WP2010 01b

Radiant City
The cities will be part of the country; I shall live 30 miles from my office in
one direction, under a pine tree; my secretary will live 30 miles away from
it too, in the other direction, under another pine tree. We shall both have
our own car.
Weshalluseuptires,wearoutroadsurfacesandgears,andconsume
oilandgasoline. Allofwhichwillnecessitateagreatdealofworkenough
for all.
-- Le Corbusier, The Radiant City 1967
Akademgorodok, Novosibirsk - Russia
Radiant City
Regional Plan
Figure 6.3 Akademgorodok aerial view
Citation: (DiMaio, 2000)
Area: 910 h.a
Distance to Capital City: 2800km
Population: 65,000
Date of origin: 1950s
Mean perimeter segment measurement: 786m
Median perimeter segment Measurement: 830m
143
Main Urban Connections
10
20km
0m
500m
1000m
144
Barbican Estate, London - UK
Radiant City
Regional Plan
Figure 6.4 Courtyard block in Barbican
Citation: (Chant & Goodman, 1999)
Area: 22.8 h.a
Distance to Capital City: N/A
Population: 4,000
Date of origin: 1969
145
10
20km
0m
500m
1000m
146
Blue Area, Islamabad - Pakistan
Radiant City
Regional Plan
Figure 6.5 Islamabad streetscape
Citation: (Doxiadis, 1968)
Area: 5,610 h.a
Population: 530,000
147
10
20km
0m
1000m
148
Brasilia, F.D. - Brasil
Radiant City
Regional Plan
Figure 6.6. Brasilia aerial view
Citation: (Hall, 2002)
Area: 4,695 h.a
Population: 2,600,000
149
10
20km
0m
1000m
150
Cabrini Green, Chicago - USA
Radiant City
Regional Plan
Figure 6.7 Cabrini Green housing scheme
Citation: (Miller, 2008)
Area: 66.8 h.a
Population: 15,000
Date of origin: 1942 - 2008
151
10
20km
0m
500m
1000m
152
Chandigarh - India
Radiant City
Regional Plan
Figure 6.8 Chandigarh personal image
Citation: (Evenson, 1966)
Area: 12,267 h.a
Population: 900,000
153
10
20km
0m
500m
1000m
154
Co-op city, New York - USA
Radiant City
Regional Plan
Figure 6.9 Co-op City streetscape
Area: 97.6 h.a
Population: 55,000+
155
10
20km
0m
500m
1000m
156
Cumbernauld - UK
Radiant City
Regional Plan
Figure 7.0 Aerial view of Cumbernauld
Citation: (Merlin, 1969)
Area: 91.4 h.a
Population: 49,664
157
10
20km
0m
500m
1000m
158
Drumul Taberei, Bucharest, Romania
Radiant City
Regional Plan
Figure 7.1 Drumul Taberei aerial view
Citation: (Dimancescu, 2007)
Area: 466 h.a
Population: 63,000+
159
10
20km
0m
500m
1000m
160
La Grande Borne, Grigny - France
Radiant City
Regional Plan
Figure 7.2 Le Grande Borne aerial view
Area: 83.3 h.a
Population: 26,790
161
10
20km
0m
500m
1000m
162
Le Mirail, Toulouse - France
Radiant City
Regional Plan
Figure 7.3 Le Mirail aerial view
Area: 239 h.a
Population: 27,500
163
10
20km
0m
500m
1000m
164
Marzahn, Berlin - Germany
Radiant City
Regional Plan
Figure 7.4 Aerial view of Marzhan
Citation: (Appleyard, 1976)
Area: 595 h.a
Population: 102,309
165
10
20km
0m
500m
1000m
166
Milton Keynes - UK
Radiant City
Regional Plan
Figure 7.5 Aerial view of Milton Keynes
Citation: (Kostof, 1991)
Area: 8,180 h.a
Population: 195,687
167
10
20km
0m
500m
1000m
168
Pendrecht, Rotterdam - The Netherlands
Radiant City
Regional Plan
Figure 7.6 Aerial of Pendrecht housing
Citation: (Mumford, E. 2000)
Area: 253 h.a
Population: 12,400
169
10
20km
0m
500m
1000m
170
Pruitt-Igoe, St. Louis - USA
Radiant City
Regional Plan
Figure 7.7 Aerial of Pruitt - Igoe
Citation: (Miller, 2008)
Area: 49.3 h.a
Population: 2,740 units
Date of origin: 1954 - 1972
171
10
20km
0m
500m
1000m
172
Regent Park, Toronto - Canada
Radiant City
Regional Plan
Figure 7.8 Regent Park aerial sketch
Citation: (Littlewood, 1967)
Area: 19 h.a
173
10
20km
0m
500m
1000m
174
Roehampton, London - UK
Radiant City
Regional Plan
Figure 7.9 Roehampton - 1953
Area: 20.3 h.a
Population: 13,000
175
10
20km
0m
500m
1000m
176
Stuyvesant Town, New York - USA
Radiant City
Regional Plan
Figure 8.0 Aerial of Stuyvesant Town
Area: 41 h.a
Population: 25,000
177
10
20km
0m
500m
1000m
178
The Grand Ensemble of Sarcelles, Paris - France
Radiant City
Regional Plan
Figure 8.1 Sarcelles - 1978
Area: 275 h.a
Population: 60,196
179
10
20km
0m
500m
1000m
180
Tsukuba Science City - Japan
Radiant City
Regional Plan
Figure 8.2 Aerial view of Tsukuba
Citation: (Burton, 2002)
Area: 448 h.a
Population: 207,000
181
10
20km
0m
500m
1000m
182
New Urbanism
We stand for the restoration of existing urban centres and towns within
coherent metropolitan regions, the reconfiguration of sprawling suburbs
into communities of real neighbourhoods and diverse districts, the
conservation of natural environments, and the preservation of our built
legacy. We recognise that physical solutions by themselves will not
solve social and economic problems, but neither can economic vitality,
community stability, and environmental health be sustained without a
coherent and supportive physical framework.
Congress for New Urbanism Charter
-- Andres Duany, et al, Suburban Nation 2000
Brentwood - USA
New Urbanism
Regional Plan
Figure 8.3 Brentwood neighbourhood
Citation: (Katz,1994)
Area: 3,286 h.a
Population: 4,200
185
10
20km
0m
500m
1000m
186
Celebration - USA
New Urbanism
Regional Plan
Figure 8.4 Celebration aerial view
Citation: (Dunlop, 1998)
Area: 511 h.a
Population: 11,860
187
10
20km
0m
500m
1000m
188
Communications Hill, Sacramento - USA
New Urbanism
Regional Plan
Figure 8.5 Communications Hill masterplan
Citation: (Katz, 1994)
Area: 766 h.a
189
10
20km
0m
500m
1000m
190
Kentlands, Gathiersburg - USA
New Urbanism
Regional Plan
Figure 8.6 Kentlands town centre
Citation: (Duany & Plater-Zyberk, 1992)
Area: 99.5 h.a
Population: 2000 homes
191
10
20km
0m
500m
1000m
192
Laguna West, Sacramento - USA
New Urbanism
Regional Plan
Figure 8.7. Laguna West residential street
Area: 726 h.a
Population: 8,414
193
10
20km
0m
500m
1000m
194
Orenco Station, Portland - United States
New Urbanism
Regional Plan
Figure 8.8 Orenco Station masterplan
Citation: (Hulme, 2005)
Area: 70 h.a
Population: >46,124
195
10
20km
