COMM Exam #2

Communication and Reality (SOPH, PLAT, ARIS)

General issue of the relationship between communication and reality
Assumptions about whether communication conveys information about a
reality that exists independently, creates its own reality, or a combo
Although the various configurations of communication as an academic
discipline are extremely old, the study of communication is far older
Rhetoric: the study of the effective use of language; the ability to use
language effectively.
Development of rhetoric in 5C BC Greece
Sophistic Rhetoric first introduced in West in ancient Athens, Greece
I. Athens moved from governance based on kinship (family rule) towards
democracy (vote for own ruler)
o Public assembly (polis) for decision
o Any citizens (men with property) could voice opinion
o Therefore, ability to persuade others in public discourse became
powerful tool
II. Because of legal reforms, any Athenian could sue another
o Argue case, decided by jury of over 200 people
o Therefore, increased interest in developing rhetorical skills-self
defense matter
SophistsThe first paid teachers, originating in Athens, who teach rhetorical
strategies
Speakers and Audience
PROTAGORAS
relationship= Bilateral,
Debate was central to rhetoric
Symmetrical
Truth was unattainable,
AUDIENCE: ACTIVE-can
Rejected tradition
actively weigh opposing
Offered Doxa (opinion) [vs.
arguments, consider nontruth and tradition] as only
spoken about arguments, and
guide to action
actively choose reasonable
To resolve disputes, examine
position
all opposing arguments
GORGIAS
Strength could point to
Emphasized mastery of figure
court workings and Athenian
[not debate]- stylistic devices
polls
Truth was unattainable

 Speakers and Audience

Offered Doxa (opinion) as a
relationship= Unilateral,
guide to human affairs
Viewed logos (power of speech)
Asymmetrical
as able to overwhelm
AUDIENCE: PASSIVE-can be
audiences(effect of speech)
overwhelmed by words; the
Strength can point to actual
beautiful language will carry
examples of power of words to
them away and lead them to
sway to audience against all
act as they are directed
reason/firmest convictions
Doxa: The rhetorical concept of commonly held opinion; This concept can be
used for general address due to the fact that the audience you are speaking to,
also shares those similar beliefs or values (EX: food stamps)

Weakness of both Doxa reliance deprives them of an objective standard

to distinguish right from wrong (very destabilizingmajor dislocations in
power)
Sophists are unable to safeguard us from error
Uncertainty calls into Q legitimacy of power (studentteacher)
PLATOs critique of Sophists (Audiences are Passive)
Plato rejects rhetoric for being destructive and dangerous. He claims
that it needs reasons and facts or else people will be to easily swayed
by the language (Passive)
Theory of Form (or Ideas) = world that we experience through our
senses is not reality, but a world of appearances-a deception
PLATO says rhetoric is harmful because (Appearances vs. Forms)
1) It leads people to the immediately pleasurable vs. whats good,
by appealing to the passions vs. reason
2) It can convince others to believe you, even if you do not know
what is true or correct it can mislead you, Plato attacks
audiences: cant discern appearance vs. reality
3) It lacks an intrinsic ethics examples include people using
rhetoric to persuade people to do horrible things
[Socratic] Dialectic: Communication process that PLATO believed would lead
to a legitimate kind of rhetoric based on truths; Disciplined form of dialogue
that revolves around problems of definition and allows us to approach reality
2 roles: Questioner and Answerer
Questioner strategies
1) Collection= make terms equal, add together
2) Division=divide into 2 alternativs, answer must be 1

Rhetoric as false lover: PLATOs metaphor for rhetoric, which compares

rhetoric to a person who seduces and then abandons you. This relates to how
rhetoric is dangerous in that it has a persuasive, seductive nature of language,
but it betrays you when true meaning behind the rhetoric is not there
Relates to the use of rhetoric as persuasion
Without the meaning, you are not getting what you want from the
rhetoric

ARISTOTLEs perspective on Rhetoric (Audience is Active)

Hold the middle position between Sophists (passion vs. reason) & Plato
(condemn it)
Emotions are a huge part of us, but we also have ethics; People are capable of
rational thought, can pick out truths/lies (Active)
Believed that real meaning and value can be found in world
Appearances [world]= not deceptions [bc we can pick out]
Rhetoric
Deals with Contingent= outcome that you cant determine in advance
because its affected by other actions and factors
Grounded in a set of Assumptions about Audiences:
1) Capacity for rationality [ethical thoughts]
2) Are active because fill in rhetorics arguments and make judgments
Enthymeme = An argument in which 1 or more of the parts in its
syllogism is implied; ARISTOTLE identifies this concept as one of
the major forms of reasoning in rhetoric.
Similar to a deductive Syllogism (major premise) bc some generally
accepted principle is applied to a particular case in order that a
conclusion might be drawn
Different from a deductive Syllogism bc conclusion is not necessarily
true since general premise is common opinion
3) Public consciousness of citizens; can recognize whats good for
conclusion (reason vs. passion)
4) Rhetoric is inextricably linked to ethics because values of others sense
as our material in fashioning appeals (Doxa) teach people to learn to
judge/act well themselves

A key aspect of ARISTOTLEs multi-faceted view of rhetoric:

