RHYTHM

Simple Meters;
The Beat and Its Division into Two Parts

An important attribute of the accomplished musician is the ability to "hear

mentally"-that is, to know how a given piece of music sounds without recourse to an instrumento Sight singing, together with ear training and other
studies in musicianship, helps develop that attribute. The goal of sight
singing is the abilityto sing atfirst sight, with correct rhythm and pitch, a piece
of music previously unknown to the performer. Accomplishing that goal
demonstrates that the music symbolson paperwere comprehended mentally
before being performed. In contrast, skillin reading music on an instrument
often represents an ability to interpret music symbolsas fingerings, with no
wayof demonstrating prior mental comprehension of the score.
To help you become proficient in sight singing, this text provides you
with many carefuIlygraded music examples. Beginning in this chapter, you
wiIlperform the simplest of exercisesin reading rhythm, after which you wiIl
perform easymelodic lines that incorporate those same rhythmic patterns.

RHYTHMIC READING

In simple meters (also known as simple time), the beat is divisible into two
equal parts; therefore, any note value so divisible can represent the beato
Most coinmonly used are the quarter note (J::;; n), the eighth note

(j::;; n), and the half note (J::;; J J), though other values (o, ~, ~) are
sometimes seen. In this chapter, the note value representing the simple

division of the beat (that is, half of the beat) wiIl be the shortest note value
used. In reading, follow these suggestions:
1. Rhythmic syllables.Accurate rhythmic reading is best accomplished through
the use of spoken or sung rhythmic syIlables.Any spoken method (even a
neutral syIlable) is preferable to clapping or tapping for a variety of reasons:
dynamics and sustained notes are more easily performed vocaIly,faster tempos are possible, and vocalizing leaves the hands free for conducting. There
are a variety of good rhythmic sylIablesystemsin current use; several popular
systemsare illustrated in Appendix A.
2. The conductor's beatoIt should be obvious that only the first performance of
an exercise can be considered reading at first sight. (After that, you are
practicing!) Therefore, on the first try, you should not stop to correct errors or to study what to do next. To help you complete an exercise without
hesitation, the use of conductor's beats is highly recommended. Shown
below are hand-movement patterns for two beats, three beats, and four
beats per measure. Successivedownbeats of each pattern coincide with successivebar lines.
The Conductor's Beats:two beats, three beats, and four beats per measure

L..
3

........ - ..... ~,,'

2

The downbeat (1) drops in a straight line and describes a small bounce at the
instant the first beat occurs. The first downbeat is preceded byan upbeat, beginning at the point of the last beat of the pattern being used. Therefore, the
last beat of each measure is the upbeat for the foIlowing measure.
Practice these three conductor's beats without reading or singing. Next, with
the left hand, tap twicefor each beat of the conductor's beatoThese taps represent the normal simple divisionofthe beat-note value. When you no longer
have to concentrate on these hand movements, you are ready to begin rhythmic reading and sight singing.
As you read an exercise, use the conductor's beat and tapping to keep going
without pause until the very end. If you make a mistake, don't hesitate or
stop; the next "1" (downbeat) wiIlbe the next bar line where you can pick up
your reading and continue to the end. If you made errors or lost your place,
you can reviewand practice in anticipation of doing better on the next exercise. FoIlowthis procedure beginning with the very first exercises. Conducting and tapping easy exercises now is the best wayto prepare yourself for the
more difficult exercises to follow.
3. Notation for rhythmic reading. Exercises such as that at a below are designed
specificalIyfor rhythmic reading and therefore use a simple one-line staff.
However, reading rhythmic notation from a melodic line, as in example b,
should begin as soon as possible. As seen in this pair of examples (illustrated
2

with one of many possible solmization systems), there is no difference in the

resulting rhythmic performance.
(a)

J IJ. J)J IJ # J IIJ

1-

&

1 &

IJ IJ IJ # II
2

&

&

(b)

4~'1J IJ.

