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Procedia Economics and Finance 34 (2015) 565 572

Business Economics and Management 2015 Conference, BEM2015

Continuous Quality Improvement by Statistical Process Control

Pavol Gejdoa*
a

Technical University in Zvolen, Masarykova 24, 960 53, Zvolen, Slovakia

Abstract
Article deals with the application of selected tools of statistical process control, through which we can achieve continuous quality
improvement. The advantage of these tools is that they can identify the effects of the processes that cause unnatural variability in
processes that result of errors and poor quality. Tools like capability index, histogram, model DMAIC, control chart, etc. can
reliably determine the anomalous variability in the process and thereby contribute to quality improvement. In the paper through
histograms and Shewhart control charts action exposing the systemic implications of the processes and therefore unnatural
variability in processes, which result in non-compliance. The results clearly show that through the DMAIC model can
systematically improve quality. Histograms show the contribution of the normal distribution of frequencies monitored quality
characteristics while Shewhart control charts show that the investigated processes are under statistical control. Use of DMAIC
model as well as other statistical quality tools is a way to achieve continuous quality improvement.
2015
2016The
TheAuthors.
Authors.Published
PublishedbybyElsevier
ElsevierB.V.
B.V.

This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license

Peer-review under responsibility of the Organizing Committee of BEM2015.
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
Peer-review under responsibility of the Organizing Committee of BEM2015
Keywords: Quality, Improvement, Statistical Process Control, DMAIC, Variability

1. Introduction
The basic issue in a quality orientated organisation is to what level we are able to satisfy customers' expectations.
If customers' expectations are defined, it is necessary to quantify how we are able to satisfy these expectations. A
product which should be suitable for use should be produced in a stable process, which means that the process
should be able to produce the product with an acceptable variability of stated quality indexes in terms of their stated

* Corresponding author. Tel.: +421-45-5206-491; fax: +0-000-000-0000 .

E-mail address: gejdosp@tuzvo.sk

2212-5671 2015 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

Peer-review under responsibility of the Organizing Committee of BEM2015

doi:10.1016/S2212-5671(15)01669-X

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Pavol Gejdo / Procedia Economics and Finance 34 (2015) 565 572

target or nominal values. The basic principle of improving processes is based upon the assumption that the
variability of quality index values have two types of causes:
x random causes (change, common causes) are a permanent part of the process and influence all process
components. They create a wide variety of individually unidentifiable causes, from which each slightly
contributes towards overall variability.
x definable causes (assignable, special causes) are causes which are not a permanent part of the process, they do
not influence all process components but occur as a consequence of specific circumstances. They induce real
changes in a process, reflected in the unnatural fluctuation in data used for evaluating process variability.
It is possible to ensure and improve quality in the production stage via so called operative quality management
which includes all operational methods and activities focusing upon monitoring processes and removing causes of
non-conformity and defects in all stages of a product's life cycle. A decisive part of operative management focuses
upon the process itself, i.e. in the production company upon production. It is no longer possible to improve quality
during production as a process of transforming input elements into required outputs - products - but when the
requirements and conditions stated in the pre-production stages are not met, this can cause a decrease in quality
against the required level.
The aim of the article is to show the possibilities of using DMAIC model and SPC tools to improve process
quality. The advantage of this model is that it allows its individual stages use other tools of quality improvement
(capability index, histogram, control chart etc.) The article describes the possibilities of improving quality and high
performance of the company which used these tools and this idea is presented on practical example of the
manufacturing enterprise. On the practical examples we want to confirm or refute many of the authors of the
efficacy of these instruments and their positive impact on business performance.
2. Material and Methods
A continual improvement process, also often called a continuous improvement process (abbreviated as CIP or
CI), is an ongoing effort to improve products, services, or processes. These efforts can seek "incremental"
improvement over time or "breakthrough" improvement all at once. (Sujov, Marcinekov, 2015) Delivery
(customer valued) processes are constantly evaluated and improved in the light of their efficiency, effectiveness and
flexibility. Some see CIPs as a meta-process for most management systems (such as business process management,
quality management, project management, and program management). W. Edwards Deming, a pioneer of the field,
saw it as part of the 'system' whereby feedback from the process and customer were evaluated against organisational
goals. The fact that it can be called a management process does not mean that it needs to be executed by
'management'; but rather merely that it makes decisions about the implementation of the delivery process and the
design of the delivery process itself.( ASQ, 2015) A broader definition is that of the Institute of Quality Assurance
who defined "continuous improvement as a gradual never-ending change which is: '... focussed on increasing the
effectiveness and/or efficiency of an organisation to fulfil its policy and objectives. It is not limited to quality
initiatives. Improvement in business strategy, business results, customer, employee and supplier relationships can be
subject to continual improvement. Put simply, it means getting better all the time
2.1. Model DMAIC
DMAIC (an abbreviation for Define, Measure, Analyze, Improve and Control) refers to a data-driven
improvement cycle used for improving, optimizing and stabilizing business processes and designs. The DMAIC
improvement cycle is the core tool used to drive Six Sigma projects. However, DMAIC is not exclusive to Six
Sigma and can be used as the framework for other improvement applications (Pande, Neuman, Cavanagh, 2002).
Define - The purpose of this step is to clearly articulate the business problem, goal, potential resources, project
scope and high-level project timeline. This information is typically captured within project charter document. Write
down what you currently know. Seek to clarify facts, set objectives and form the project team.
Measure - The purpose of this step is to objectively establish current baselines as the basis for improvement.
This is a data collection step, the purpose of which is to establish process performance baselines. The performance

