Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Ghana Building Code Part 5 - Loads
Ghana Building Code Part 5 - Loads
Ghana Building Code Part 5 - Loads
TABLE OF CONTENTS
SECTION
5.1
Scope
5.2
Definitions
.7
.9
.11
.12
..19
...22
.63
. 93 - 99
PART 5
5.1 SCOPE
5.1.1 This section covers all dead loads and imposed loads which shall be
sustained and transmitted by a building and certain structures without exceeding
the stress limitations specified elsewhere in the Code. It applies to:
5.2 DEFINITIONS
5.2.1 Unless otherwise specified the following definitions shall apply for the
purposes of the Code of this part.
Dead Loads: The force due to the static weight of all permanent structural and
non-structural components of a building, such as walls, partitions, floors,
effectively all loads and effects of loads and influences that may
design loads during the construction period except when, as verified by analysis
or test, temporary overloading of a structural member would result in no
impairment of that member or any other member. In addition, precautions shall
be taken during all stages of
5.3.3 Deflections
(1) Structural members shall be designed so that their deflections under
expected service loads will be acceptable with regard to:
(a)
(b)
(c)
(2) Deflections listed in clause 5.3.3(1) shall be taken into account in all structures
and structural members made of material susceptible to deflections,
3
(3) The lateral deflection of buildings due to design wind and gravity loads shall
be checked to ensure that non-structural elements, whose nature is known
at the time the structural design is carried out, will not be damaged. Except
as provided in Clause 5.3.3(4) and unless otherwise approved, the total drift
per storey under design wind and gravity loads shall not exceed 1/500 of the
storey height.
(4) The deflection limits required in Clause 5.3.3(3) does not apply to industrial
buildings or sheds if it is known by experience that greater movement is
acceptable.
(1) Structural drawings submitted with the application to build shall bear the
signature of the designer.
(2) Drawings submitted with the application to build shall indicate in addition to
those items specified elsewhere in other sections of Part 5 applicable to a specific
material.
(a) the name and address of persons responsible for the structural
design;
(b) the code or standard to which the design conforms;
(c) the dimensions, location and size of all structural members in
sufficient
all effects and loads, other than dead loads used in the design of
structural members.
(3) The calculations and analysis made in the design of the structural members, including parts and
components of a building shall be available upon request for inspection by the authority having
jurisdiction.
(4) Structural integrity: Buildings and structural systems shall provide such structural integrity,
strength or other defences that the hazards associated with progressive collapse due to local
failure caused by severe overloads or abnormal events not specifically covered in this section
are reduced to a level commensurate with good engineering practice.
Inspection of the construction of any building or part thereof shall be carried out by the
designer, or by another suitably qualified person responsible to the designer, to ensure that
the construction conforms with the design.
(2)
The designer or another suitably qualified person familiar with the design concept and
responsible to the designer, shall review all shop drawings and other drawings relevant to
the design to ensure conformance to the design.
(3)
Workmanship and Materials: Workmanship and materials shall be inspected and all reports
5
of material tests shall be reviewed by the designer or another suitably qualified person
responsible to the designer during the process of construction.
(4)
(5)
Inspection Reports: Copies of all inspection reports shall be made available by the designer
upon request to the authority having jurisdiction.
Dead load: Is the self-weight of the structure and the weight of finishes, ceilings, services
and partitions (see BS 6399: Part 1, 1996. Loadings for buildings. Code of practice for dead
and imposed loads).
QK
Live (or Imposed or Variable) load: Due to intended use and occupancy (include loads due
to movable partitions and vertical loads due to cranes) and rain (see BS 6399:Part1, 1996).
WK
Wind load: Depends on the location, shape and dimension of the buildings (see BS 6399:
Part 2, 1997. Loadings for buildings. Code of practice for wind loads).
En -
Nominal earth loads: Earth and hydrostatic pressure, surcharge, horizontal components of
static or inertia forces (see BS 8004: 1986: Code of practice for Foundations).
E
T
Earthquake load
Contraction or expansion due to temperature changes, shrinkage, moisture
changes, creep in component materials, movement due to differential
settlement or combination thereof.
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
(b) Serviceability limit states, which are related to the criteria governing normal use or durability
e.g.
(i) Excessive deformations with respect to normal use of structure.
(ii) Premature or excessive cracking.
(iii) Undesirable damage (corrosion).
(iv) Excessive displacement without loss of equilibrium.
(v) Excessive vibrations.
(vi) The comfort of people.
(vii) The appearance of the structure.
(2) Characteristic loads (GK, QK, WK, En, E, T ) means those loads defined in Clause 5.4.1.
(3) Partial safety factors to the value of loads (f), used in design in section 5.5.2 that takes account
of the possibility of unfavourable deviations of the action values, uncertainties in modeling the
effects of actions, and the significance of the particular limit state.
(4) Partial safety factors to the values of material properties (m) used in design. This makes
allowances for sub-standard materials or for the deterioration of materials during the life of the
structure.
(5) Action combination factor, , which for imposed (variable) loads, are used in multiplying
characteristic values to obtain representative values. The use of factors reduce the design values
of more than one variable load when they act together (see Table 5.3).
(6) For imposed (variable) loads, under Eurocode (see 5.3):
representative values = characteristic value x
(7) In most cases, the design value of an action ( load combination) can be expressed as:
design value = representative value x f
5.5.2
5.5.2.1
5.5.2.1.1
(1) The required strength R provided to resist dead load GK and imposed load QK shall be at least equal
to
R = 1.4GK + 1.6QK
(5-1)
(2) In the design of a structure or member, if resistance to the structural effects of a specified wind load
WK, must be included in the design the following combinations of GK, QK and WK shall be
investigated in determining the greatest required strength R.
R = 1.2GK + 1.2QK + 1.2WK
(5-2)
where the cases of QK having its full value or being completely absent shall both be checked to
determine the most severe condition using
R = 0.9GK + 1.4WK
(5-3)
In any case, the strength of the member or structure shall not be less than required by Eq. (5-1).
