few, 2. Bo dlyopael yar evel 1, 2 The Quantum Mechanics of Spin Tn the 102s, tho od gist sory was gradually being superseded by tho row quantats theory, The cormerione of the od theory was Bohr’ mode of the Hydrogen atom which edited tat an letron eat bi the proton in ‘the ydrgen atom in any arbitrary faslon. Orbits er “quantized”, meaning ‘hat enly certain wns, chapes and magnetic properties arw allowed. ‘The principe! quantum number ® detrminod the allowed radi ofthe orbit, the rbital quantum number | determined the allowed shapes, and the magnetic ‘quantum number m deterned the magnetic behavior. Additionally, tee ‘Mouth quantam namber # which denotes the fark thatthe clacton hae 2 ‘edditonal angular momertom, lowelyatsociatod with sf rotation about Its ‘ea es, and thats suatiaed in units of (1/2)R. The old quancum theory ‘os ure toler the exctence of acre energy lovl in atoms, eau hergy spacings between soos loves, and therefore allowed one to interpret ‘om spectra ‘The now quantum thenry appeared to be more revolutionary ead more powerful Te was triggered by Holsabery’s dacovery of mat mechenes tnd Sehrodinger' dlssovery of wave mechenes, Thess two formalisms would fot only protic the quaitaation of energy and provide a prescription to tletermine the energy diftencebetwoon tho level (and thus explain the mul tility of stomic pects), But alm allow one to eaeulte easly proba tie of trations batwnendillernt quantized energy states. AL lst, mattix Inochanics at! wave mestanis looked eatirely diforon:in thir rates Cal appearance aod physkal meaning, However Sebdlager and Beast [t independeatiy showed thatthe two theories are mathoratieally equvalet ‘Tomards the end of 1925 Dirac unifod the two thorits using the concept of state vector ad thus eetablihed the transformation theory of quantum, ‘ochenics Thi ulliately ad profound implication forthe quantum me ‘Shall (mathemsation) resi to teat sla, as we wll show in this chapter. "The transformation tory lathe mathematical recipe to handle modern quan ord, Heiours's matrix mechanic,» phyeal quantity EB empress by a matrix, wherens in Seebdinge’s wave mechanics, © phys fal quantity is exprewed bya ner operstor. Tn te une tranformetion theory, plas quacities are represented by abstract near operators called Dirac g-mumbers which ace ieee operators in on ifiaitmensonal oat space, Depending upon which types of orthogonal coordina systems are ‘hed in this near spe, other matrix mochanis or wave mechanics emerges w18 Iutroution to Spintronion In other words, by sing coordinate transformacion In thi rear space, we ‘can derive matte mechanic rom wave mechates and vice vere. Therefor, ‘hic unified theory wus named transformation theory, The eats of m qu tum mechanical object is represented by a socalled state westor whlch Ison bgtract vector in this Unear apace (the “avefuntion ia wave iochanis is ‘sn example ofthis) andthe tinea epace sealed the state vpuce, ‘arlier D, Hilbort and J. von Neumann hed introduced the notion of « linear space that could absorb the mathematics of ratiom and Yetor, well ay the mathematics of linear operators and functions. ‘Tie so-called Fiber space edited Site or dentinerably (oncatably)infite umber of frondinate axes, Therefore, a state vector in the Hilbert space could have {at most e danumershy infnite number of tually orthogonal eomponeat Dirse extended this concept to » non denumershly infinite umber of cour dinate axes in his naar space vin tho introduction of hi famous Bfunction [a]. The state vector therefore could have non-danamerably ifr suber ‘of mutually orthogonal componente and could beers a va. ee lael. ey where the variable g is continuous variable ln he domain [ng]. Ou the other hand, i the coordinate as are countable, then the