1-

Jd IJ
&

IIJ lJ FJ IJ

&

&

&

1I

The melodies of Chapters 2 and 3 inelude only the same type of rhythm
patterns found in Chapter 1.
Section lo The quarter note as the beat unit, Beat-note values and
larger only: J = I beat, J = 2 beats, J = 3 beats, o = 4 beats,

Not all exercises begin on the first beat of the measure. Determine
the beat number of the first note before reading.

1.1

iJ

IJ

1.2

iJ

IJ

1.3

iJ

IJ

IJ

1.4

i J IJ J IJ

1.5

JJJIJ

1.6

! J IJ JIJJJIJ

1# JJIJ#

1.7

!JIJJJI#

1.8

t J J J J IJ

IJ
IJ
#

#
1#

1I

IJ

1I

IJ

IJ J IJ J 1# J IJ

IJ J 1J IJJJIJ#

# JIJ

IJ

1I
1I

# 1# # JIJ

1I

JIJ#

JIJ

1I

J IJ # 1J J J 1 J

1I

IJ J J

le

1I
3

t J J J J le

1.9

1J

IJ

t ~ 1J

1.10

I~
~

IJ

le

1I

# - I#~~~IJ

1I

IJ

~~I~##~IJ.

~ 1~

Section 2. The quarter note as the beat unit and its division (J = n).
Dotted notes and tied notes.

1.11

i~ ~

1.12

1~

1.13

iJ

1~

1.14

l J ~ J
1

1.15

10

1~

n ~~1~ n ~n J
1

1 ~

1J
1~

i~

# J~J

1 ~

1~ IJ IJ 1 J

J J 1J

n 1~

1-

1.17

i J_IJ
1

(2) &

J
1

i)

1.19

i.o.o

1.20

i ~~~J

1 ~

1 # 1I
#

1I

n 1 J,==J)

# 1#

# 1I

1I

) J

1I

&

) IJ IJ

) J

2 &

IJ J IJ I J

1.18

J J

) IJ IJ J
(2)

1I

n1J
# 1 # ~ 1 ~ ni n n 1 ~ #

IJ IJ IJ
#

1~

J ~

# # ~

1 ~

n # J_,n I~
nJ J )~ J )n
1 ~

)1

1 ~

J.

1 )

1I

1I

1I

1.21

t~ J ~ ~ 1~ J J J J JI J

1I

1.22

t ~ ~ ~ ~ 1J J ~ ~ 1~ ~ ~. JI J -

11

1.23

l ~ IJ~

nnlJ~

J JI J

~ nl~ ~ ,JI

I~ J)~ I ~ ~ ,JI J J)~ I ~ ~

I~

,Jn,J~J

Jn

,Jnl

n ,n ~ ~ I ~ ~
i ~J JI n ~- ,~~J JI n ~- ,
,~n ~~,~n ~~,J J~. JI J n ,
, ~ ~ J J, n ~- Jn n J, Jn J" , J,
,J:::

1.24

nn,J~J

n IJ

j) ~ ,J I J

J)

1 '

11

'

JJ ~ JJ ~ JJ ~_JJJJ JJ ~ JJ ~ 1" JJJ, J)JJ, ~

1

1I

Section 3. Two-part drills.

Suggested methods of performance:

l. One person: Tap both lines, using both hands.
2. One person: Recite one line while tapping the other.
3. Two people: Each recite a lineo

1.26

1.27

P PI; ~ ~ 1~ ; ; 1~ ~ ~ 1~ ; ~ 1

I~. p~I~ : ~I~~~I~; ~~:l

1~~~=j~~~I;
~: Ir ~p/I~II
i ~r ~ r 1~ n ~~1~ u r ~ I~: ~ 1
1: ~;~~~=t~~~1~7~1
1~.u ~~ ~p1~.be; ~ 1~ ::
~GI~p~l;pgl~ul~
~I
1~', r=Jg ~ 1~ ; p1~ ;~ ~ 1:
i:~; r 1: n r' p1r ~ : ~ 1: !p~I
1~: : nl~~~el:' .b;p~I~.~;~el
1~ ~; u 1~: ;.b~ 1~ ; ~;p~ 1~: :
1I

1.28

1I

1.29

1I

t t and t will be found in melodies from

Section 1 of Chapter 2. Sight-singingstudies may begin there at this time.
Only the meter signatures

Section 4. Note values other than the quarter note as beat values.