(3) If resistance to specified earthquake loads or forces E must be included in the design the
requirements of 5.5.2.1.1(2) shall apply except that 1.1E shall be substituted for WK.
(4) If lateral earth pressure H must be included in design the strength R shall be at least equal to 1.4GK +
1.6QK + 1.6H but where GK or QK reduce the effect of H (i.e. favourable), the corresponding
coefficients shall be taken as 0.90 for GK and zero for QK i.e. the governing equations are:
R = 1.4GK + 1.6QK + 1.6H
R = 0.9GK + 1.6H
R = 1.4GK + 1.6QK
(6) For lateral loads F due to liquids, the provisions for Clause 5.5.2.1.1(4) shall apply, except
that 1.4F shall be substituted for 1.6H. The vertical pressure of liquids shall be considered as dead
load, with due regard to variation in liquid depth.
(6) Where the structural effects of differential settlement, creep, shrinkage or temperature T may be
significant the governing equation shall be
R = 1.2GK + 1.2QK + 1.2T
The above actions are summarized in Table 5.1
9
Load Type
Combination
Dead Load
Imposed Load
Adverse
Adverse
Beneficial
Earth and
Beneficial
Wind
Water
pressure
1.4
1.0
1.6
1.4
1.4
1.0
1.4
1.4
1.2
1.2
1.2
1.2
1.2
1.2
pressure)
2.Dead and Wind
(and earth and water
pressure)
3. Dead, Wind and
Imposed (and earth
and water pressure)
(c) 0.60 when all of the loads QK, (E or WK) and T act.
Table 5.2 Action Combinations for Ultimate Limit States ( BS EN 1990: Table NA.A1.2 (B))
Option
Permanent Actions
Variable Actions
Earth and
(Dead Loads)
Water*
Unfavourable
Favourable
Leading
Others( i > 1)
1.35GK
1.0GK
1.5QK,1
1.50,iQK,i
1.35QK
2a
1.35GK
1.0GK
1.50,1QK,1
1.50,iQK,i
1.35QK
2b
1.25GK
1.0GK
1.5QK,1
1.50,iQK,i
1.35QK,i
*Note: If the water pressure calculated is the most unfavourable value that could occur during the life of the structure, a partial
factor of 1.0 may be used.
11
Based on Table 5.2, a summary of Eurocode Partial Load Factors is given in Table 5.3 for the
ultimate limit state.
Table 5.3 Partial safety factors for loads at the ultimate limit state
Variable Actions
Permanent Actions
Accompanying variable
(GK)
(Q K,1)
actions
Limit State
(a)Static
equilibrium
(b)Structural
strength
(Q K,I)
Unfavourable
Favourable
Unfavourable
Favourable
Unfavourable
Favourable
1.10
0.90
1.50
0.00
1.50
0.00
1.35
1.00
1.50
0.00
1.50
0.00
1.35
1.15
1.50
0.00
1.50
0.00
1.35
0.00
1.35
0.00
1.35
0.00
(c)As an
alternative
to (a) and (b)
above to
design for
both
situations
with one set
of
calculations
(d)Geotechni
cal strength
Where, GK, QK,1 and QK,i are permanent action (dead load), leading variable action (imposed
12
load) and other secondary variable actions ( where more than one imposed load
contributes to the stresses) respectively. In the case of the secondary variable load(s), their
effect(s) may be reduced by the application of the combination factors as given in Table
5.4. The corresponding load cases for the serviceability limit states are given in Table 5.5.
0.7
0.5
0.3
Office area
0.7
0.5
0.3
Congregation areas
0.7
0.7
0.6
Shopping areas
0.7
0.7
0.6
Storage areas
1.0
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.7
0.6
0.7
0.5
0.3
Roofs
0.7
0.0
0.0
Wind loads
0.5
0.2
0.0
Temperature (non-fire)
0.6
0.5
0.0
Traffic area
Vehicle30kN
Traffic area
30kNVehicle160kN
Action
Permanent(Dead
Combinations
load) Actions
Actions
GK
Function and
Leading QK,1
Others QK,i
Characteristic
1.0
1.0
Frequent
1.0
Quasi-
1.0
damage to elements,
including partitions
and finishes
User comfort, use of
machinery, avoiding
ponding of water
Appearance of the
13
structure or element
permanent
(2) When partitions are shown in plans, their actual weights shall be included in the dead load.
For all floors in which partition walls are or may be intended but are not located on the
plans, the beams and the floor slabs where these are capable of effective lateral
distribution of the load, shall be designed to carry in addition to other loads, a uniformly
distributed load per square metre of not less than one third of the weight per metre run
of the finished partitions, but not less than 1kN/m2 if the floor is used for office purposes.
does not include any allowance for special concentrated loads. Special
provision shall be made for moving loads other than those in garages for
machinery and other concentrated loads as set out in Clause 5.8.
(2) The concentrated imposed load need not be considered where the floor slab
is capable of effective lateral distribution of this load.
(3) All beams shall be designed to carry the distribution load appropriate to the
uses to which they are to be put as given in Table 5.6.
(4) Beams, ribs and joists spaced at not more than 1metre centres may be
designed as floor slabs.
(5) Where in Table 5.6 no values are given for concentrated load, it may be
assumed that the tabulated distributed load is adequate for design purposes.
(6) Where an area of floor is intended for 2 or more occupancies at different
times, the value to be used from Table 5.6 shall be the greatest value for any
of the occupancies concerned.
(7) When the occupancy of a building is changed the building shall conform to the
requirements of this part of the Code for the new occupancy.
LO
LO + L1
15
LO + 0.95(L1+L2)
LO +
(2) Where a single span of a beam or girder supports not less than 46m2 of floor at
one general level, the imposed load may, in the design of beam or girder, be
reduced by 5% for each 46m2 supported, subject to a maximum reduction of
25%. This reduction or that given in 5.7.3(1), whichever is greater, may be
taken into account in the design of columns or other type member supporting
such a beam.