etateeetor would be expremed a Yes m= 2, 02) vrhor the vara i an intage. According to Drac's transformation theory, the state vector (i evolves in ‘imo eceording to unitary trensfortaation, and (i) caine © fst oder ferential equation with rspect to te. ‘This cond property very im Dortant as we shall se later. Depending on whaler the phen quately" represented by the stae vector wil yd discrete of contnuode valle upon Ieasurement the elgenvalus of the linear operstor describing this pyc ‘quantity wil have discrete or continuous values. Acsnedingy, the eran fee inthe linear space wil be discrete or continous, andthe state vector wil be sy or Ug The magnitude squared of the componect of tho state ‘ectr, Le, jy oF JC)? ves the probability ofthe phyla! quantity to take on the n-th (oe -h) vale when the quant le sataured, hi she physicl interpretation (or significance) ofthe state vetor. Therefore, each ‘component of the stato vector ls elled probalty amplitude, "The fier “wnvefuneton” in the Schringer formal of wave technic is the proba biltyampiltade where the physial quantities oresponding ta the coordinate ‘xe i linear space are the potion coordinates snd tite, i v= Wee) 3) Appia by dts, anya htc bem, oen iy le sete ihe Quantum Mechanics of Spin 9 In wave mechani, the Schéinger equation fora single patil tls ws Ie the wavefunction evalves in time and space 2610) BO - rope). ea) we naglct epi, then Fa [ok buy taal t (3) where the quaites with “hata aro unit voetors along the cordinate as ‘Solution of Equation (24) yede tho wavefunction 9(F. The quaatty Hy is tno wealed Haszltonian whose Gest trm the kinetic energy ad the second fern tho potential wsergy. The oly eetelction i thatthe potential ener fer shouldbe areal qusatty so thatthe Famitonlan reruns a Hermitian Spereor, which quaratoes that is lgenvaluo (which isis expected value tha therefore the expected value of tho euergy) remains 8 real questi "The quertion now is how to ince "pia" in Equation (2)? "This was investigated by Wolfgang Peal. He derived an equation to eplane ‘2qustion 24) which bears his name ad is nown es the Pou Syuation. But. “fore we docs this equation, we need to understand an portant concept, mely Pat spin matron snes hey appoar inthe Pall Equation, 2.1 Pauli spin matrices {i quantum suchanic, ony physical obarvable is associated with an oper ‘Stor (which would be a liaear operator inthe Selédinger formalism, a ‘hatas in the Helonberg formals). ‘The eigenvales ofthe lines operator, Sr the eigevalen ofthe snatrix, are the expectation values of the hysteal "uu, Ley tho vale we expect to Sud if we measure the physlal quantity svn expevinent! Spin ie a pista obseevabl since the associated angular fonttes cen be miarird, ne was dove wovttingly by Stern and Gerlach. Conuaquonty there mate he quantum mechanical operator assisted with in Poul dried the quantum mochanical operators for Ue sin compo- late along thro orthogonal exer Say 5p nd Se. They are 2x2 complex “Repent cl eet wl pean hint no ae2% Introduction t Spintrones ‘matrices tht came tobe known asthe Paul spin matrlow, Paul's approach ‘us bast a the premise thst (1) the measurement ofthe spin angular 0 ‘montu component alo any coordinate axis fr an eletron should give the sesults+§ or, and (2) the operators for spin componente mong ter mit- tually orthogonal xcs shoul obey commutation role sill those obeyed by the operators amocnted with components ofthe orbital angular momen: tm. ‘his woold put spin angular momentum and orbital angular momentum fn the sate footing "The operstore(mtrics) forthe orbital angular momentum are known to satly the commutation relalions Lyle ~ Lady » in, Lala babe Ely Lyle eo) srhich merely refct the fact that te orbital angular momenta along say 190 mutually orthogonal