0m
500m
196
Poundbury - UK
New Urbanism
Regional Plan
Figure 8.9 Poundbury aerial view
Area: 38 h.a
Population: 6,000
197
10
20km
0m
500m
1000m
198
Rosemary Beach - USA
New Urbanism
Regional Plan
Figure 9.0 Rosemary Beach masterplan
Area: 38.8 h.a
199
10
20km
0m
500m
1000m
200
Seaside - USA
New Urbanism
Regional Plan
Figure 9.1 Seaside aerial view
Area: 26 h.a
Population: 2,000
201
10
20km
0m
500m
1000m
202
Windsor, Vero Beach - USA
New Urbanism
Regional Plan
Figure 9.2 Windsor masterplan
Area: 175 h.a
203
10
20km
0m
500m
1000m
204
Informal Settlement
Dharavi, a Mumbai slum where 600,000 residents are crammed into 520
acres, contains the attributes for environmentally and socially sustainable
settlements for the worlds increasingly urban population, he said. The
districts use of local materials, its walkable neighbourhoods, and mix of
employment and housing add up to an underlying intuitive grammar of
designthatistotallyabsentfromthefacelessslabblocksthatarestillbeing
built around the world to warehousethe poor.
-- Prince Charles 2009
Badli, New Dehli - India
Informal Settlement
Regional Plan
Figure 9.3 Typical Badli slum
Citation: (UN Habitat, 1982)
Area: 336 h.a
Population: 45,200
207
10
20km
0m
500m
1000m
208
Barrio La Union, Caracus - Venezuala
Informal Settlement
Regional Plan
Figure 9.4 Aerial View of Barrio La Union
Citation: (Juppenlats, 1970)
Area: 468 h.a
Population: Unknown
209
10
20km
0m
500m
1000m
210
Cemetery Squatters, Port au Prince - Haiti
Informal Settlement
Regional Plan
Figure 9.5 Port au Prince slum
Citation: (Keerwin, 2010)
Area: 9.3 h.a
Population: 100,000
211
10
20km
0m
500m
212
Dharavi, Mumbai - India
Informal Settlement
Regional Plan
Figure 9.6 Dharavi slum
Citation: (Neuwrith, 2005)
Area: 534.8 h.a
213
10
20km
0m
500m
1000m
214
Hanna Nassif, Dar-es-Salaam - Tanzania
Informal Settlement
Regional Plan
Figure 9.7 Hanna Nassif Slum
Citation: (Obudho & Mhlanga, 1988)
Area: 35.8 h.a
Population: 23,000
215
10
20km
0m
500m
1000m
216
Karail, Dhaka - Bangladesh
Informal Settlement
Regional Plan
Figure 9.8 Typical Karail Slum
Citation: (CUS, 2006)
Area: 22.8 h.a
Population: 120,000
217
10
20km
0m
500m
218
Khayelitsha, Cape town - South Africa
Informal Settlement
Regional Plan
Figure 9.9 Streetscape of Khayelitsha slum
Citation: (MCAAfrica, 2006)
Area: 2,312 h.a
Population: 406,779
219
10
20km
0m
500m
1000m
220
Kibera, Nairobi - Kenya
Informal Settlement
Regional Plan
Figure 10.0 Kibera Slum
Area: 143 h.a
221
10
20km
0m
500m
1000m
222
Kranidi - Greece
Informal Settlement
Regional Plan
Figure 10.1 Kranidi Settlement
Citation: (Doxiadis, 1968)
Area: 133 h.a
Population: 10,000
223
0m
500m
1000m
224
Kricak, Yogyakarta - Indonesia
Informal Settlement
Regional Plan
Figure 10.2 Aerial view of Kricak slum
Citation: (Duivesteijn & Van De Wal, 1994)
Area: 174 h.a
Population: 300,000
225
10
20km
0m
500m
1000m
226
Lagos, Lagos Island - Nigeria
Informal Settlement
Regional Plan
Figure 10.3 Lagos slums
Area: 409 h.a
Population: 209,000
227
10
20km
0m
500m
1000m
228
Las Colinas, Bogota - Columbia
Informal Settlement
Regional Plan
Figure 10.4 Las Colinas slum
Area: 489 h.a
Population: 10,000
229
10
20km
0m
500m
1000m
230
Hill Squatters, Lima - Peru
Informal Settlement
Regional Plan
Figure 10.5 Lima aerial view
Area: 228.4 h.a
Population: Unknown
231
10
20km
0m
500m
1000m
232
Mafalala, Maputo - Mozambique
Informal Settlement
Regional Plan
Figure 10.6 Maputo slums
Citation: (Obudho, Mhlanga, 1988)
Area: 265 h.a
Population: 22,000
Date of origin: pre 1975
233
10
20km
0m
500m
234
Orangi Town, Karachi - Pakistan
Informal Settlement
Regional Plan
Figure 10.7 Oranji Town aerial view
Area: 197 h.a
235
10
20km
0m
500m
1000m
236
Rocinha, Rio De Janeiro - Brazil
Informal Settlement
Regional Plan
Figure 10.8 Rocinha aerial view
Citation: (Neuwirth, 2005)
Area: 141 h.a
Population: 250,000
237
10
20km
0m
500m
1000m
238
Rusque, Dakar - Senegal
Informal Settlement
Regional Plan
Figure 10.9 Rusque slum
Area: 1,342 h.a
Population: 179,797
239
10
20km
0m
500m
1000m
240
Tondo, Manila - Phillipiens
Informal Settlement
Regional Plan
Figure 11.0 Tondo slum
Area: 689 h.a
Population: 630,000
Date of origin: 900
241
10
20km
0m
500m
1000m
242
Urban Village, Shenzhen - China
Informal Settlement
Regional Plan
Figure 11.1 Urban Village aerial view
Citation: (Kiu, 2009 & Liu, 2009)
Area: 237 h.a
Population: 70,000
243
10
20km
0m
500m
244
West Point, Monrovia - Liberia
Informal Settlement
Regional Plan
Area: 891 h.a
Population: 75,000
245
10
20km
0m
500m
1000m
246
Comparative Scale Study:
247
Historic Cities:
248
Radiant City:
249
Garden Cities:
250
Informal Settlement:
251
New Urbanism:
252
Summary of results:
PTUD
NON PTUD
Historic Cities
0m
Historic Cities
0m
1000m
1000m
0m
0m
0m
1000m
0m
0m
0m
0m
0m
Chicago
0m
0m
Karlsruhe
0m
Caracus
0m
0m
0m
0m
1000m
1000m
0m
East Kilbride
Celebration
1000m
1000m
0m
Brasilia
1000m
0m
Glenrothes
1000m
1000m
0m
1000m
1000m
Cumbernauld
1000m
1000m
Brentwood
1000m
0m
0m
1000m
1000m
0m
0m
1000m
1000m
1000m
Farsta
1000m
Barbican Estate
0m
1000m
0m
0m
1000m
New Urbanism
1000m
Ciudad Guayana
0m
Karachi
1000m
1000m
0m
Boston
0m
1000m
1000m
0m
0m
0m
1000m
0m
0m
1000m
Garden City
1000m
1000m
Grammichelle
0m
1000m
Akademgorodok
1000m
Calcutta
1000m
1000m
0m
1000m
Garden City
0m
Delhi
1000m
Bologna
0m
1000m
0m
0m
1000m
Radiant City
1000m
Freudenstadt
1000m
0m
0m
1000m
Bremen
1000m
Informal Settlement
1000m
1000m
Barcelona
0m
0m
1000m
1000m
0m
253
Informal Settlement
0m
Greenbelt
Communications Hill
254
Summary of results:
PTUD
NON PTUD
Historic Cities
0m
Historic Cities
0m
1000m
1000m
0m
0m
0m
1000m
0m
0m
0m
0m
1000m
1000m
0m
Paris
0m
0m
Khayelitsha
0m
0m
0m
Kranidi
0m
0m
0m
0m
1000m
1000m
0m
Le Mirail
Laguna West
1000m
1000m
0m
Cumbernauld
1000m
0m
Greenhills
1000m
1000m
0m
1000m
1000m
Islamabad
1000m
1000m
Kentlands
1000m
Bronx Co-op City