(3) No reduction shall be made for any plant or machinery which is specifically
allowed for or for buildings for storage purposes, warehouses, garages and
those office areas which are used for storage and filing purposes.
5.7.4 Roof Live Loads other than Wind Loads or Rain Loads.
(1) Flat Roofs
Flat roofs to which there is no direct access (except only such cases as is
necessary for cleaning and repairs) shall withstand an imposed load of
(2) On flat floors where access (in addition to that necessary for cleaning and
repair) is provided to the roof, allowance shall be made for an imposed load of
1.5kN/m2 measured on plan or a load of 1.8kN concentrated on a square with a
300mm side.
Residential
Multifamily house
Private apartments
Public rooms
Corridors
2. Dwellings
Not exceeding 2 storeys
Exceeding 2 storeys
3. Hotels
Guest rooms
Public rooms
Corridors serving public rooms
Corridors above first floor
4.0
2.0
5.0
4.0
4.5
1.8
4.5
1.5
2.0
1.4
1.8
2.0
5.0
5.0
4.0
1.8
4.5
4.5
4.5
5.0
5.0
2.5
4.5
4.5
2.7
3.5
2.0
4.5
-
4.0
1.
4.
Office buildings
Areas (not including computer rooms) located in basement and
first floor
File, rooms in offices
Floors above first floor
Area with computing data processing and similar equipment
Toilet rooms
5.
tr
enas
6.
17
Dance floors
Dining areas
Foyers and entrance hall
Grandstands
Reviewing stands
Gymnasia
Museums
Stadia
Stages and other areas with
similar uses
5.0
3.6
7.
5.0
9.0
8.
Garage for passenger cars unloaded buses and light trucks not
exceeding 2500kg including driveways and ramps
All repair workshops for all types of vehicle and parking for
vehicles exceeding 2500kg gross weight including driveways
and ramps
2.5
9.0
9.
Libraries
Reading and study rooms without book storage
Rooms with book storage (eg. Public lending libraries)
Stack Rooms
2.5
4.0
2.4 For each metre stack
height with a minimum of 6.5
4.5
4.5
7.0
3.0
1.5
5.0
2.7
1.8
3.6
4.5
2.0
3.0
2.0
2.0
1.8
4.5
4.5
2.0
4.5
5.0
7.5
10.0
4.5
6.7
9.0
10.0
9.0
11. Hospitals
Bedrooms and Wards
Laundries
Toilet rooms
Utility rooms
X-ray room and Operating
theatres
12. Factories
Light
Medium
Heavy
4.5
13. Warehouses
General storage space in industrial and commercial buildings
18
(3) Sloping Roofs up to angle of 65o to the horizontal shall withstand an imposed
load of 0.25kN/m2 measured on plan or a vertical load of 0.9kN concentrated on a
square with 300mm side whichever produces the greater stress.
(5) Roof coverings and purlins at a slope of less than 450 shall be capable of carrying
a load of 0.9kN concentrated on any square with 125mm side.
Where loads arising from machinery, runways, cranes and other plant
producing dynamic effects are supported by or communicated to the
framework, allowance
5.8.2 The minimum design load due to equipment, machinery on other objects or
persons that may produce impact, is the total weight of equipment or
machinery plus its maximum lifting capacity, or appropriate live load,
multiplied by an appropriate factor listed in Table 5.7; except in cases where
19
Factor
1.25
1.10
1.33
1.20
1.50
5.8.3 The minimum horizontal design loads on cranes runway rails are:
(a) Lateral force which shall be:
(i)
for power operated crane trolleys, 20% and for hand operated trolleys, 10% of the sum
of the weights of the lifted loads and of the crane trolley excluding other parts of the
crane;
(b)
(ii)
applied at the top of the rail, one-half in each side of the runway, and
(iii)
(2) The minimum design load applied horizontally to panels under railings which guard
a drop of more than 460mm shall be 0.96KN/m2.
(3) The minimum design load applied vertically at the top of a railing which guards a drop
of more than 460mm shall be 1.5kN/m acting separately from the horizontal load
provided in Clause 5.8.4(1).
(4) Grandstands and any building used for assembly purposes to accommodate large
numbers of people at one time shall be designed to resist all inertia sway forces
produced by use and occupancy of the building or structure. The inertia force shall
be not less than 0.30kN/m of seat parallel to each row of seats or 0.15kN/m of
seat perpendicular to each row of seats.
5.9.2 Definitions
Unless otherwise specified, the following definitions shall apply for the purposes of
this Subsection.
1. Breadth: The dimension of the building normal to the direction of the wind.
21
10. Pressure Coefficient: The ratio of the pressure acting at a point on a surface
to the dynamic pressure of the incident wind.
11. Force Coefficient: A non-dimensional coefficient such that
the total wind force on a body is the product of the force
co-efficient multiplied by the dynamic pressure of the
Incident wind and the appropriate area as defined in
text.
12.
22
wind. Length and Width are dimensions related to the plan form.
5.9.3 Momenclature
A
element of surface
Ae
breadth
Cf
force coefficient
Cfn
Cft
Cf 1
Cp
pressure coefficient
Cpe
Cpi
depth
diameter
force
Fn
normal force
Ft
transverse force
F1
frictional force
height
ja
a constant
reduction factor
length
pressure on surface
Pe
external pressure
Pi
internal pressure
Re
Reynolds number
S1
topography factor
S2
S3
a statistical factor
Vs
width of building
w1
shielding factor
kinematic viscosity
5.9.4
The basic wind speed V appropriate to the area where the structure is
to be erected is determined as specified in 5.9.5(2)
b)
The basic wind speed is multiplied by factors S1, S2 and S3 to give the
design wind speed Vs (see 5.9.5(3)).