The half note, the eighth note, and the sixteenth note are also used
to represent the beatoThe signatures ~ (-e), 1, and I are commonly used in
written music. Others are occasionally seen. See Chapter 2, Section 3, for
melodic examples of less common signatures.
In 1.30, examples a, b, e, and d all sound the same when the duration
of each of their beat-note values (~,J, ), and J) is the same.

J = 1 beat

1.30

<1 j

(b)

IJ

a J J J J le
1

2 & 3-

&

1I

J IJ ~ ~ J. ~ 1~

1-

J = 1 beat

lJJ .b1e

I~

1-

2 & 3-

&

1I

() j = 1 beat

.b .b I~

'1

ll II .b .b l.b

.b.b
1

),=
I

.b l.b n.b

1-

.bl J
&

1I

1 beat

1-

.b l.b Jj J. Jj
I

!J J I~~~~IJ.

1.31

2 & 3-

1.33

~ ~~~1

1.34

~ ~1

~I~J

&

e~::==!)~ ~ ~ 1 J ~ ~ 1 ~

J. ~ 1 J. ~ 1 J -

1)

1 ~

1~

1~

# # ~

J4

2 & 3-

1-

1~

#-

# ~

# # ~

~ ~ 1J -

1-

&

~ ~ le

1I

J 1 J. ~ 1 ~

1I

J ~~1J
1

1I

# ~

1~

J ~ ~ 1 J.
1-

~
J

1I
7

J J J 1 J ~~~~1 J J J 1 J. ~J 1 J. J J J 1 e'

1.35

1.36

D~

1.37

D ~ ~ ~ 1J

J IJ J -IJ J -1-

J -

1J # ~~~IJ
I~~J

~~~~Ie'

# ~ ~ ~ 1 J.

1-

- - 1- ~~~~I-

1~ ~

J J 1J

1.38

J ~~4J

~~4J~~~J

1.39

J ~~J -

1 e'

IJ.

~~~~~IJ

IJ

- ~)~~~J

S))
1 2

~~

~~J

# 1I

~~IJ - - J IJ - - -11
1J

J - -

1e

- J - I~~J

# ~ ~~ 1

~~J

~~le_J

1~ 1Jj Jj 1)" 1Jj Jj 1)