1000m
1000m
0m
1000m
1000m
0m
Greendale
1000m
0m
Karail
1000m
1000m
0m
Noto
0m
1000m
1000m
0m
0m
0m
1000m
0m
0m
1000m
New Urbanism
1000m
Drumul Taberei
1000m
Dar es Salaam
0m
1000m
0m
0m
1000m
Garden City
1000m
Cabrini Green
1000m
Palmanova
0m
1000m
0m
0m
1000m
Radiant City
1000m
Kibera
1000m
Neuf Brisach
0m
1000m
0m
0m
1000m
Radiant City
1000m
Dakar
1000m
0m
0m
1000m
Nuremberg
1000m
Informal Settlement
1000m
1000m
Lubeck
0m
0m
1000m
1000m
0m
255
Informal Settlement
0m
Hilversum
Poundbury
256
Summary of results:
PTUD
NON PTUD
Historic Cities
0m
Historic Cities
0m
1000m
1000m
0m
0m
0m
1000m
0m
0m
0m
0m
1000m
1000m
0m
0m
Lima
0m
0m
0m
Rocinha
0m
0m
0m
0m
1000m
1000m
0m
Radburn
Seaside
1000m
1000m
0m
Tsukuba
1000m
0m
Vallingby
1000m
1000m
0m
1000m
1000m
Lusaka
1000m
1000m
Rosemary Beach
1000m
Roehampton
1000m
1000m
0m
Vienna
0m
0m
1000m
1000m
0m
Riverside
1000m
Maputo
1000m
1000m
0m
Pompeii
0m
1000m
1000m
0m
0m
0m
1000m
0m
0m
1000m
New Urbanism
1000m
Letchworth
1000m
Lagos
0m
1000m
0m
0m
1000m
Garden City
1000m
Regent Park
1000m
Verona
0m
1000m
0m
0m
1000m
Garden City
1000m
Manila
1000m
Piacenza
0m
1000m
0m
0m
1000m
Radiant City
1000m
Yogyakarta
1000m
0m
0m
1000m
Verdun
1000m
Informal Settlement
1000m
1000m
Pavia
0m
0m
1000m
1000m
0m
257
Informal Settlement
0m
Welwyn
Vero Beach
258
Conclusions:
I. Findings
Cities classied as Pre-professional Urban Design Theory, have primary ndings conrming the existence of the
400-meter scaled framework. Cities from antiquity through the industrial age can be seen, with little exception, to
exemplify the 400-meter rule. Cities dating from the majority of human history are classied into this sub category,
it was expected and has been shown that there is some of variation in the urban form of the case studies. The form
of individual sanctuary areas has a signicant variance over time and geography, yet as dened, the 400 meter rule
manifests itself as a range from 300 to 500 meters. Also present in later North American examples is the presence of
the Jeffersonian grid, which is larger than 400 meters in practice, but is often scaled down, or further bisected with
main streets in the industrial city case studies from North America. Further ndings are best represented as ndings
from a singular case study from each of the sub-categories in the Pre-Professional Theory era.
Ancient City, Lucca: pages 41 - 42
The case study area at Lucca is shown with a map of the ancient settlement overlaid with the citys existing form. The
urban framework of Lucca is remarkably unchanged in its history, making it the ideal case study for an ancient city.
The 400-meter scale is present with no sanctuary area perimeter segment being longer than 440 meters. The mean
for perimeter segments is 274 meters, well below a 400-meter scale.
Medieval City, Nuremburg: pages 55 - 56
The case study at Nuremburg has a much more varied form than the ancient city of Lucca. This is in part to its
development in the medieval era, and in part to its riverside location requiring the urban framework to adapt and
stretch to accommodate the river as is done with the a river crossing main road segment at 790 meters. This should
be considered a statistical outlier, and can likely be explained as two segments being broken by the river, a useful
transportation artery in medieval times. The average measurement taken from inside the walled portion of the medieval
city is 329 meters, conrming the presence of the 400-meter scale.
Renaissance City, Palmanova: pages 67 - 68
The city at Palmanova is largely identical to its renaissance origins. The case study exemplies the 400-meter rule
more clearly than any other settlement in this atlas. It is a small planned, walled city built in a radial pattern. The
distance from the city centre and plaza is 400 meters exactly. There are three sanctuary areas, arranged around the
piazza, with 400-meter main roads radiating from the centre to the edge of the city at the wall.
Baroque City, Noto Valley: pages 73 - 74
The Noto Valley case study is an example of the pure Baroque city, built after the Sicilian Earthquake. The 400meter scale is most evident by the three segments measured at 400 meters forming a repeating pattern in the city
centre. The average measurement of perimeter segments in the Noto Valley study area is 241 meters. Much smaller
than 400 meters; it is important to note a measurement greater than 400 meters only occurs twice, both the result of
topographical challenges in city design.
259
Industrial City, Barcelona: pages 77 - 78