24
Vs = VS1 S2 S3
c)
d)
e)
Where a value of force coefficient, Cf, is available, the total wind load
on the building as a whole is more conveniently obtained from:
F = CfqAe
Pressure coefficients are given in Tables 5.14 and 5.20 for a range of
building shapes. Force coefficients are given in Tables 5.21 to 5.25 for
unclad structures.
5.9.5
a) The basic wind velocity is the maximum 3-second gust speed at a height
of 10m above ground likely to be exceeded on the average not more
than once in 50years, in open country. The values are shown by
isophleths (line of equal wind speed) on the map in Fig. 5.1. Table 5.8
gives basic wind speeds to be used in some major towns in Ghana.
b) It should be assumed the wind may blow from any direction.
29
2. Takoradi
29
3. Kumasi
36
4. Tamale
34
5. Ada
34
6. Saltpond
29
7. Axim
29
8. Ho
29
9. Akuse
34
38
11. Wenchi
38
12. Yendi
45
13. Wa
44
14. Navrongo
35
15. Bole
36
26
27
28
(a)Topography Factor, S1: The basic wind speed, V, takes account of the general
level
of
site
above
sea
level.
This
does
not
allow
for
local
Description
Value of S1
category
1
2
1.0
Sites
that
are
known
to
be
1.1
0.9
29
The influence of the topographic feature is considered to extend 1.5L e upwind and
2.5L e downwind of the summit or crest of the feature, where Le is the effective
horizontal length of the hill depending on the slope as indicated in Fig. 5.2. The
values of L e for the various slopes are given in Table 5.10.
If the zone downwind from the crest of the feature is relatively flat ( < 3) for a
distance exceeding L e, then the feature should be treated as an escarpment.
Otherwise, the feature must be treated as a hill or ridge.
The topography factor is given by:
S1 = 1+ C .s
where C has values appropriate to the height H above mean ground level and the
distance x from the summit or crest relative to the effective length L e as given in
Table 5.11.
The factor, s, is determined from Fig. 5.3 for cliffs and escarpments and Fig.5.4 for
ridges and hills.
Factor, C
Le
3< 17
>17
1.2(Z/L)
Z/0.3
0.36
Note: L is the actual length of the upwind slope in the wind direction, and Z is the effective height of
the feature.
30
31
32
(b) Ground Roughness, Building Size and Height above ground, Factor S2
The effect of wind on a building, structure or part thereof depends on
ground roughness variation of wind with height above ground and size of
building or component under consideration. The factor S 2 takes account of the
influences on wind effect listed above.
33
Class C: All buildings and structures whose greatest horizontal dimension or greatest vertical
dimension exceeds 50m.
The value of S2 for variation for wind speed with height above ground for various ground roughness
categories and building size classes are given in Table 5.12. The height to be used for the determination
of S2 should be taken as the height from the mean ground level adjoining the building to the top of the
building. Alternatively, the structure may be divided into convenient parts and wind load on each part
calculated, using S2 factor that corresponds to the height above ground of the top of the part. The
dynamic pressure should be assumed to act uniformly over the structure or part respectively.
(c) Factor for building life, S3
The factor S3 takes into account the intended life-span of the building or structure and the acceptable
calculated risk. There is always an element of risk that a given design wind speed may be exceeded in a
storm of exceptional violence. The greater the life-span of the structure, the greater the risk. Fig. 5.6
shows values of S3 equivalent to a period of exposure of 50 years plotted against intended life span or
design life in years.
Normally, wind loads on completed structures and buildings should be calculated at S3 = 1 except for:
(i)
temporary structures;
(ii)
(iii)
H/Le = 20/10 = 2
Basic wind speed for Ho, V = 29m/s ( Fig. 5.1, Table 5.8)
S3 factor for 100 yr probable life with probability level of 0.63 = 1.05 (Fig. 5.6)
34
S2 factor for 20m for a well wooded area (ground roughness category 3)(Class B) = 0.90 (Fig. 5.5,Table
5.12)
S1 factor for topography:
For X/Le = +0.5 and H/Le = 2 ( Fig. 5.2); s factor from Fig. 5.3 is = 0.05
From Table 5.11, factor C = 1.2Z/Le = 1.2x20/10 = 2.4
S1 = 1 + C x s = 1+ 0.05 x 2.4 = 1.12
Design wind speed = Vs = V x S1 x S2 x S3
= 29 (1.12)(0.9)(1.05) = 30.7m/s
35
36
Using the value of the design speed Vs obtained from section 5.9.5, the dynamic pressure of the wind q
above atmospheric pressure may be calculated from
Table 5.12 - Ground Roughness, Building size and Height above ground, Factor S2
1. Open Country with no
obstructions
Class
A
B
C
H
(m)
3 or less
0.83
0.78
0.73
0.72
0.67
0.63
0.64
0.60
0.55
0.88
0.83
0.78
0.79
0.74
0.70
0.70
0.65
0.60
10
1.00
0.95
0.90
0.93
0.88
0.83
0.78
0.74
0.69
15
1.03
0.99
0.94
1.00
0.95
0.91
0.88
0.83
0.78
20
1.06
1.01
0.96
1.03
0.98
0.94
0.95
0.90
0.85
30
1.09
1.05
1.00
1.07
1.03
0.98
1.01
0.97
0.92
40
1.12
1.08
1.03
1.10
1.06
1.01
1.05
1.01
0.96
50
1.14
1.10
1.06
1.12
1.08
1.04
1.08
1.04
1.00
60
1.15
1.12
1.08
1.14
1.10
1.06
1.10
1.06
1.02
80
1.18
1.15
1.11
1.17
1.13
1.09
1.13
1.10
1.06
100
1.20
1.17
1.13
1.19
1.16
1.12
1.16
1.12
1.09
120
1.22
1.19
1.15
1.21
1.18
1.14
1.18
1.15
1.11
140
1.24
1.20
1.17
1.22
1.19
1.16
1.20
1.17
1.13
160
1.25
1.22
1.19
1.24
1.21
1.18
1.21
1.18
1.15
180
1.26
1.23
1.20
1.25
1.22
1.19
1.23
1.20
1.17
200
1.27
1.24
1.21
1.26
1.24
1.21
1.24
1.21
1.18
Vs
(m/s)
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
6.0
7.0
8.0
9.0
10
61
74
88
104
120
138
157
177
199
221
20
245
270
297
324
353
383
414
447
481
516
30
552
589
628
668
709
751
794
839
885
932
40
981
1030
1080
1130
1190
1240
1300
1350
1410
1470
50
1530
1590
1660
1720
1790
1850
1920
1990
2060
2130
60
2210
2280
2360
2430
2510
2590
2670
2750
2830
2920
70
3000
(Note: To determine q for a speed of say 33 m/s look under 3 along the row corresponding to 30 which gives q = 668 N/m2).