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Pavol Gejdo / Procedia Economics and Finance 34 (2015) 565 572

metric baseline(s) from the Measure phase will be compared to the performance metric at the conclusion of the
project to determine objectively whether significant improvement has been made. The team decides on what should
be measured and how to measure it. It is usual for teams to invest a lot of effort into assessing the suitability of the
proposed measurement systems.
Analyze - The purpose of this step is to identify, validate and select root cause for elimination. A large number of
potential root causes (process inputs, X) of the project problem are identified via root cause analysis (for example a
fishbone diagram). The top 3-4 potential root causes are selected using multi-voting or other consensus tool for
further validation. A data collection plan is created and data are collected to establish the relative contribution of
each root causes to the project metric, Y. This process is repeated until "valid" root causes can be identified. Within
Six Sigma, often complex analysis tools are used. However, it is acceptable to use basic tools if these are
appropriate.
Improve - The purpose of this step is to identify, test and implement a solution to the problem; in part or in
whole. This depends on the situation. Identify creative solutions to eliminate the key root causes in order to fix and
prevent process problems. Use brainstorming or techniques like Six Thinking Hats and Random Word. Some
projects can utilize complex analysis tools like DOE (Design of Experiments), but try to focus on obvious solutions
if these are apparent.
Control - The purpose of this step is to sustain the gains. Monitor the improvements to ensure continued and
sustainable success. Create a control plan. Update documents, business process and training records as required.
A Control chart can be useful during the Control stage to assess the stability of the improvements over time by
serving as 1. a guide to continue monitoring the process and 2. provide a response plan for each of the measures
being monitored in case the process becomes unstable.
2.2. Statistical process control
Control charts (RD) are the most frequently used tool in the statistical regulation of processes. They allow more
accurate distinguishing of random from systematic causes of fluctuations in the value of a mark of quality, i.e. they
facilitate regulation and improvement in the quality of the process.
When applying Control charts, it is assumed that the behaviour of the process is characterised by the level or one
or several qualitative values. We call these values regulated values. Control charts are used in monitoring processes
and when ascertaining the need for corrections or changes in the process, in order to achieve a better mean value of
the process or in order to reduce variability in the process. In control charts, the horizontal axis contains the times
when statistical sampling of regulated values took place, and the vertical axis contains calculated values of the
appropriate sample characteristics. Control charts also include criteria for comparing sample characteristics. (Terek,
Hrniarov, 2004)These criteria are control limits:

UCL

x  A2 u R

(1)

LCL

x  A2 u R

(2)

The centre of the zone defined by control limits is a central line (CL).




n
x = 1 ( x 1+ x 2 + x k) = 1 Xi
k i 1
k

(3)

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Pavol Gejdo / Procedia Economics and Finance 34 (2015) 565 572

The distance of control limits from the central line equals the triple standard deviation of the appropriate sample
characteristics. For normal distribution of quality characteristics and under the assumption that the production
process is statistically maintained, the stated limits illustrate that approximately 99.73% of normally distributed
sample characteristics will lie inside the zone bordered by control limits.