1-

~J

1I

~~~~I

J IJ J - 1- #~~~IJ

~~J

1.40

4J

1I

- 11

Jj 1)

) 1)., 1I

1&

ni).,

1.41

) 1 ).,

1.42

g )))1 ).,., 1))1)1).,., 1))Jjl ))1)1~.o~1 )"11

1 2 3

1"

1#

1., Jj 1)'

)11)'

)11)

1I

1.44

en,) ) ) ,J n ,). ) n ,) ,) n ,
nnn,n),
,n), ,J~:=J}~~,
J---===~)J n) ,n) ) n) n, J
1

1.45

~)))),

J.

1.46

~),,),)

1.47

a) ) 1
1

., n n) n,). )). ), J *

1I

,Jj ), Jj, Jj) * ,).)).,

'1

1) )

1)

1.48

it 1 .b z

1.49

A )))1 ))1 ))), )~),

1 z

1) ) ,-l-t.b

1I

Jj 1 .b 1 '

1 't

Jj

~l

l.b ~ 1 .b 1I

1)\

)))'))1

)",

l.b Jj Jj l.b ~.b 1)\ 'tll

1-bJL-J)
1.50

1 &

1I

lh))),

,),,),

) , 1) )1 )1 ,

l.b ~.b. ~ 1 lHH .b l.b ~.b. ~I.b Jj.b

z 1I

Section 5. Two-part drills.

1.51

~r

~r

1~

J ~ J 1~

1:

11
9

I ~ 1: J ~

1.53

l! r 1r' J r r ~ 1~ J : J ; r 1r r' J~

1~~~~Jrrlr

1~r

rr ~ J J ~ JI::

1.52

~J:JI;~~'r/-J~

1 r r ~ ~ ~ JI; r r'

i ~

1I

r r 1

I~ i J r ~ J 1~ J: : 1

1 : J:. JI; ~ ~ ~ ~ r 1~.J J r ~ 1: J J r r 1: 1I

1.54

1.55

j ~

- 1:

1:JI:

m - 1: J ~r ~J ~r 1r" r ~JI:

~ r ~. J 1r rrr r: . J 1~~I'r

1I
J .1

1 : J ~ ~ ~ r ~ r 1~ r r ; r I~ J r r' J ~ 1
1 ~.r

i ~~

1 ~ r r~'
10

r'u rr ~J 1:.H J ~ J 1

r ; ~1
J

1 ~. J J r

1I

1.56

1.57

1.58

1.59

s::

1~ ~ 1~ ~ 1: ~ 1:. /1 ~ ~ 1~ 1I

g~;~=J:~~I~~~I::~11

11: 1: ~ : 1p P PI; & & 1: 1I

J\fl:;~:,~I~~&I:';s:"sl:;11

"

MELODY
Stepwise Melodies, Major Keys

RHYTHM
Simple Meters;
The Beat and Its Division into Two Parts
SIGHT SINGING

AHmelodies in Chapter 2 display stepwise movement and in a major key

only; each interval is either a whole step (major second) or a half step
(minor second).! If you can sing a major scale, these melodies should present very little difficulty.
Before reading a given melody, make these general preparations, all
of which refer to later chapters in the text as well as to the melodies of this
chapter.
l. Look at the key signature. What key does it indicate? On what line or space is
the tonic? Does the melody begin on the tonic tone, or on sorne other pitch?
(Youmay play the tonic note, but no other, immediately before singing.)
2. Sean the melody for passagesin stepwisemovement and then for larger intervals,particularIy those presented in the chapter under study.
3. Observe the phrase marks. The end of a phrase mark usually indicates a
cadence (that is, a temporary pause or a final stopping place), much the way
commas and periods indicate pauses in language reading. Look ahead to the
last note under each phrase mark so that you know where you are heading.
J Melodies in this chapter were written by Robert Ottman. The remainder of the text
includes, for the most part, only folk music or music by recognized composers, but examples
from these sources occur too infrequently for the purposes of Chapter 2.

12

4. Continue to use the conductor's beat, as described under "Rhythmic Reading" on page 2. Remember that "sight singing" refers only to the first time you

sing the melody. Sing to the end of the example without stopping, no matter
how many mistakes you make. Then go back, review the melody, practice the
rough spots, and sing the entire melody again.

Pitch solmization for Western music has a venerable history, dating

back approximately a thousand years to Guido d'Arezzo.f Its longevity is