(2) Pressure Coefficients: The average values given in the tables are for critical wind directions in one or
more quadrants. In order to determine the maximum wind load on a building the total load should
be calculated from each of the surfaces or parts of the surfaces of the building.
Coefficients of local effects are also given. These are to be used in calculating loads for local areas but
not for calculating the load on entire structural elements such as roof and walls. In such locations,
the construction must be adequate to resist the local forces (additional nailing, anchoring etc.).
Furthermore, it should be noted that these local forces can act in a shaking manner and
result in fatigue failures.
The net design load due to wind on individual cladding and their fixings, roofs and walls should be the
39
algebraic difference of the external pressure or suction and the design internal pressure or suction
from:
F = ( Cpe Cpi ) qA
Values of Cpe are given in Tables 5.14, 5.15, 5.16 and values of Cpi in section 5.9.7(3).
(3) Internal Pressure Coefficient: It is normally difficult to estimate the internal pressure coefficient for
a building as the coefficient depends on permeability through windows, ventilation louvres, leakage
gaps around doors and windows and cladding. It is recommended that for wall and roof loading the
internal pressure coefficient should be determined as follows:
(a) Where there is only negligible probability of dominant opening occurring during a severe storm,
should be taken as +0.2 or -0.3 whichever produces the greater effect on the building or
member concerned.
(b) Where a dominant opening is likely to occur,
(4) Force Coefficients: Force coefficients vary for the wind acting on different faces of a building or
structure. In determining the critical load, the total wind load should be calculated for each wind
direction . The total wind load on a particular building or structure is given by:
F = Cf q A e
(6) Frictional Drag: For certain types of buildings it is necessary to take into account a frictional
drag in addition to the wind load calculated from 5.9.7(2) and 5.9.7(4). The frictional drag may
40
be neglected for rectangular clad buildings where the ratio d/h or d/b is greater than 4. The
frictional drag in the direction of the wind is given by the following:
The first term in each formula represents the drag on the roof and the second the drag on the
walls.
= 0.01 for smooth surfaces without corrugations or ribs across the wind direction.
= 0.02 for surfaces with ribs across the wind direction.
0.
For other buildings the frictional drag will be indicated, where necessary, in tables of pressure
coefficients and force coefficients.
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
For the purpose of calculating the wind forces that act in a way as to deform a cylindrical structure the
values of Cpe in Table 5.22 may be used. They apply only in supercritical flow (i.e. they should only be
used where D > 0.3m). They may be used for wind blowing normal to the axis of cylinders having their
axis normal to the ground plane (i.e. chimneys, silos) and to cylinders having their axis parallel with the
ground plane (i.e. horizontal tanks) provided the clearance between the tank and the ground is not less
than D.
h is the height of a vertical cylinder or length of a horizontal cylinder. Where there is a free flow of air
around both ends, h is to be taken as half the length when calculating h/D. Interpolation may be used
for intermediate values of h/D.
In the calculation of the load on the periphery of the cylinder, the value Cpi shall be taken into account.
For open ended cylinders where h/D
0.3;
5.9.8
(1)
(2)
Force coefficients of individual members: The coefficients refer to members of infinite length.
For members of finite length, the coefficients should be multiplied by a factor K that depends
on the ratio l/ja, where l is the length of the member and ja is the width across the direction
of the wind. Values of K are given in Table 5.23.
Where any member abuts onto a plate or wall in such a way that free flow of air around that
end of the member is prevented, the ratio l/ja should be doubled for the purpose of
determining K. When both ends of a member are so obstructed, the ratio should be taken as
infinity.
54
Table 5.23 - Values of Reduction Factor K for members of finite length and slenderness
l/ja or l/D
10
20
40
50
100
0.58
0.62
0.68
0.74
0.82
0.87
0.98
1.0
0.80
0.80
0.82
0.90
0.98
0.99
1.0
1.0
0.62
0.68
0.69
0.81
0.87
0.90
0.95
1.0
5.9.8(3)(a) Flatsided members: The force coefficient in Table 5.24 are given for two mutuallyperpendicular directions relative to a reference axis on the structural member. They are designated Cfn
and Cft and give the forces normal and transverse, respectively, to the reference plane as will be
apparent from the diagrams.
Force coefficients are for wind normal to the longitudinal axis of the member.
Normal force:
F = Cfn qklj
Force, F = CfqKlD
55
56
57
Force coefficient Cf
Subcritical flow
DVs
6m2/s
Re
4.1 x 105
DVs
4.1 x 105
12
Supercritical flow
DVs
8.2 x 105
1.2
12m2/s
Re
0.6
8.2 x 105
33m2/s
Re
DVs
33m2/s
Re
22.6 x 105
0.7
22.6 x 105
0.8
(c) Wires and cables: The force coefficients for wires and cables given in Table 5.26 are dependent upon
values of DVs.