The 400-meter scale is present in Barcelona, though larger than the Baroque example in Noto Valley. At Barcelona it is
possible to see the rm and explicit return to a gridded system of streets in Cerdas plan. When measured, the grid is
implemented on a 410x410 meter square sanctuary area. This grid is broken occasionally, by major public buildings,
topography, rail infrastructure, and diagonal roads, yet, the average segment is measured at 435 meters. The average
measurement, though still within the suggested range of conrmation for the 400 meter scale, would be even more
convincing if 3 outliers of 670 meters were disregarded.
The era of Professional Urban Design Theory ushers in the Garden City Movement and the Radiant City, and continues
today with New Urbanism. All of these in one way or another have attempted to design the city while simultaneously
driving social change for the better. They are committed to the designability of the neighbourhood unit and are basing
the scale of the city as designed on the perimeter of a neighbourhood unit. Analysing these as a framework shows
that the sanctuary area as dened by this research is overscaled and outgrown when compared to the historical
cities.
The Garden City, Letchworth: pages 119 - 120
The rst garden city realised, and one developed with the direct inuence of Ebenezer Howard, Letchworth is the
closest the Garden City ever came to realising its theoretical idealism. The urban framework of Letchworth is a
signicant growth from the industrial era. The town centre of Letchworth, a non-residential, single use commercial
and service part of the city has three segments that measure less than 300 meters. With the three segments included,
the average distance for a perimeter segment of a sanctuary area in Letchworth is still 551 meters. In addition there is
a signicant disparity between the smallest (230 meters) and largest (1500 meters) segments. The entire settlement
area of Letchworth divides into just 15 sanctuary areas, a fraction of a similarly sized city of the industrial era.
Radiant City, Chandigarh: pages 153 - 154
The city of Chandigarh is the most puritanical representation of Le Corbusiers ideals as it was designed and
implemented by the master himself. Chandigarh represents an explosion in urban scale, which has yet to be replicated,
a possible sign of its consequences. The city is laid out in a near perfect grid of superblocks, or sectors, as they are
known locally. The majority of the sectors are a 1350 x 850 meter rectangle. Each rectangle is a sanctuary area, and
neighbourhood unit as designed. The 3 sectors closest to the monumental government buildings are signicantly
smaller and have the only segments in the city shorter than 800 meters in length. Including these altered sectors the
average for the detail area (and the city as a whole) is a segment length of 921 meters.
New Urbanism, Seaside: 201 - 202
The town of Seaside, Florida in the United States is a hallmark of New Urbanism, award winning, under expansion,
and often seen as the seminal work of New Urbanism. Seaside has easily discernable neighbourhoods; unfortunately
these neighbourhoods are neither adjacent to one another, nor at the scale of the 400-meter framework. Seaside is a
small settlement, with just six sanctuary area perimeter segments to measure. The average of these segments it 1078
meters, which is beyond even the 800 meters suggested by the Congress for New Urbansim Charter.
260
Informal settlements represent a return (or at least a lack of departure from) the 400-meter scale. Informal settlements
emerge and grow as a response to other urban social problems. They often represent the only affordable housing
for their inhabitants. The framework that emerges grows and alters not only with the size and population of the
settlement, but also with the availability of land. The actual size, shape, and population of an informal settlement is
difcult to discern, all gures regarding informal settlements being instantly outdated as the settlement itself remains
in a state of ux. The geographical and cultural context of the settlements is of interest as they can affect the size
and condition of the settlement.
In one special case, that of Khayelitsha, South Africa, we have a documented formally planned, informal settlement.
This area developed out of the Apartheid system with the intention of the resettlement of the majority black population
into government planned townships. These townships were little more than formalised shantytowns with similar
conditions to those seen in other informal settlements analysed. The urban framework of this settlement is that of
an overgrown professionally planned scale. The formality of the settlement led to this overgrown scale, whereas the
emergent informal settlements studied clearly exhibit the 400-meter scales.
Informal Settlement, Rocinha: pages 237 - 238
The settlement at Rocinha is a very well documented Brazilian favela. The framework of the favela is highly irregular,
determined by the signicant grade of the hills upon which it is built. The nature and shape is that of an unplanned
shantytown, haphazard at best. The scale, however is that which has been consistent outside of the professional
theory world. The average perimeter segment measures at 337 meters. The highest and lowest segment only measure
580 to 110 meters. The emergent and unplanned nature of the slum has resulted in a highly irregular urban framework
that organically arrives at a similar scale as that of the majority of human history.
II. Implications
The ndings expose the natural emergence and evolution of an urban scale over the course of human history. This
scale is shown to exist everywhere professional theory is absent. Resulting is the permanent alteration of urban
scale, implemented when professional urban design theory emerged and became the dominant form of conventional
urbanism. The implications of this emergent and organic framework development are predominately exposed in the
permeability and exibility of the city. Historic urban frameworks have permeability for both automobiles (at lower
speeds) and pedestrians due to their condensed urban framework, the 400-meter framework.
A condensed framework adds not only permeability to the city, but exibility. It is assumed at this point, though further
research is needed, that permeability of the 400-meter city is the driving factor behind its increased exibility.
The exibility and permeability benets of the 400-meter framework are easily framed to support the argument of the
sustainable city. Many arguments, including those of new urbanism make the argument suggesting that higher density;
walkable, urban areas lead to a more sustainable human settlement and living pattern, than the automobile and land
dependant models from the radiant city and garden city movements. The dense, pleasant, walkable neighbourhoods
that foster a sustainable lifestyle already exist, as can be seen in the atlas, in cities conceived outside of professional
urban design theory.
Historic cities are shown in the atlas to be highly adaptable. Much of the ancient and medieval cities are obviously
not ancient, yet the framework of the cities remains largely unchanged from its conception. The adaptable nature of
a 400-meter framework supports not only the exible framework of a 400-meter city, but also furthers support for the
settlements sustainability. A settlement that existed for 100 years before the industrial revolution, and continues to
exist can be anecdotally referred to as a sustainable city.
The implications for the research of the 400-meter framework and the emergent neighbourhood model are less clear.
This research does not suppose to assume which of the urban frameworks is better, than any other. It does highlight
that the 400-meter framework is based in human history and has lasted for several thousand years, while others are
based in logic, occasionally being signicantly altered after 50 years. The value judgement of the framework cannot
yet be made.
Further understanding the urban framework, and its implications, requires additional analysis of both a quantitative
and qualitative nature. An understanding of the frameworks must not be based in logic and casual observation;
it must be rooted in substantial high quality research. This will include (but not limited to) trafc pattern studies,
economic value studies, income level studies, a socioeconomic portrait, land use analysis, and additional qualitative
analysis about the human perception of urban spaces both from the frame of reference of the denizen and the outsider.
The psychology of users and the sociology of different urban spaces must be compiled and compared to urban
frameworks. Additionally, further research should add additional quantication of the space in terms of population
and density studies. A comparison of land values tied to urban frameworks must be compiled to determine the