anes cannot be simultaneously teasured wi aback precision unless the orbital anglar momentum along a third ais, perpendic- Slr to bot the other two ae, wanes, ‘Paul adopted similar cramitation rations for the spin angular momen tum operators 5., Sy nnd Sy SS. ~ 5.8, = ih, en "Now, in the Stern-Geriach experiment, assuming thatthe 2-axis isthe axis Joining the south t north pole ofthe magnet, the osarvtion of two teecas ‘on the p plate was Interpreted as beng cad by «spin angular tnomentam 3 whowe ecomponats as wo flues ‘Therefore, the me ‘ix operator S, mist be (0) 2%2 matic (beeaoe such a mati as Co ‘dgenvalus), and (i) thee egenvalacr mist be ‘A 2x2 matrix that has eigenvalues of ithe matetx sion B(4)- 7 “This i not th only 2x2 matrix with clgnvalues +f ~ there could be many ‘others but this sth matix that Pell chon a astat for Ue operator 8, Next, he ha to find appropriate matrieos to serve as operators Sand Sy Paul elie that sine the cle of the vie ae the nal Jlning the nor and wouth poles of the magnet isoompletely arbitrary, the resut ofthe Strn- ‘Gerlach mesourement should net be nected i he had chosen this ade to be ‘the oF y-axis instead, This means tht the expectation values ofS, and‘The Quantum Mechanics of Spin a Su his eign, shoul alo be 8. Moca, all thee mations — St, Sj and 5, ~ mum ssi the eommatton retin in Equation 27). Pat ft deboed tee dinunsioles mates yoy ond oy sch tat (ay Siac Sy, Sy end S, must have cgonvalus of fi is obvious that the o- smstrlees mast have elgenvluas of #1. Furthermore, Equetion (2.1) mandates that wey ove = Bio, em According to Hauaton (28) an (29), «= (59) ex So now Paull needed to pick two metvices ey and oy such that tay have ‘igeuvalues of 41 and obey Squation (210). Since thee matics will be ‘operators for physical observables (pin components), they rast be Herutian ‘5 wll. Tt ls easy to verily that oy Is Hermitian. ‘We can sort our soarch for az nnd oy with Hermitian matrices tht have of digonal elements only, Le ae (28)+ (212) aos a= (88) ey Since the elganvalues of ches matsies are +1, we must have ja? = |? 1. whic lads tothe posble chlces fora and 5 = 41 er 4 ‘ext wo must satisfy Hquation (2.10) and that mandates Ima) = 1, (1) ‘tere J stands for imaginary past. ‘Theeforo, if wo select a = +, thon we must choose b =, end thb yields a-(02)s (ans)2 Irlraduction to Spintronicn an(t2) aus ‘a bow Pal can op wit crn eo ad Tht a er Maviad cle w Spetien Fe eee oe Trees at Pls hitb no mean wg, Tae othe ee a ee oe taal: Hike Pe eS aT anne aoree, From the expessons forthe Pali spln matrices, we notice that te square ofeach ofthe Pali matics i the 2x2 unit mats [7]. Hence and Is? sestest Matrix gg: The eigenvectors of cy must anti eae, em ‘he eect (th i er wb we()). em wt () ean 1 ety to verify that thee two elgenvectors ace orthonormal, a they must be sor they ace elgeaveetore ofa Hemi tte coresponding 0 tistinet (non-degenerte eigenen Matrix os: The egenvectore of oy ist satisy alt >a= att > (a2) ‘Starting with Equation (218), these elgenvectors ae found to be ond (}). ay1 rn Meee ot 2 wt tose (4) 9 ce aga, the two egenvectors are orthonormal. Ascan be cally checked, ‘thee eigenvectors enn also be expressed as 1 [eee lle >t >al (225) Matrix oy¢ The elgenvector of 3 must satisfy Gib >yn tlle y (226) ‘Using Equation (2.16), these eigenvectors are found tobe > (1) oan “ bo (2) (228) ‘These eigenvectors are orthonormal and ean be express 05 1 te oye Sit ail (220 bow Sell (a2) ‘Thecigonvectorsof the Paul spin matrices are examples of "splnox" which ‘we 2 1 column vectors that represant the spin state of an electron, I we low the spinor asocintad with an electron in a given sate, wo can duduce the dection’s spin arentation, i, find the quantities < Sy'>, <5, > and <5, >, whore