Table 5.26 - Force Coefficients Cf for Wires and Cables (1/D >100)
Flow Regime
Smooth
Moderately
surface wire
(galvanized
wire Fine
stranded Thick
or cables
stranded
cables
painted)
DVs
0.6m2/s
1.2
1.3
DVs
0.6m2/
0.9
1.1
DVs
6m2/s
1.2
1.2
DVs
6m2/s
0.5
0.7
58
(4) Single frames: In general, the most unfavourable wind load on a single frame occurs when the
wind is at right angles to the frame.
The wind load acting on a single frame should be taken as
F = Cf q Ae
where; Ae is the effective area of frame normal to the wind direction.
The force coefficients for a single frame consisting of (a) flat-sided members or (b) circular
section members in which all the members of the frame have DVs value less or greater than
6m2/s are given in Table 5.27.
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.75
1.0
1.9
1.8
1.7
1.7
1.6
1.6
2.0
0.7
0.8
0.8
0.8
1.4
1.4
2.0
The solidity ratio is equal to the effective area of a frame normal to the wind direction divided by the
area enclosed by the boundary of the frame normal to the wind direction.
(5) Multiple frame structures: This section applies to structures having two or more parallel frames
where the windward frame may have a shielding effect upon the frames to leeward. The wind load
on the windward frame and any unsheltered parts of other frames should be calculated as in
5.9.8(3), but wind load on the parts of frames that are sheltered should be multiplied by a shielding
factor n, which is dependent upon the solidity ratio of the windward frame, the type of member
comprising the frame and the spacing ratio of the frames. The values of the shielding factor are
given in Table 5.28.
Where there are more than two frames of similar geometry and spacing, the wind load on the third
and subsequent frames should be taken as equal to that on the second frame.
59
0.1
Up to 1.0
1.0
0.96
0.90
0.80
0.68
0.54
0.44
0.37
2.0
1.0
0.97
0.91
0.82
0.71
0.58
0.49
0.43
3.0
1.0
0.97
0.92
0.84
0.74
0.63
0.54
0.48
4.0
1.0
0.98
0.93
0.86
0.77
0.67
0.59
0.54
5.0
1.0
0.98
0.94
0.88
0.80
0.71
0.64
0.60
1.0
0.99
0.95
0.90
0.83
0.75
0.69
0.66
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8 &
over
The spacing ratio is equal to the distance, centre to centre, of the frames, beams or girders divided by
the least overall dimension of the frame, beam or girder measured at right angles to the direction of the
wind.
Aerodynamic solidity ratio,
The wind load acting in the direction of the wind should be taken as:
F = Cf qAe
The overall force coefficient Cf is given in Tables 5.29, 5.30 and 5.31.
0.1
Square towers
3.8
0.2
3.3
2.7
0.3
2.8
2.3
0.4
2.3
1.9
0.5
2.1
1.5
For square lattice towers the maximum load occurs when the wind blows on to a corner.
It may be taken as 1.2 times the load for the faceon wind.
For triangular lattice towers the wind load may be assumed to be constant for any inclination of
the wind to face.
(b) Since it is only in very few cases with lattice towers composed of members of circular section
that all the members of a lattice tower are entirely in either subcritical or supercritical flow,
wind force calculations should be carried out as described in 5.9.8(4) for single frames, due
account being taken of the shielding factors in 5.9.8(5).
When it can be shown that all the members of the tower are wholly in the same flow regime
the overall force coefficients Cf given in Tables 5.29 and 5.30 may be used.
61
0.05
0.1
2.2
2.3
1.2
1.3
0.2
1.9
2.1
1.3
1.6
0.3
1.7
1.9
1.4
1.6
0.4
1.6
1.9
1.4
1.6
0.5
0.4
1.9
1.4
1.6
62
0.05
1.8
0.8
0.1
1.7
0.8
0.2
1.6
1.1
0.3
1.5
1.1
0.4
1.5
1.1
0.5
1.4
1.2
63
64
(3) Direction of force: Earthquake forces shall be assumed to act in any horizontal direction.
Accept where required otherwise by the authority having
jurisdiction, independent design adequate resistance in the
structure for earthquake forces applied in any direction.
(4)
The minimum lateral seismic force V assumed to act nonconcurrently in any direction on the building shall be equal to
the production of where A is the assigned horizontal design
65
Case
1.
2.
Value of K
0.7
monet resisting space frame and cuticle flexural walls (3) designed in
accordance with the following criteria:
0.7
The frames and ductile flexural walls shall resist the total lateral
force in accordance with their relative rigidities considering the
interaction of the flexural walls and frames. In this analysis the
maximum share in the frame must be least 25 percent of the
total base shear.
3.
0.8
Building with ductile flexural walls (3) and buildings with ductile framing
1.0
1.3
(b)
1.3
reinforced concrete (b) structural steel and (c) reinforced masonry shear
wails.
7.
2.0
Elevated tanks plus full consents or 4 or more cross braced legs and not
3.0
F
1.0
Rock, dense and very dense coarse grained soils very stiff and hard fine- grained
soils; compact coarse-grained oils from 0 to 15m deep
Compact coarse grained soils, firm and stiff fine-grained soils with a depth greater
1.3
than 15m; very loose and loose coarse grained soils and very soft and soft fine grained
soils for 0 to 15m deep
Very loose and loose coarse grained soils and very soft and soft fine grained soils
1.5(2)
(10) Weight of structure: The weight, w of the structure shall be calculated in accordance with
the following formula:
W = w1
69
i=1
(11) Distribution of lateral seismic force: the total seismic force, V, shall be distributed as
follows:
(a) A portion Ft shall be assumed to be concentrated at the top of the structure and equal to
0.004v (hn/Ds)2 except that Ft need to exceed 0.15v and may be considered a zero for
(hn/Ds3.
(b) The remainder, V-Ft, shall be distributed along the height of the building including the top
level in accordance with the following formula:
Fz = (V-Ft) wx hx/( wi hi) and
(c)
I=1
The total shear in any horizontal plane shall be distributed to the serious elements of
the lateral force resisting system in proportion to their rigidities with due regard to the
capacities and stiffness of the non structural elements.