presence of a statistically signicant or causal relationship between land value and urban framework. Future research
must answer the human questions of these spaces.
It is only with the compilation of this additional research that the current atlas of urban framework will begin to
shoulder its full potential. This atlas is proof and documentation of the existence and subsequent alteration of urban
frameworks, however any value judgements must be reserved for further research into the nature and perception of
urban space.
The exibility of the 400 meter framework is demonstrated in the continual evolution of historic cities and the
continued use of historical and existing frameworks, whereas the evolution of modernist and post modernist urban
redevelopment often leads to a re-working or demolition of the framework of the area as is exemplied by the PruittIgoe and Cabrini Green situations.
261
262
III. Relevance
The relevance of the work complied in the atlas differs when considered for the elds of architecture and urban
design. The relevance for urban design is much more apparent on the surface. The work clearly exposes the major
change in urban form at the hands of the eld of professional urban design theory. This change is most illustrated
in the manner that urban designers (through the advancement and implementation of their theories) for better or for
worse have drastically and permanently altered the organic human scale of urban settlement.
This urban framework study shows the physical representation of the end of the historically prevalent emergent
neighbourhood development process. In cities developed and inuenced under a professional theory there is a
logical ordered urban framework and system of land use. These professionally planned cities remove the freedom
for altering urban form. The grand logical design is all encompassing and controlling, limiting the exibility and
adaptability of the area.
The rigid use of an oversized framework was shown to have developed out of the designable neighbourhood unit.
The neighbourhood unit is clearly visible in the framework of professional theory era cities and has been shown to
be a very limiting basis for the development of an urban framework. The over-scaled framework removes, or makes
more difcult, movement between two neighbourhood units. This attempt to control the users and citizens of the
urban area is an overreach for urban design and resulted in an urban form shown in every map in this atlas in the
Garden City, Radiant City, and New Urbanist chapters.
imagine the profound effect on building in a city of a 400 meter scale, and the benets and challenges this offers,
however this is not any different than designing new spaces for a historical city.
At a general level this work is a call for an evidence-based approach to the study and design of the built environment,
an attempt to expand the penetration of science into urban design and architecture, from setting up a hypothesis and
testing it critically in rigorous conditions, making it widely testable within the disciplinary eld. This research, even
in its present somewhat preliminary form, is such a test. It is about constructing tested empirical knowledge. The
relevance of that for architects refers to the need to bring the culture of architecture and urbanism out of the domain of
expression (the domain of visual arts), and closer to that of usefulness (the domain of practical arts and experimental
science). After many decades of fashionable and fascinating theories, theories are needed that work; this research is
an investigation of the eld of what has been working for centuries, which involves architecture as much as urbanism
in the formation of feasible answers to the questions posed by contemporary global urbanisation.
Also of relevance to architecture is nding a place to embrace urban design and the strengths it offers. The harshest
criticisms of new urbanism often come from the eld of architecture. Architects often respond negatively to form
based coding and any attempt on the part of urban designers to infringe on the creative freedom of an architect. The
emergent neighbourhood theory and the 400-meter framework could have major implications on this relationship.
Both the emergent neighbourhood model and the 400-meter scale dilute many of the draconian ideas of heavyhanded new urbanism, suggesting only that a framework for development be put in place and the neighbourhood be
allowed to emerge. Architects that are opposed to the over design of space as new urbanism can occasionally be
guilty of, will nd a more amenable design paradigm in this approach to urban design.
Showing the break of urban design with traditional urban scale, and all of the implications of this, highlights the
importance of urban design in placemaking. It also can be used to infer the type of places that are created by urban
designers when there is no consideration for anything other than an artfully conceived logical order. With further
research into the nature of 400 meter and non 400-meter scaled cities, an understanding could be developed regarding
the consequences of urban framework on the liveability of a city.
Also implied is the failure of the neighbourhood unit as a designable entity. The entire theory of the neighbourhood
unit as a geographic entity based on a radius of 400 meters (i.e. 800mts of diameter) is inherently unt to frame human
scaled urbanism as expressed in the history of cities. This theory has constituted the backbone of twentieth century
urban design as a discipline, and therefore has deeply informed all models produced by professional urban designers
in the last century. This means re-thinking the methodology of practicing city designers and working for an entirely
different technical and cultural foundation for the profession is necessary.
The relevance the 400-meter framework analysis to architecture as a profession is in the relationship of a citys urban
framework and its buildings, and in the relationship of architecture to urban design as a profession.
The architect can nd value in the ascertaining of the profound difference in form a city takes when its design is not
derived from the city and its people, rather imposed from a logic based theory. An architect can also begin to
263
264
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Table of illustrations:
Figure 1.0
Garden City Diagram - Ward, Stephen V. ed. 1992. The Garden City; Past Present and Future.
London. Chapman and Hall. Page 4.
Figure 1.1
Le Corbusiers 400m rule diagram - Corbusier, Le. 1964. The Radiant City. London. Faber and
Faber Limited. Page 56.
Figure 1.2
Figure 1.3
Figure 1.4
Figure 1.5
Figure 1.6
Figure 1.7
Figure 2.2
Map of Tripoli - 1978 - Tripoli__ http://mappery.com/Tripoli-City-Map. [04/09/2010].
Figure 2.3
Map of Verdun - 1624 - http://www.fortied-places.com/images/verdun_image3.jpg 1624. [04/09/2010].
Figure 2.4
Map of Vienna - 1858 - Branch, Melville C. 1978. An Atlas of Rare City Maps: Comparative Urban
Design, 1830-1842. New York. Princeton Architectural Press. Page 18.
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Figure 2.5
Schickhardts plan - Curl, James S. 1970. European Cities and Societies: A study of the inuence of
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Map of ancient Bologna - Cervent, Marta. 2004. Citta Romane di Fondazione. Lerma di
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Figure 2.6
General Plan of Neuf Brisach - Morris, A. E. J. 1972. History of Urban Form: Prehistory of the
Renaissance. London. George Godwin Ltd. Page 160.
Map of ancient Lucca - Cervent, Marta. 2004. Citta Romane di Fondazione. Lerma di Bretschneider.
Roma. Page 82.
Figure 2.7
Palmanova plan - 1593 - Morris, A. E. J. 1972. History of Urban Form: Prehistory of the
Renaissance. London. George Godwin Ltd. Page 117.
Map of ancient Pavia - Cervent, Marta. 2004. Citta Romane di Fondazione. Lerma di Bretschneider.
Roma. Page 110.
Figure 2.8
Grammichele aerial view - http://it.greenplanet.net/agroalimentare/17-altre-notizie/23996grammichele - dallagricoltura-verso-un-nuovo-capitolo-di-storia.html. [04/09/2010].
Map of ancient Piacenza - Cervent, Marta. 2004. Citta Romane di Fondazione. Lerma di
Figure 2.9
Engraving of Karlshrue - 1740 - Whitehand, J.W.R. 1987. The Changing Face of Cities: A study of
Development Cycles and Urban Form. Oxford. Basil Blackwell Ltd. Page 28.
Map of Pompeii - Dutton, J.A. 2000. New American Urbanism: Re-forming the Suburban Metropolis.
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Figure 3.0
Aerial view of Noto - http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/23071331. [04/09/2010].
Figure 1.8
Map of ancient Verona - Cervent, Marta. 2004. Citta Romane di Fondazione. Lerma di
Figure 3.1
Aerial view of Ragusa - http://www.nozio.com/Europe/Italy/Sicily/Ragusa/destination_guides/Ragusa.