easily explained: with practice, most musicians find that solmization facilitates accurate sight singing. Several different systemsare currentIy used:
1.
2.
3.
4.

Moveable-dosolfege, where the tonic note is do

Scale-degree numbers, where the tonic note is i
Letter names (already familiar to American musicians)
Fixed-dosolfge, where C is do even when C is not the tonic

A simple illustration is shown below; detailed information is provided in

Appendix B.

ei

fa
<1

sol

la

ti

do

"1

ti

do

D
re

E
mi

el

II

Moveable-do solfge:

do

re

mi

Scale-degree numbers:
Letter names:
Fixed-do solfge:

G
sol

A
la

(or 8)

Fis(H) G
fa
sol

Section l. Major keys,treble def, the quarter note as the beat unit.
Keysignatures with no more than three sharps or three flats.

41

!2!

--

J J J

IJ

na

ni;.

Solfge:

do

re

mi

fa

sol

sol

fa mi fa

mi re

do

Scale degrees:

i
e

<1

4 3 4

3 2

F E F

I
e

Letter names:

1I

indicates the location of the tonic note.

a IJ J J a

IJ

1I

2 Guido d'Arezzo was a Benedictine monk who lived from approxirnately 991 until sorne
time after 1033 and wrote one of the most widely read music instruction books of the Middle
Ages. The solrnization system passed down from Guido is known today as solfege (or solfeggio).

13

2.2 ~

2.3

2.4

~d

1:p. 14l!JJ.
I

11

tPr

)JI

I J~.

jju l 1 A~

2.5 ,~'

J F F 1F

1F F F

Ja 1-

I 11

IJ

,~Iq
sol

2.7

2.9

'Mil Id

1I

a al Fftr

-----------

n J iJ
1

,~IlF~
,~I,. Jill J
I i!

mi

,~I'Ia,
14

J 1J

tfl1V I:u;mJ InF Bu lmoa H

'Mil rey J
2.8

-11

'd H-nrrrr-rJ rey F r fir- ~

'M F

2.6

1I

t J

IJ

du] J

a 1J -

l l

t -

Rr

lIJ~F

11

tll
1-

ti

tL_~fllW t

1I

TI) - - J~ltJ

a JJ~1

15

Melodies occasionally begin on pitches outside of the tonic triad,

as in the next two examples. Be sure to identify the key first, then sing a
scale from the tonic pitch up or down to the melody's first note. Alternatively, given that the first note necessarily falls within one scale step of ,

3, or 5, it is also convenient to sing the nearest member

of the tonic triad

and then move stepwiseto the first note of the melody.The latter strategy is
depicted here.

2.17

4dll~ 1(-'
A:

(mi)

(3)

Gr
fa

mi

4dllij F,aa

IJ.

J?pn ~'

p J IJ

IF

DA.

1I

Section 2. Bass elef.

2,19 ,:

I rT F I r

Fr

lE

Irq
16

F =- tI!
E

1I

Dm'
1I

2.21

i 15 Iti J IF

~:.

r I E21

:):1 E E ?~

2.22

n 1FUI

HI ~
iJ 1J
2: ~I, rI

11

Ir!
.r

}
~

F
1

J ti 1J * 51
F

1P

-------

11

_____

0Tt i i
Inll t Jfu n F 1tEEF J 1fflJ tttfiJl j

~: ~ U F
2.24 ~:

U IE

.~

2.25

9~ i P

2.26 ~: ~I\

~:~IIII

'

'

'

1r

1I
1I

I ti---nr===rF
F

J~

rr-I

1r51r ~I

~: ~\ ------F F 1Fm 16

1F" P F 1(" =I~11

17

2.27

!) 11II!

f, PUl HU r

'pIE? f

"):~(Uq u q I [ ID f
2.28

10 In?

11' E~F

9: I i P 1 F F F r

1F

(]

IF

tE----------I cm F

-----E k
cr:a

------~
2: E r F r F * 1 E r F F *

!;):~IJ7JfUE

Ir Ir

fr II

------

Ir PF J Ir

E 1

~ I
".--

-----=--:-o
Q r (f 1

1 F"

Ir Err lE

:HIILO re r Ir [F cr

18

II

F F E 1e w 1F F F

2.31

fJ

Denmark

Andante

2.30 "):

'f

tE F I r I rr FIr I FE FIr r F I j F 1(3

tHII
"):11

2.29

ci7Jr

lEEH7?lf

1I

* [JI
t

II

Section 3. Other meter signatures.