(12) Parts of buildings and their anchorage shall be designed for a lateral force, Vp equal to
ASpWp distributed according to the distribution of mass of the element under
consideration.
(13) The values of Sp in clause 3.11.12 shall conform to Table 3.11 (c).
TABLE3.11(C): HORIZONTAL FORCE FACTOR FOR PART OR PORTION OF A STRUCTURE
Category
1
2
3
4
Direction of fore
Normal to flat
surface
Cantilever parapet and other oantilever walls Normal to flat
except retaining walls
surface
Exterior and interior ornamentations and Any direction
appendages
Towers, chimeys and smoke-stacks more than
3mm high above the building, machinery
fixtures and equipment, pies, tanks plus Any direction
Value of sp
2
10
10
2(1), (2)
70
Any direction
3(3)
Any direction
1(2)
Any direction
1(4)
Any direction
25
(1) When h/D of any building is equal or greater than 5 to 1, increase value by 50 percent.
(2) The value shall be increased 50 percent for pipes and containers for toxic or explosive
materials, for materials having a flash point below 37.8C or for firefighting fluids.
(3) Lower values of Sp may be used if they can be proven by analysis.
(4) Floors and roofs acting as diaphragms shall be
(14) Overturning: The overturning moment, M, at the base of the structure shall be multiplied
by the reduction coefficient J, where
(a) J = 1 where T is less than 0.5
(b) J= (1.1 0.2T) Where T is at least 0.5 but not more than 1.5 and
(c) J = 0.8 where T is greater than 1.5
71
The incremental changes in the design overturning moments, in the storey under
consideration, shall be distributed to the various resisting elements in the same
proportion as the distribution of shears in the resisting system. Where other vertical
members are provided which are capable of partially resisting the overturning
members, a redistribution may be made to these members if framing members of
sufficient strength and stiffness to transmit the required loads are provided. Where a
vertical-resisting element is discontinuous, the overturning moment carried by the
lowest storey of that element shall be carried down as loads to the foundation.
16) Torsional moments: Torsional moments in the horizontal plans of the building shall be
computed in each storey using the formula:
Mtx = (V-xFi)ex
i=1
(Severe modal coupling may occur in symmetrical or nearly symmetrical structures
where the fundamental lateral and torsional periods are nearly equal).
17) Design eccentricity: The design eccentricity, ex in clause 3.11(16) shall be computed
by one of the following equations, whichever provides the greater stresses:
(a) ex = 1. 5e + 0.05Dn or
(b) ex = 0.5e 0.05 Dn
(19) Setbacks:
72
(a) Buildings having setbacks wherein the plan dimension of the tower in each
direction is at least 75 percent of the corresponding plan dimensions of the
lower part may be considered as a uniform building without setbacks for the
purpose of determining seismic forces.
separate building using the larger of the seismic co-efficient at the base of the
tower determined by considering the tower as either a separate building for its
own height or as part of the overall structure. The resulting total shear from the
tower shall be applied at the top of the lower part of the building which shall be
otherwise considered separately for its own height.
3. 12 GENERAL PROVISIONS
(1) Lateral deflections of a storey relative to its adjacent storeys shall be
considered in accordance with accepted practice.
(2) Lateral deflections of a storey relative to its adjacent storeys obtained from an
elastic analysis using the loads given in clause 3.11.11 shall be multiplied by 3
to give realistic values of anticipated deflection.
(3) All portions of the structure shall be designed to ac as integral units in resisting
horizontal forces, unless separated by adequate clearances which permit
horizontal deflections of the structure consistent with values of deflections
calculated in accordance with clause 3.13.2
(4) The nonstructural components shall be designed so as not to transfer to the
structural system any forces unaccounted for in the design and any
interaction of rigid elements such as walls and structural system shall be
designed so that the capacity of the structural system is not impaired by the
action or failure of the rigid elements.
73
TABLE 3.3.11(D)
DEFINITION OF SEISMIC ZONES
Seismic
zone
0
0.04
0.08
75
76
APPENDIX A
SCHEDULE OF UNIT WEIGHT OF BUILDING MATERIALS
Weights of concrete
Lightweights concrete
L i g h t w e ig h ts c o n c r e t e
Reinforced concrete
Table 1A
Nominal weight Aggregate:
limestone
gravel
broken brick
other crushed
stone
Nominal weight
Reinforcement: 1%
2%
4%
Aggregate or type
5.6 to 8.4
13.8 to 34.5
0.5 to 3.5
1.4
10.3 to 15.5
kN/m3
22.6
21.2 to 23.6
22.0 to 23.6
19.6(av)
22.8 to 24.4
23.6
22.6 to 24.2
23.1 to 24.7
24.0 to 25.6
KN/m2
1.80
2.40
3.60
6.00
7.20
2.00
2.15
2.75
3.35
kN/ m3
9.4 to 11.8
13.4 to 18.1
3.9 to 11.0
15.7 to 18.9
3.9 (min.)