1) Ethos = credibility of the source (speaker), decide to like/dislike
someone and dont care what they say or do, will always like/dislike
(EX: Celebs, Ellen for JC Pennys)
2) Pathos = [passion] emotional appeal of rhetorical speech
3) Logos = (power of speech) reasoning behind the rhetoric
EX: Gettysburg address

Terministic Screens (KENNETH BURKE)

Approaches to Language
Scientistic
An aspect of Symbolic logic
Language as definition
Begins with questions of naming;
Derivative
Stresses proposition It is or it is
not EX: Male/Female
Function:
Attitudinal- with expressions of
complaint, fear, thanks
Hortatory- with commands or
requests (developed with social
processes NOT originating)

Dramatistic
An aspect of Symbolic action
Language as act
Stresses Hortatory expressions
though shalt and thou shalt not
EX: Masculine/Male and
Feminine/Female
Stories, plays, poems, rhetoric of
oratory and advertisements,
myths, theo, phil
Exercised about the necessarily
persuasive nature of
nomenclatures (choosing of
names)

Terministic screens- BURKEs concept for describing how any nomenclature

necessarily directs the attention away from some channels and into others; this
type of deflection allows other ideas or facts in while leaving others out, for
example with photos in different color filters or like a screen or map. With this
filtering, we may be prevented from seeing some other things.
Metaphors for BURKEs concept of Terministic Screens: (Words
function like a)
1) Color filter on a camera notice different things, Obscures what is
real
2) Screen let in some things and block out others (just like words:
sin/disease)
3) Map directs the attention to one thing; can prevent us from seeing
some other things
2 kinds of terms that: Put things together (continuity)
Take things apart (discontinuity)
2 tools for Rhetorical Criticism:
1. Occupational Psychosis = One of BURKEs tools for rhetorical
criticism that includes the action of seeing everything around us through
a single vocabulary; An inappropriate extension of vocabulary from 1
domain into all others; BURKE argues that no single vocabulary or
perspective provides exact access to reality and truth
EX: Treat family like your business Ford Pinto explosion bc of gas
tank, less in cost benefits of persons life vs. recall, not really
ethical, but only thinking of business
2. Perspective by Incongruity = One of BURKEs tools for rhetorical
criticism that refers to a technique for looking at something from a
strange point of view in order to help rethink what were taking for granted
EX: Newspaper/ads; Nuns we feel free to do whatever we want
with them, think of as just women without habit; Graffiti crime
or art (Terministic screen)
*Shifts in vocabulary and in perspective direct our attention to a reality
we dont see because of another perspective

Rhetorical Situations (BITZER)

Rhetorical situation= A theoretical concept that BITZER describes as an

effort to distinguish public rhetoric from other forms of discourse; A complex of
persons, events, and objects, presenting an exigence which can be removed if
discourse can constrain human action and bring about modification of the
exigence
Argument that rhetorical discourse is distinguished bc seeks to engage and
modify reality; emerges as a response to a rhetorical situation (like an answer
responds to a question)
3 primordial Constituents of a Rhetorical Situation
1) Exigence
An imperfection marked by urgency; A defect, obstacle, or pressing problem
in the world to which people must attend to now and through public
discourse
NOT Rhetorical Exigence : If cant be modified or changed (death, winter,
natural disasters)
IS Rhetorical Exigence : If capable of positive modification that requires or
can be assisted by discourse
Requires Assistance: Racism (only way to remove is if ppl persuade to)
Can Be Assisted: Air pollution (needs public awareness, policy
advocacy- induce legislative body to take action)
Problems have a way of resurfacing most typically resolved through
deliberation and action rarely solved in a final sense
2) Audience: who?
Must meet two conditions: consists only of people who are capable of
being influenced by discourse and of being mediators of change
Influenced by discourse: (Open to/interested in discourse) Certain
minimum level of attention; Willingness to consider advocates
arguments/proposals; If so ideologically based, want to listen no matter
what
Mediators of change: Advocate may need to awaken audience to their
capacity to act as agents of change
Capacity conditions: capable of making final decision and acting upon
decision
3) Constraints: context in which you are operating
In confronting exigences (problems), people encounter circumstances they
didnt and wouldnt choose but must confront and cope with; These
circumstances interfere with advocates ability to respond to exigence

Circumstances = mini exigences (secondary probs) like history, ppl,

beliefs, written docs;

Stages of development
1) Origin and Development
Exigence exists and is recognized
but Audience/Constraints are unclear
2) Maturity
Exigence is present/perceived by speaker/audience
Audience can address exigence
Constraints are available (stage: no more than a moment &/or indefinite
3) Deterioration
(3) Constituents makes modifying exigence harder
4) Disintegration =
(3) Constituents dissolve
Exigence isnt present
Audience disappears
Constraints become overwhelming
Perceptions of media bias: ideological views, ppl see things how they want to
see them, conservative (Rep) or liberal (Dem), it affects what news channel or
what reporters they listen to [link to disclosure and objectivity]
Information biases in the news
1) Personalized = news that encourages people to see news as the stories
of individual people; attract audiences easily by focusing on personal
concerns/human interest side vs. cause and affect
2) Dramatized = events presented as dramatic short capsule stories
3) Fragmentation = short and brief news stories
4) Normalization = authoritative figures offering normalized
interpretations of threatening and confusing events; the idea of a crisis
occurring, the media covering it, and then quickly returning to normal
again with no change