The meter signatures in melodies 2.32-2.40 are quite comrnon,

Reviewexamples in Chapter 1, Section 4.

2.32

2.33

2.34

2.35

'14

':t

j
j

,.~,J
,.rq

I~

iN-

JJlr
1

11

FU

la a771 :J.

l'F

J J lA

1I

liZ2J)
1I

11

r r J IJ _Api.
I~

'1'

(l...

r' H 1 r r ID

Ir

,~'rrrG
~I, I~

I~

1-

nF1 J r
F

rFlrrW

,:~~,
ca
2.36

1 : --

IJ J J J

tU' I

Itt1___LLu.

!lb

tf ~

I~

~2

1I

7Dr
ilDr

1I

19

NII =

2.38 ~bl,

PIJ 3 J J r F Ir

r ~ J 3m ti

2.39 ~ NII

IJJJJJ JJlr

1I
j

r-

11

'11

NVr 1~ _.

pp 1P o fu 1I

g @jjlf

S F 7fh! 1r j p ;I/H~1;HJ 11 p , 11
; ) IJ

-i_~#

i 11 ~J
2.43 ~:~'I, ~

Wp

------6;H

~:~'I,U

Section 4. Duets.

20

n @. 1gJ. 1J\~r

2.40 ~: ~I,

2.41 ~:~,

rr

1Lt!!4

a bU

iD

1J in P P 1U

p 10 El P ,
P1

1I

ItlEn mi

PIe; la P

'i

11

2.45

.; fl

--,

2.46
tJ

~?'

I~.

@r.

....f!'l
_D'IO("

~-

c:::::....::_:

--

-:

.~

11 ~ +t

-r----#-

-d

--,.,

....f!'l

..

--- .....

1--.

'"

2.47 ~

1---

tJ

----

-----

.,__lj_
~

1I

::::;;x.
'J.

...

1Jf:

I~

...

. -

'"
,,_

fl

---------=:;-

2.48
tJ

:
r

'"

______

__lj_

L~

u
:
'"

---

J!!!!I!!ooo

- __

;iiiiiiiI"

....

21

-----=

",,11

2.49

,_..

tJ

._"':""

---

0"---=::0

....

--

Section 5. Structured improvisation.

Structured improvisation exercises provide an opportunity to create

your own melodies while practicing the skills addressed in each chapter.
Sing the notes that are written, and complete the missing portions according to the guidelines provided (indicated by double arrowheads ,...,...
throughout the book). Notice that these exercises, unlike the more traditional rhythms and melodies in the earlier sections of this chapter, may be
repeated multiple times because there are many different solutions' (As an
example, two distinct answersfor exercise 2.50 are illustrated below; numerous other possibilities are left to your imagination.) It is highly recommended that you continue to use your preferred solmization system(s)
while improvising.
,...,... Using entirely stepwise motion, follow the suggested rhythm to fill in
the missing notes.

2.50

,~tu
p

J J

r Ir r r Ir
mf

=========-

Solution a

Solution b:

'~r r r r I J J
===========-'~r r J J iJ J

II

1I

1I

3 Youmay even wish to repeat structured improvisation exercises after completing later
chapters, in which case you willlikely want to incorporate the new material you have learned.
For instance, someone returning to the exercises in this chapter after finishing Chapter 3
might prefer to inelude sorne leaps from the tonic triad rather than using stepwise motion
throughout.

22

>->- Using entirely stepwise motion and no rhythmic value shorter than an
eighth note, complete the second phrase.

mf

-====

r'

1I

>->- Choose a major key and a common simple meter. Using entirely stepwise motion and no rhythmic values shorter than the beat, improvise two
four-measure phrases according to the following plan:
Phrase #1 begins on 1, 3, or 5, and ends on the downheat ofmeasure 4 on
Phrase #2 ends on the downbeat of measure 8 on 1.

2.

Begin on i, j, or 5
Any simple meter
Anykey

Variation: work with a partner so that one person sings the first
phrase and the other person sings the second phrase. Then try again with
the roles reversed.

23