14.1 to 15.7
kN/ m3
17.3
13.2
21.7
kN/m2
1.15
0.6 to 0.9
0.6
77
Miscellaneous Materials
N/m2
Damp-proof course
575
Tarmacadam
KN/m3
48
Macadam (waterbound)
22.6
N/m2 mm per
Vermiculite3 (aggregate)
25.1
thickness
Terracotta
0.8
Felt (insulating)
1.9
Glass
20.8
26.4
Cork: granular
26.7
Granite sets
28.3
1.2
Asphalt
22.6
3.8
Rubber paving
15.1
Polyvinylchloride
19(av)
Glass-fibre (forms)
1.9
Chipboard
Plywood
Fibreboard
Wood-wool
Plasterboard
Water boarding
N/m2 per mm
7.5
6.1
2.8
5.7
9.4
3.8
:compressed
Timber
See
TABLE 1A
Table 2A
Abura
Afara or limba
African walnut
Afromosia
Afzelia
Agba
Albizzia (A.ferruginea)
Alstonia
Antiaris
Avodire
Ayan
Canarium, African
Celtis
Dahoma
Danta
Ekki
Esia
density at
12% moisture
content
4.7 to 6.1
4.7 to 6.1
4.7 to 6.1
6.3 to 7.7
7.9 to 10.2
4.7 to 6.1
6.3 to 7.7
3.1
3.1
4.7 to 6.1
6.3 to 7.7
3.1
3.1
4.7 to 6.1
6.3 to 7.7
4.7 to 6.1
6.3 to 7.7
6.3 to 7.7
Gedu nohor
Guarea (cedrata)
Guarea (thomsonii)
Idigbo
Ilomba
Iroko
Mahogany, African
Makore
Okwen
Density at 12%
moisture constant
KN/m3
4.7 to 6.1
4.7 to 6.1
4.7 to 6.1
4.7 to 6.1
4.7 to 6.1
6.3 to 7.7
4.7 to 6.1
4.7 to 6.1
78
Mansonia
Mubura
Miangori
Obeche
Odoko
Ogea
okan
6.3 to 7.7
10.2
7.9 to 10.2
4.7 to 6.1
6.3 to 7.7
4.7 to 6.1
3.1 to 4.6
4.7 to 6.1
4.7 to 6.1
7.9 to 10.2
Opepe
Ptergygota
Sapele
Stervulia, Brown
Sterculia, yellow
Utile
4.7 to 6.1
6.3 to 7.7
6.3 to 7.7
4.7 to 6.1
6.3 to 7.7
6.3 to 7.7
6.3 to 7.7
Granite
25.1 to 28.7
22.0
Sandstone
22.0 to 23.6
Quarry waste
14.1
slate
28.3
Hardcore (consolidated)
18.9
All-in aggregate
19.6
70.7
wrought
75.4
Riveted
77.0
copper: cast
85.6
iron: cast
: wrought
87.7
Brass
83.3
Bronze
87.7
Aluminum
27.2
Lead
111.0
Zinc (rolled)
70.0
g/mm2
1
4
Welded
Plate-web girders
per metre
Steel bars
1
2
+1 % to 2 %
1
2
7.85
See Table 3A
Roof trusses
Steel stairs: industrial
Type in wide
N/m
820
Steel tube:
50mm in bore
Gas piping: 20mm
45 to 60
18
79
Weight of roofs
Table 3A
Weight per m2 of slope of roof
(N/m2)
Material
claddning
Net
Aluminum sheet corrugated 18. S.W.G
Aluminum sheet, corrugated 20 S.W.G
Aluminum sheet corrugated 22. S.W.G
Aluminum sheet corrugated 24. S.W.G
Aluminum sheet, flat 18 S.W.G
Aluminum sheet, flat 20 S.W.G
Aluminum sheet, flat 22 S.W.G
Aluminum sheet, flat 24 S.W.G
Asbestos cement sheets, corrugated 6mm thick
Asbestos cement sheets, flat 5mm thick
Asbestos cement sheets, flat 6mm thick
Asbestos cement sheets, flat 10mm thick
Asbestos cement sheets, flat 12mm thick
Copper sheeting 16 S.W.G
Copper sheeting 18 S.W.G
Copper sheeting 20 S.W.G
Copper sheeting 22 S.W.G
Copper sheeting 24 S.W.G
Roofing felt, 3-ply
Roofing felt, 2-ply
Roofing felt, 1.ply
Shingles (excluding battens)
Steel sheet, galvanized, corrugated 18GB
Steel sheet, galvanized, corrugated 20GB
Steel sheet, galvanized, corrugated 22GB
Steel sheet, galvanized, corrugated 24GB
Steel sheet, galvanized, corrugated 26GB
Steel sheet, galvanized, corrugated 28GB
Steel sheet, galvanized, flat 18GB
Steel sheet, galvanized, flat 20GB
37.8
28.7
22.0
17.2
33.5
24.9
19.6
15.3
135
80
110
170
220
145
110
80
65
50
25
20
15
160
120
110
90
70
55
45
35
100
80
135
105
90
70
55
45
80
60
50
40
Table 3A (contd)
30
Cladding
:dry
:wet
410
530
(excluding battens)
Tiles, roofing, burnt clay Etruscna type
430
(excluding battens)
Tiles, roofing, burnt clay, Broseley type
570
(excluding battens)
Tiles, roofing, burnt clay, Italian type
670
(excluding battens)
Reinforced concrete slabs, concrete tiles
720
etc.
See Table 1A
Roof trusses
Spacing of trusses
3.0m
4.5m
Span of
7.5m
95
72
trusses
9m
120
72
12m
132
84
15m
144
108
18m
203
144
25m
239
168
81
Tables 4A
KN/m3
KN/m3
nitric
10.4
7.4
sulphuric
15.1
Paraffin (kerosene)
7.9
alcohol (commercial)
18.1
Petrol(gasoline)
6.9
ammonia
7.9
Petroleum oil
8.6
beer: in bulk
8.8
Pulp (wood)
7.1
10.0
Slurry: cement
14.1
in barrels
4.6
benzene, benzol
5.5
Sewage
9.7 to 11.8
bitumen (prepared)
8.6
Tar, pitch
11.8
methylated spirit
13.7
Turpentine
8.5
8.2
Water: fresh
9.81
8.8
Sea water
10.05
10.2
Wine: in bulk
9.7
5.8
5.5
14.9
9.4
5.5
9.4
14.1
2.4
17.3
9.4 to 14.1
6.3
7.9
4.4
5.5
17.3
9.4 to 10.2
2.4 to 5.5
7.1
6.3
1.7
9.0
8.8
10.7
7.1
9.4
Clay
11.9
83