htm/. [04/09/2010].
Figure 1.9
Map of Bremen - 1600. http://www.google.co.uk/imgres?imgurl=http://img.search.com/thumb/c/c8/

Bremen_Braun-Hogenberg.jpg/180px-Bremen_Braun-Hogenberg.jpg&imgrefurl=http://www.search.
com/reference/Bremen&usg=__g9YcSDRxSIokihwmVWgA-DoXotM=&h=135&w=180&sz=15&hl=en&s
tart=25&zoom=0&um=1&itbs=1&tbnid=RSwsPKkYFFbVXM:&tbnh=76&tbnw=101&prev=/images%3Fq
%3D1600%2Bbremen%2Bmap%26start%3D20%26um%3D1%26hl%3Den%26sa%3DN%26rlz%3D1R2
SHCN_enGB369%26ndsp%3D20%26tbs%3Disch:1. [04/09/2010].
Figure 3.2
Cerdas Barcelona plan - 1859 - Hall, T. 1997. Planning Europes Capital Cities: Aspects of
Nineteenth- Century Urban Development. London. E & FN Spon. Page 136.
Figure 3.3
Map of Boston - 1842 - Branch, Melville C. 1978. An Atlas of Rare City Maps: Comparative Urban
Figure 3.4
Map of Calcutta - 1842 - Branch, Melville C. 1978. An Atlas of Rare City Maps: Comparative Urban
Figure 3.5
Lincoln Park Chicago - Personal Collection.
Figure 3.6
Aerial view of Manchester - http://www.aerial-manchester.co.uk/. [04/09/2010].
Figure 2.0
Map of Lubeck - 1255 - Nicholas, D. 1997. The Later Medieval City:1300-1500. Essex. Addison
Wesley Longman Limited. Page 422.
Figure 2.1
Map showing late medieval wall - Nicholas, D. 1997. The Later Medieval City: 1300-1500. Essex.
Addison Wesley Longman Limited. Page 420.
273
274
Figure 3.7
Glasgows Merchant City - http://www.glasgowarchitecture.co.uk/tron_theatre.htm. [04/09/2010].
Figure 3.8
Map of Middlesborough 1850 - Chant. C, Goodman, D. Edited.1999. European Cities & Technology:
Industrial to Post-Industrial City. London. Routledge. Page 6.
Figure 3.9
Map of Milan - 1913 - http://www.mapcruzin.com/free-italy-maps.htm. [04/09/2010].
Figure 4.0
Haussman Plan - 1854 - Burnham, Daniel, H. and Bennett, Edward, H. 1908. Plan of Chicago.
Chicago. Commercial Club of Chicago. Page 22.
Figure 5.3
Map of Lusaka 1968 - Davies, Hywel D. 1969. Zambian Urban Studies; No. 2 The Myth of the Garden
City. Lusaka. University of Zambia. Page 4
Figure 5.4
-
Aerial view of Milton Keynes - Burton, Anthony. Hartley, Joyce. 2002. The New Towns Record: 1946
2002. CD ROM. IDOX Information service in association with Logical Innovations.
Figure 5.5
Map of Navi Mumbai - 1972 - http://www.boloji.com/architecture/00050.htm. [04/09/2010].
Figure 5.6
Map of Radburn - 1928 - http://www.radburn.org/geninfo/radburn-intro.html. [01/09/2010].
Figure 4.1
Plan of Philadelphia - Branch, Melville C. 1978. An Atlas of Rare City Maps: Comparative Urban
Figure 5.7
Map of Riverside - http://ocw.mit.edu/ans7870/11/11.001j/f01/lectureimages/8/image11.html.