Fig. 1. Control chart.

Capability index ppk which describes the preliminary process capability and is based on the selection standard
deviation This can be calculated using formula:

p pk

where

P  LSL USL  P
min
;

3s
3s

(4)

LSL
is the lower tolerance limit
USL
is the upper tolerance limit
is the average value of the monitored quality feature.

A histogram of frequency distribution represents a graphic form of processing the results of mass discovery or a
set of measurements. It is a block diagram which displays the division of absolute or relative frequency of a
monitored variable at individual intervals. The base of individual blocks (on the x axis) corresponds to the width of
interval, and the height of the blocks (on the y axis) expresses the frequency of variables of the monitored variable at
appropriate intervals. In quality management, it mainly refers to the frequency distribution of quality values or
values related to production factors influencing the quality of the products (Toenovsk, Noskieviov, 2000).
3. Results and Discussion
DMAIC model and its phases are used for essential improvement tool.
Define M- A I C
Throughout the production process is the possibility of occurrence of 88 errors. The product contains 12 critical
parameters according to customer specifications. Through Pareto analysis of these 12 parameters we have been
divided into two groups. The parameters in the first group should be controlled during the production process due to
a possible greater risk of quality defects. The parameters of the second group do not require special procedural

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Pavol Gejdo / Procedia Economics and Finance 34 (2015) 565 572

attention because they are crucially on the instrument that upon release and dimensional measuring, creating
distortions to the minimum possible level. Table 1 describes 7 critical parameters from first group.
Table 1. Seven critical quality parameters.
Parameter

Customer requirements

Location cone

0,56 0,1mm

Height of toothing

2,1 0,05mm

The radial run out of the cone to the teeth

< 0,15mm

Roundness cone

< 0,04mm

Cone angle

6,5 5 15

Replacing the bridge - gearing

4,60 0,1mm

Dimensions of the gearing through the rollers

80,711 80, 924mm

D Measure A I - C
In this part we focused on the measurement of critical parameters of Group 1. The scope of the investigated
samples was set at n = 100. Sampling was carried out at regular 10 minute intervals (every 10 minutes taking one
sample). On each individual sample measurements were made all seven critical parameters.
D M Analyze I - C
According to the standard QS-9000 were measured values arranged in 25 subgroups of size 4. In order to obtain
capability index Ppk we evaluate them and see which of these parameters meet the requirements for process
capability. For parameters with a capability index below 1.67 we present Shewhart control charts. The following
table 2 shows the basic statistical characteristics of the product analyzed data on all parameters.
Table 2. The basic statistical characteristics of the product analyzed data on all parameters.
Parameter
1

Maximum Value

0,615

2,109

0,089

0,034

6,500

4,630

80,819

Minimum Value

0,515

2,078

0,021

0,013

6,444

4,596

80,750

0,100

0,03

0,07

0,021

0,06

0,03

0,07

Standard deviation s

0,0213

0,0062

0,0153

0,0048

0,0108

0,0071

0,0146

average x

0,5684

2,0955

0,0490

0,0203

6,4745

4,6134

80,7858

USL

0,660

2,150

0,150

0,040

6,583

4,700

80,924

LSL

0,460

2,050

6,250

4,500

80,711

Ppk

1,431

2,446

2,198

1,370

3,368

4,084

1,713

As shown by the indicator Ppk, five parameters satisfies the condition of process capability Ppk> 1.67. Our aim
was to analyze the effects that could be disqualification process with respect to the two parameters studied. The
analyzed data for both parameters are shown in the histograms visualizing distribution of the shape measured values
of the average. (fig.2 and fig.3)

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Pavol Gejdo / Procedia Economics and Finance 34 (2015) 565 572

Fig. 2. Histogram for Location of cone.

Fig. 3. Histogram for Roudness of cone.

