoPro with scripted analysis of fisheye video allows continuous, city-wide longitudinal
cross-section analysis of existing urban contexts synced with microclimate data to be obtained rapidly.
The approach is inexpensive and has potential for continuous, detailed, city wide data collection by
mounting on public transport or fleet vehicles. This investigation provides a new, rapid urban canyon
analysis tool for urban design and microclimate researchers enabling critical further study of the
relationship between urban heat retention and existing urban forms.

References
Basara, J. B., Basara, H. G., Illston, B. G. and Crawford, K. C. (2010) The Impact of the Urban Heat Island during an
Intense Heat Wave in Oklahoma City, Advances in Meteorology, 2010, 1-10.
Beatley, T., Newman, P., Boyer, H., (2009) Resilient cities: responding to peak oil and climate change. Island Press.
Blankenstein, S. and Kuttler, W. (2004) Impact of street geometry on downward longwave radiation and air
temperature in an urban environment, Meteorologische Zeitschrift, 13(5), 373-379.
Bornstein, R. D. (1968) Observations of the Urban Heat Island Effect in New York City, Journal of Applied
Meteorology, 7(4), 575-582.
Bottyan, Z. and Unger, J. (2003) A multiple linear statistical model for estimating the mean maximum urban heat
island, Theoretical and Applied Climatology, 75(3-4), 233-243.
Bradley, A. (2001) A method to assess the variation of urban canyon geometry from sky view factor transects,
Atmospheric Science Letters, 2(1-4), 155-165.

534 M. White and G. Kimm

Brandsma, T. and Wolters, D. (2012) Measurement and Statistical Modeling of the Urban Heat Island of the City of
Utrecht (the Netherlands), J. Appl. Meteor. Climatol., 51(6), 1046-1060.
Brown, M.J., Grimmond, S., Ratti, C., (2001) Comparison of methodologies for computing sky view factor in urban
environments, in: InternationalSociety Environmental Hydraulics Conference, Tempe, AZ.
Chapman, L. and Thornes, J. E. (2004) Real-Time Sky-View Factor Calculation and Approximation, J. Atmos. Oceanic
Technol., 21(5), 730-741.
Chen, L., Ng, E., An, X., Ren, C., Lee, M., Wang, U. and He, Z. (2010) Sky view factor analysis of street canyons and its
implications for daytime intra-urban air temperature differentials in high-rise, high-density urban areas of
Hong Kong: a GIS-based simulation approach, International Journal of Climatology, 32(1), 121-136.
Dodson, J. and Sipe, N. (2008) Planned household risk: Mortgage and oil vulnerability in Australian cities, Australian
Planner, 45(1), 38-47.
DOI (2012) State of Australian Cities.
Ewenz, C., Hope, M., Bennett, J., Guan, H., Benger, S., (2012) The City of Adelaide Urban Heat Island Micro Climate
Study.
Gl, T., Lindberg, F. and Unger, J. (2008) Computing continuous sky view factors using 3D urban raster and vector
databases: comparison and application to urban climate, Theoretical and Applied Climatology, 95(1-2),
111-123.
Grimmond, C. S. B., Potter, S. K., Zutter, H. N. and Souch, C. (2001) Rapid methods to estimate sky-view factors
applied to urban areas, International Journal of Climatology, 21(7), 903-913.
Grimmond, S. U. E. (2007) Urbanization and global environmental change: local effects of urban warming, The
Geographical Journal, 173(1), 83-88.
Holmer, B., Postgrd, U. and Eriksson, M. (2001) Sky view factors in forest canopies calculated with IDRISI,
Theoretical and Applied Climatology, 68(1-2), 33-40.
Ibrahim, A., Nduka, I., Iguisi, E., Ati, O. (2011) An Assessement of the Impact of Sky View Factor (SVF) on the Microclimate of Urban Kano. Australian Journal of Basic & Applied Sciences 5.
Johnson, D. B. (1985) Urban modification of diurnal temperature cycles in birmingham, U.K, Journal of Climatology,
5(2), 221-225.
Johnson, G. T. and Watson, I. D. (1984) The Determination of View-Factors in Urban Canyons, J. Climate Appl.
Meteor., 23(2), 329-335.
Kakon, A. N., Mishima, N. and Kojima, S. (2009) Simulation of the urban thermal comfort in a high density tropical
city: Analysis of the proposed urban construction rules for Dhaka, Bangladesh, Build. Simul., 2(4), 291-305.
Kastendeuch, P. P. (2012) A method to estimate sky view factors from digital elevation models, International Journal
of Climatology, 33(6), 1574-1578.
Kidd, C. and Chapman, L. (2012) Derivation of sky-view factors from lidar data, International Journal of Remote
Sensing, 33(11), 3640-3652.
Kokalj, ., Zakek, K. and Otir, K. (2011) Application of sky-view factor for the visualisation of historic landscape
features in lidar-derived relief models, Antiquity, 85(327), 263-273.
Levermore, G. and Cheung, H. (2012) A low-order canyon model to estimate the influence of canyon shape on the
maximum urban heat island effect, Building Services Engineering Research and Technology, 33(4), 371385.
Lindberg, F. (2007) Modelling the urban climate using a local governmental geo-database, Meteorological
Applications, 14(3), 263-273.
Luber, G. and McGeehin, M. (2008) Climate Change and Extreme Heat Events, American Journal of Preventive
Medicine, 35(5), 429-435.
Mills, G., (2004) The urban canopy layer heat island. IAUC Teaching Resources.
Newman, P. and Kenworthy, J. R. (1999) Sustainability and cities: overcoming automobile dependence, ed., Island
Press, Washington, D.C.
Oke, T. R. (1981) Canyon geometry and the nocturnal urban heat island: Comparison of scale model and field
observations, Journal of Climatology, 1(3), 237-254.
Oke, T. R. (1988) Street design and urban canopy layer climate, Energy and Buildings, 11(1-3), 103-113.

Measuring sky view factor of urban canyons using hacked Gopro hemispheric video processing

535

Patz, J. A., Campbell-Lendrum, D., Holloway, T. and Foley, J. A. (2005) Impact of regional climate change on human
health, Nature, 438(7066), 310-317.
Shao, B., Zhang, M., Mi, Q. and Xiang, N. (2011) Prediction and Visualization for Urban Heat Island
Simulation,Transactions on Edutainment VI, Springer Science + Business Media, 1-11.
Souza, L.C.L., Rodrigues, D.S., Mendes, J.F. (2003) A 3D-gis extension for sky view factors assessment in urban
environment.
Tan, J., Zheng, Y., Tang, X., Guo, C., Li, L., Song, G., Zhen, X., Yuan, D., Kalkstein, A. J., Li, F. and Chen, H. (2009) The
urban heat island and its impact on heat waves and human health in Shanghai, Int J Biometeorol, 54(1),
75-84.
Unger, J. (2009) Connection between urban heat island and sky view factor approximated by a software tool on a
3D urban database, International Journal of Environment and Pollution, 36(1/2/3), 59.
White, M., Langenheim, L. (2014) Measuring urban canyons with real-time light based sky view factor modelling, in:
Oliveira V, P.T. Pinho P Batista L, C, M. (Eds.), OurcommonFuture Urban Morphology. FEUP, Porto,
Portugal:, pp. 239304.
Wong, E., Hogen, K. (2011) Reducing Urban Heat Islands: Compendium of Strategies. Environmental Protection
Agency, retrieved May 12, 2011.