[01/09/2010].
Figure 4.2
Plan of Stockholm - 1836 - Branch, Melville C. 1978. An Atlas of Rare City Maps: Comparative Urban
Figure 5.8
Map of Seishin - 1970s - Burton, Anthony. Hartley, Joyce. 2002. The New Towns Record: 1946 2002. CD ROM. IDOX Information service in association with Logical Innovations.
Figure 4.3
Aerial of Ciudad Guyana - http://www.bancaynegocios.com/noticia_det.asp?id=10761. [08/09/2010].
Figure 5.9
Aerial view of Tama - Burton, Anthony. Hartley, Joyce. 2002. The New Towns Record: 1946 - 2002
CD ROM. IDOX Information service in association with Logical Innovations.
Figure 4.4
Aerial of Cumbernauld - http://www.panoramio.com/photo/5579777. [04/09/2010].

Figure 6.0
Figure 4.5
Aerial view of East Kilbride - http://www.panoramio.com/photo/13552057. [18/08/2010].
Tapiola satelite town plan - Von Hertzen, Heikki, and Spreiregen, Paul D. 1971. Building a New
Town: Finlands New Garden City; Tapiola. Boston. MIT Press. Page 20.
Figure 4.6
Farsta satellite town - Von Hertzen, Heikki, and Spreiregen, Paul D. 1971. Building a New Town:
Finlands New Garden City; Tapiola. Boston. MIT Press. Page 21.
Figure 6.1
Aerial view of Vallingby - Von Hertzen, Heikki, and Spreiregen, Paul D. 1971. Building a New Town:
Finlands New Garden City; Tapiola. Boston. MIT Press. Page 21.
Figure 4.7.
Aerial of Glenrothes - http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/newstopics/politics/scotland/4386101/

Glenrothes-named-most-dismal-town-in-Scotland.html. [04/09/2010].
Figure 6.2
Aerial view of Welwyn - Burton, Anthony. Hartley, Joyce. 2002. The New Towns Record: 1946 2002 CD ROM. IDOX Information service in association with Logical Innovations.
Figure 4.8
Greenbelt Streetscape - http://www.city-data.com/piclesc/picc12432.php. [04/09/2010].
Figure 6.3
Figure 4.9
Greendale Streetscape - http://www.city-data.com/piclesc/picc12422.php. [04/09/2010].
Akademgorodok aerial view - http://www.soviethistory.org/index. php?page=subject&show =

images&SubjectID=1956akademgorodok&Year=1956&Theme=436974696573&navi=byTheme.
[01/09/2010].
Figure 5.0.
Greenhills streetscape - http://www.nytimes.com/imagepages/2009/02/09/us/07wpa.ms.html.

[04/09/2010].
Figure 6.4
Courtyard block in Barbican - Personal Collection.
Figure 6.5
Figure 5.1
Hilversum Streetscape - http://www.panoramio.com/photo/32929661. [04/09/2010].
Islamabad streetscape - http://www.infopakistan.pk/2009/08/picture-shot-from-blue-area-islamabad/.

[01/09/2010].
Figure 5.2
Aerial view of Letchworth - http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic-art/225784/5624/Aerial-viewof-Letchworth-Hertfordshire-the-rst-garden-city-in/. [04/09/2010].
Figure 6.6
Brasilia aerial view - http://brazilianstudies.wordpress.com/2010/04/15/brasilia-is-celebrating-its-50thanniversary/. [01/09/2010].
275
276
Figure 6.7
Cabrini Green housing scheme - http://www.panoramio.com/photo/5579777. [01/09/2010].
Figure 6.8
Chandigarh - personal image.
Figure 6.9
Co-op streetscape - http://www.nytimes.com/2008/04/06/realestate/06live.html?_r=1. [01/09/2010].
Figure 7.0
Aerial view of Cumbernauld - http://www.panoramio.com/photo/5579777. [04/08/2010].
Figure 7.1
Drumul Taberei aerial view - http://www.vet-twinning.eu/index.php?option=com_content&view=article

&id=14&Itemid=23. [04/08/2010].
Figure 7.2
Le Grande Borne aerial view - Chant. C, Goodman, D. Edited.1999. European Cities & Technology:
Industrial to Post-Industrial City. London. Routledge. Page 215.
Figure 8.2
Aerial view of Tsukuba - http://www.mikekrautter.com/blog/wp-content/uploads/2008/08/tama_shi_

tokyo.jpg. [06/09/2010].
Figure 8.3
Brentwood neighbourhood - http://www.panoramio.com/photo/21039931. [02/09/2010].
Figure 8.4
Celebration aerial view - http://www.puddleofred.com/blog/wp-content/uploads/2010/03/celeb.jpg.

[02/09/2010].
Figure 8.5
Communications Hill masterplan - http://www.hmhca.com/projects/mixed-use.php. [02/09/2010].
Figure 8.6
Kentlands town centre - http://instructors.dwrl.utexas.edu/dean/node/94. [02/09/2010].
Figure 8.7.
Laguna West residential street - http://www.demographia.com/db-nu-calgw.htm. [02/09/2010].
Figure 8.8
Orenco Station masterplan - http://www.planetizen.com/node/92. [02/09/2010].
Figure 7.3
Le Mirail aerial view - http://www.ladepeche.fr/article/2008/12/10/505756-Le-reve-envole-du-Mirail.

html. [04/08/2010].
Figure 8.9
Poundbury aerial view - http://www.princes-foundation.org/index.php?id=176. [02/09/2010].
Figure 7.4
Aerial view of Marzhan - http://www.photographersdirect.com/buyers/stockphoto.

asp?imageid=1641598. [06/09/2010].
Figure 9.0
Rosemary Beach masterplan - http://www.dpz.com/project.aspx?type=8&Project_