Both parameters were subjected to statistical study of stability, based on Shewhart control charts. (Fig.4, Fig.5,)

Fig. 4. Shewhart control charts for average by Location of cone.

Pavol Gejdo / Procedia Economics and Finance 34 (2015) 565 572

Fig. 5. Shewhart control charts for average by Roudness of cone.

D M A Improve - Control
From the statistical analysis, we determined the stability of the performance of the process can not be reduced by
eliminating non-random cause variability. It was therefore important for us to review the current state of quality
control in the company. After recapitulating all the results of the analysis and review possible solutions, we
concluded that to improve results achieved by the company could use other methods such as DOE, ANOVA, Poka
Yoke, Six Sigma and other means, which is able to improve the performance of their processes, which is already
currently high. Another element to improve, along with the aforementioned methods is the change in organizational
structure, which is an integral part of implementation Six Sigma methods.
Pictures 3-7 presents histograms and Shewhart control charts on selected parameters which capability index PPK
was lower than 1,67 which is the eligibility requirements for this indicator. The shapes of histograms for both
parameters are signs of normal frequency distribution which is a sign of the natural variability of behavior which is
confirmed by control charts. Despite this fact, it is possible to improve the performance of these processes by
applying other tools because the occurrence of the monitored quality characteristic between the regulatory limits
indicates process performance about 3 sigma.
As we can see from the results that the company uses in managing quality improvement tool achieves very high
performance of their processes and products. The results confirm the claims of various authors about the positive
effects of SPC and other quality tools for achieving continuous quality improvement. Our assumption was
confirmed by the following example.
From the presented results it is evident that through the application of SPC is to achieve high performance
processes that are essential for achieving high performance of the entire company. The results confirmed what
various authors say. For example John S. Oakland, (2003) says that Statistical process control (SPC) methods,
backed by management commitment and good organization, provide objective means of controlling quality in any
transformation process, whether used in the manufacture of artefacts, the provision of services, or the transfer of
information. SPC is not only a tool kit. It is a strategy for reducing variability, the cause of most quality problems;
variation in products, in times of deliveries, in ways of doing things, in materials, in peoples attitudes, in equipment
and its use, in maintenance practices, in everything.
Masaaki (1997) said that Statistical Process Control is an analytical decision making tool which allows you to
see when a process is working correctly and when it is not. Variation is present in any process, deciding when the
variation is natural and when it needs correction is the key to quality control.
Statistical process control (SPC) is a set of statistical methods based on the theory of variation that can be used to
make sense of any process or outcome measured over time, usually with the intention of detecting improvement or
maintaining a high level of performance. SPC combines rigorous time series analysis with graphical presentation of
data, and can provide early insights into the data in a manner understandable to a wide range of audiences
(Benneyan, Lloyd, and Plsek, 2003). Using frequently measured data, SPC can be used to detect, early on, whether
any change has taken place since the start of the intervention, long before results from a larger, summative

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Pavol Gejdo / Procedia Economics and Finance 34 (2015) 565 572

evaluation are available. Such information can be used for purposes ranging from forming hypotheses about changes
in outcomes to adapting elements of the intervention to increase the likelihood of success.
4. Conclusion
Article confirmed in its experimental part theoretical assumptions authors who define the SPC and the DMAIC
model as tools for continuous quality improvement. Here again, it was confirmed that with Shewhart control charts,
capability indexes, histograms can be for achieving the control of variation in the procedure in order to be filled with
the requirements of the customer. SPC can be regarded as a very effective tool in ensuring process stability. Benefits
of Article are the use of SPC with DMAIC improvement model. This combination of tools is very suitable for
achieving the desired objectives of quality improvement and efficient manner can help solve all tasks and problems
of the process of quality improvement.
The methods developed in the first half of this century by Shewhart and others are still very useful in many
current applications. Their familiarity and simplicity relative to other methods can often compensate for loss in
efficiency. In our changing manufacturing environment, however, it is important to consider some of the methods
developed more recently such as those for several related quality characteristics, multiple processes, and more
sophisticated sampling plans. Infusion of new ideas into the body of commonly accepted SPC knowledge has been
much too slow and has led to much of the criticism regarding the relevance of SPC in the current manufacturing
environment.

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