the angular brackets < .. > denote cxpication vals. We ‘il ee te ater, 22, The Pauli Equation and spinors ‘We nn absorb the space and tne dependant part of an clctron's wavefune- ‘on Inthe spinor, o that tho general form of since wll be [ne]. ex) shee x = (6,412), ad 1 and gy ao the two components ofthe spinor ‘eveluntion (amumed to be propery normalize). (004 Fotroduction to Spintronics ‘With »2component wavefunction, the Schrddingr equation must be recast in} (0) = 01. aay the Hamiltonian is «2x2 matex (ane it may conta the 2x2 Paul Soi mate), [ie the 2 » 2 ideniyy matey and [0 othe 2 1 nal ‘ector. Equation (2.31) Is ast of two simultencousdifrental equations fo ‘the two components ofthe wince waveinetion~ dy and ga. Equation (2:31) ie tfered to as the Pout Byun. Solution ofthe Paull Bauation yllds the two-component spor wavefune tion (2)! Its practical tei in caleulting the expected value of the spin angular momentam ofan electron slong any coordinate axis. The expected ‘ale along the n-th coordinate ws a location (Fj ~ yy) st lta ‘of time t wil be Sali), where Su = (R/2i2q and the super- ‘Sriptt (Gagger) represents the Heriian conjugate, Using Equation (2), ‘weet Sal Fost) = (R/2)(vCFi tf] [00.9 20.4] a ra en a [0] tees, n/2) 8)" fay) [FO 8)] 1a) (SE) = hil stFeattoe (rari oi = eaten oxeoh [9 5] [$409] 26a Olah)» ea) “where Re stands fr the eal prt Im stands for the imaginary part and the superscript * (aster) represent commplex conga “Therefore, me ea find the component wavesunton mn Equation (2:8) by ealving the Paull Bquetion (2:31), then we ean find th thee components ‘of the expected value ofthe spin angular momentum at any location at say Instant of time. ‘This is why the Pauli Equation and the spinor concept are ef and important. In Chapter 7, we wil aio sow how the Pasi gtion ‘can be used to derive the eoesy dispersion relations (relation between the ‘energy and the wnvevector) of an electron in a solid inthe presen of spin- ‘dependant eft,The Quantum Mechanics of Spin wo 273° Applications of the Posulates of Quantum Mechanics to a few spin problems ‘The Petulates of Quantum Mechanics are bitly reviewed in Chapter 16 Bxample 1: If ye 2 Fars) 2 seu so probably ofthe meastranent tose ieee oR mPa if ror to the measurement, the sate oft iv > iseher (o>, I>! or © Hio> 41>), Page IO> tthe +a-poarzn state |+ >, and 1 > le tho -epoaraed sate ms Solution (0) The operator , = fos bas the allowing spectra decompoition $= F>< 01+ By >< 1]= DmPay (esr) ‘hee =m >< with im > being the egeoveror ofS, Hence, if >= [0>, the probablity to menure-+9 sequal to 0d) mc ago> as the probably to nature faa to HH) scot scp >=o (29) ‘the vu ofthe probabiis isin wo uty (2) 1) >= >, we ge HF) =< 11G0>< opi >=0, (290) ba 4, a mca >=1, em (8) Foal. tf >= (0 > +12 >), we nd MOD)= Fl0> + + <19 -}us0H 01 ea}0 : Inouction oSpintoies nd sna f-8) =f According to Postulate$ discussed in Chapter 16, sight after the meesure- ment, the spinoecallapes into the stare (2.98) Exercise: Repent the previous execae if the componest Sis measured aston ‘Example 2: Suppose an electron is prepared in te spinor [0 > eigenstate ofS, with eigenvalue «and repestod menmirersnts are nde of the 2 fomponent of ite intrinsic angular momentum, calculate Use average value <5, > and the standard devition A(S,) of theve neasuremeats Solution ‘The spectral decomposition of the operstor Se give by L ony = 8(22) tba annette Donec Inher [+ > isthe +epolaized sate and |~ >. ithe x polarined state. 00(82)Q)-e aan ‘ ]. sleo(G2)(3)()/"=$ 0m xample 8: Suppose a dhton characte the spioe w 1/3 a a za(4): een ‘hich property normale, a cay cece, If we mesure the component {Cheap wha the probability fd that Ke wl 9?