Number=9705&Project_Name=Rosemary+Beach. [17/08/2010].
Figure 7.5
-
Aerial view of Milton Keynes - Burton, Anthony. Hartley, Joyce. 2002. The New Towns Record: 1946
2002 CD ROM. IDOX Information service in association with Logical Innovations.
Figure 9.1
Seaside aerial view - http://www.avoe.org/index_NEW_2.html. [17/08/2010].
Figure 7.6
Aerial of Pendrecht housing - http://www.gemeentearchief.rotterdam.nl/content/index. php?option

=com_content&task=view&id=440&Itemid=335. [06/09/2010].
Figure 9.2
Windsor masterplan - http://www.artsjournal.com/aestheticgrounds/2007/02/. [17/08/2010].
Figure 9.3
Figure 7.7
Aerial of Pruitt Igoe - http://affordablehousinginstitute.org/blogs/us/wp-content/uploads/

oobject_15_housing_projects_from_hell_pruitt_igoe_0905_small.jpg. [06/09/2010].
Typical Badli slum - http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2009/jan/16/plastic-bags-india-delhi-ban.

[17/08/2010].
Figure 9.4
Figure 7.8
Regent Park aerial sketch - http://www.toronto.ca/culture/history/gallery/ch6/regent.htm. [06/09/2010].
Aerial View of Barrio La Union http://lawanddisorder.org/wp-content/uploads/BarrioVenezuela.jpg.

[02/09/2010].
Figure 7.9
to
Roehampton 1953 - Chant. C, Goodman, D. Edited.1999. European Cities & Technology: Industrial
Post-Industrial City. London. Routledge. Page 213.
Figure 9.5
Port au Prince slum - http://www.panoramio.com/photo/31174675. [02/09/2010].
Figure 9.6
Dharvai slum personal image.
Figure 8.0
Aerial of Stuyvesant Town - http://www.gsapp.org/Archive/HP/2005-2006/history/history_themes1.

html. [06/09/2010].
Figure 9.7
Hanna Nassif Slum - http://www.panoramio.com/photo/29936190. [02/09/2010].
Figure 9.8
Typical Karail Slum - http://humanitarian.worldconcern.org/2009/05/bangladesh-slum/. [02/09/2010].
Figure 8.1
277
Sarcelles 1978 - Chant. C, Goodman, D. Edited.1999. European Cities & Technology: Industrial to
Post-Industrial City. London. Routledge. Page 215.
278
Figure 9.9
Streetscape of Khayelitha slum - http://www.eveandersson.com/photo-display/large/south-africa/

cape-town-township-khayelitsha-30.html. [02/09/2010].
Figure 10.0
Kibera Slum - http://formaementis.wordpress.com/2009/09/17/kenya-begins-huge-kibera-clearance/.

[04/09/2010].
Figure 10.1
Kranidi Settlement - http://www.basimakopouloi.gr/ermionida.htm. [04/09/2010].
Figure 10.2
Aerial view of Kricak slum: http://bluegumpictures.com.au/collections/indonesia_java/indonesia_

java017.php. [04/09/2010].
Figure 10.3
Lagos slums - http://www.cbc.ca/sports/soccer/faworldcup/blog/2010/05/a-new-day-in-nigeria.html.

[04/09/2010].
Figure 10.4
Las Colinas slum - http://www.panoramio.com/photo/22508556. [04/09/2010].
Figure 10.5
Lima aerial view - http://www.urbana.org/gfx/trek2005/Bangkok/lima.jpg. [04/09/2010].
Figure 10.6
Maputo slums - http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/8363045.stm. [04/09/2010].
Figure 10.7
Oranji Town aerial view - http://www.memumbai.com/node/101. [06/09/2010].
Figure 10.8
Rocinha aerial view - http://www.ickr.com/photos/leszekwasilewski/3385948566/. [06/09/2010].
Figure 10.9
Rusque slum - http://crs-blog.org/oodwater-turns-dakar-slum-into-swamp/. [06/09/2010].
Figure 11.0
Tondo slum - http://www.arrakeen.ch/asia2004/369%20%20Tondo.JPG. [06/09/2010].
Figure 11.2
West Point aerial view - http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/lg/business/2009/11/091125_liberia_

picture_gallery.shtml. [06/09/2010].
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Radiant City

Akademgorodok, Novosibirsk - Russia

Figure 6.3 Akademgorodok aerial view

Citation: (DiMaio, 2000)

Area: 910 h.a

Distance to Capital City: 2800km

Date of origin: 1950s

Mean perimeter segment measurement: 786m

Median perimeter segment Measurement: 830m

Main Urban Connections

Barbican Estate, London - UK

Figure 6.4 Courtyard block in Barbican

Citation: (Chant & Goodman, 1999)

Area: 22.8 h.a

Distance to Capital City: N/A

Date of origin: 1969

Mean perimeter segment measurement: 218m

Median perimeter segment Measurement: 175m

Main Urban Connections

Blue Area, Islamabad - Pakistan

Figure 6.5 Islamabad streetscape

Citation: (Doxiadis, 1968)

Area: 5,610 h.a

Distance to Capital City: N/A

Date of origin: 1958

Mean perimeter segment measurement: 1659m

Median perimeter segment Measurement: 1860m

Main Urban Connections

Brasilia, F.D. - Brasil

Figure 6.6. Brasilia aerial view

Citation: (Hall, 2002)

Area: 4,695 h.a

Distance to Capital City: N/A

Date of origin: 1960

Mean perimeter segment measurement: 1537m

Median perimeter segment Measurement: 950m

Main Urban Connections

Cabrini Green, Chicago - USA

Figure 6.7 Cabrini Green housing scheme

Citation: (Miller, 2008)

Area: 66.8 h.a

Distance to Capital City: 968km

Date of origin: 1942 - 2008

Mean perimeter segment measurement: 431m

Median perimeter segment Measurement: 400m

Main Urban Connections

Figure 6.8 Chandigarh personal image

Citation: (Evenson, 1966)

Area: 12,267 h.a

Distance to Capital City: 230km

Date of origin: 1953

Mean perimeter segment measurement: 1065m

Median perimeter segment Measurement: 1270m

Main Urban Connections

Co-op city, New York - USA

Figure 6.9 Co-op City streetscape

Citation: (Hall, 2002)

Area: 97.6 h.a