‘The Quantum Mechanics of Spin a Tecra Jy (!) wtb eget nd (2) wt ‘égenvalue 1 “Henoe, if we wate the spinor jy > a lnear combination of [+ >y and seda(8)-ads(t)+edg() ea ‘ep tod + when ming ey fo wetwot = [Jet 09 (4) ‘Example 4: Suppoae an clacton is charatarbed by the spinor BlOtOr= 5 2.09) ate won fn>adn> e109 (1) What isthe probably tht » measurement ofs-companent of the spin wil be +97 and =§? (2.01) (2.102) (to>s2n>). =H compo t+ (2) Besa ~a() (Wn th add dn 8 mae ee on say tn pein tc set (2.09)a Intodstion to Spintronics Solution By definition W652) = f= 91SFV> = <3. (2.104) Since cotsncysteoncotietiven%, 6) ei rom the previous problem (2.106) worst ats) (207) rercisa: Proceeding ne above, calcul ant (54) Answer: (e208) od (2.109) 2474 The Helsenberg Principle for spin components, In Chapter 16, we prove the following general Hlonbur inaqualty| aqoyatoy 2 216.2182, eno) smhore A(C) and 4(D) ae the standard deviations associated with measure: Tien of the obervabte and D on an electron prepared many times inthe me stata [9 > Teta a observables the two components ofthe ltsnse angular mo- iment ofthe electron oy aad oy he fnequality above becomes ats) 2 81 < visio l= Fi | att) Bxorclae: Prov th te state ofthe spinor jn the last inequality, the equality signs hols when ven by Wom gle + GIs (aan)The Quantum Mechanics af Spin « considered in Example 3, Solution For an electron proparod in the stats |) > above, we us the sens of Example 3 and find eight hand-ide of Equation (211i) co be equal ™ Ec vpav>te®, ea) The et anf he tly ass) = any =. ano "Thecefor, the inuality (2.111) rues to a eat In this ngs ‘Exercise: Tho following inequalities also hold 190082 Fl|=Zi 1 (eas) and - . AS9815.)2 31 |= Fi) ete) Prove thet these inequalties aro indeed stiod for spinor in the state (2.112) given above. ‘The elution ofthis exerl I lf forthe reader 2.8 References |i} ©. Bhar, “Operator Calculus and the Solution of the Bquatinas of Dynamic", Phys.Rev, 28, 71 (1925). (2] RP. Feynman, RB. Leighton and M. Sands, The Feynman Lectres ‘on Physics, Volume Il, chapter $4, Addieon-Weley, Reading, Mess, (6s). 15] PA. M. Dirac, The Principles of Quantum Mechanics, Oxford Univer- sity res (1958), (4) 3.1. Satara, Advanced Quantum Mechanics Addison-Wesley, Reng, Mass. (1367). [8] BU. Condon snd G. H, Shrtay, Theory of Atomic Spectra, Carre University Press, Cambaldge (1005).2.7.2 Two useful theorems [A trivial decomposition of any 2 2 mntrie Me ebviculy r=mu(#8) +ma(98) 4m (3) +ma($2). 70 nce th toon th gt ad sd em ome a for 22 ‘nnfrices. Now that we bev introduced the Peul spin matriws, a more subtle Alcompesition of exy 2x2 complex matrix can be found, as disused next. ‘Theorem I: Any 22 matte M ac (mime) om can be decomposed a follows nt ag», mst =m Mat may | my ma, a= Mite, Mmm, 4 MEME 4 ME "The proof of which i lft as am exerci. In other words, the 4 matrices (Toney) fom » complete at of bases in the space of 22 complex mae "Te last equation ran be waitten Inthe more condensed form oy. (2.0) om sere (278) sad (279) where 3 0), nd Tr stands for the trace of the mate "A comparison of Equaions (2.76) ed (2.77) shows that M is Hermitian it ay andthe three componeate of the vector & ace rea8 Introduction te Spintonics -Exorcie: Calculate the values of (a, 2) fr the matic AF given by 28 (yf) om ‘Next, we prov an identity which wil be used in the next chaptes to interpret eometrinly the Paull matsees fer the introdution of tho Block sphere ‘encape ‘Thoorem M1 is eal andthe matrix Aiasuch that A? entity hoes the following eth cool + int, ea) ‘Thi isthe generalization to operators ofthe wellknown Buk relation for complex numbers, Le, = cors + isin ‘rom the Thylor series expansion Se. ial de dts fe ution fo pera, eB arenas BE ERO, ay e00 ‘he inden Bgvtion (25) fw ae he Tyo expos Seteycak em, (225) wo Senetyan (om