The Business of Marriage:

Transatlantic Marriage
Migration During the
Gilded Age
HIST 4839
5/5/2016

George Sheridan Knowles, Signing the Marriage Contract, 1905.

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Imagine for a moment
As you enter the grand ballroom you see glittering gold adorning every fixture as
far as the eye can see. The grand marble flooring has an opalescent quality so magnificently
swirled and gleaming that you cant help but to take small, delicate steps upon its smooth
surface. Rich velvet hangs long from the tops of the grandiose windows, pooling in heavy
heaps on the floor beneath, so decadent you could sink your entire being into its sumptuous
structure. Numerous crystals hang intricately placed from the colossal chandelier
permanently fixed in the middle of the hand-painted ceiling that depicts the different
constellations. You take a seat in one of the French Louis XV armchairs placed along the far
wall of the ballroom, close your eyes, and drink in the sounds of laughter, joyful music,
dancing feet, and the smells of flowing drinks and decadent sweets that swirl in the air of this
late nineteenth century summer evening.
The pure decadence of the era known as the Gilded Age is why it remains to this day
perhaps the most lavish time in the history of the United States. At a time when money ruled
all, champagne flowed freely, and diamonds dripped from every inch of the female figure,
less was most definitely not more. There was a surge of industry that had never been seen
before and, therefore, there were opportunities surrounding the American people with a strong
potential for great fortunes to be made. Many of these men who jumped at the chance to break
into and monopolize these new industries left legacies that last to this day. While today the
names Rockefeller, Vanderbilt, and Carnegie are familiar to most American citizens, in the
mid-nineteenth century that was not the case. These men were not necessarily rags to riches
stories; in fact most of them were already involved in other business ventures and sixty-five
percent of them, who were considered to lie within the upper classes of society, had attended

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universities.1 This does not discredit their labor; however, the common misconception of the
rags to riches story comes from the truth that they did not start out with large fortunes and did
work their way up the ladder of success within their industry that, in the end, earned them
their riches.2
With all of these new millionaires appearing in America it was no surprise that tension
developed between those who had just begun to earn their fortunes and were the first in their
families to do so and those who descended from long lines of wealthy, upper-class families.
While there was not an actual aristocracy present in the United States, the social elites that
resided in New York served a similar function to the titled nobility that existed in England.
Prominent names such as the Astors, Whitneys, Van Burens, Van Rensselaers, and Beekmans
were all members of New Yorks highly exclusive Knickerbocker society, also referred to as
the aristocracy of old New York. These were the families that had arrived and made a name
for themselves in New York during the eighteenth century and before. They were
predominantly Dutch as the area encompassing Manhattan had originally been settled by the
Dutch, who named it New Netherland in 1624 before becoming New York in 1664. Though
some families of new money, such as the Vanderbilts, were indeed Dutch as well and
Cornelius Vanderbilt was a native of New York, purely the fact of these fortunes being new
during this age of industrial expansion and the sometimes questionable ways in which it
appeared these families earned their wealth caused this great strain between the individuals in
high society.
All of these families, both of old and new money, wished to show off their earnings

Sean Dennis Cashman, America in the Gilded Age, Third Edition. (New York: New York
University Press., 1993), 40.
2 Ibid., 60.
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and participate in the luxurious activities and social events that their money could open the
doors to. There was one woman who ruled the social scene at the time; her name was Mrs.
Caroline Astor (1830-1908). Author Greg King noted in his book A Season of Splendor that
Mrs. Astor had very strict guidelines for social events. She viewed these new money families
as, in Kings words, uncouth parvenus.3 She routinely denied them entrance to her grand
balls, excluding them from her list of the 400, those welcome to all high society events. Mrs.
Astor orchestrated many gatherings including grand balls that were held in her own personal
ballroom at her house on 34th Street and 5th Avenue. These balls, modeled after those common
in British aristocracy, were intended as occasions where one could socialize and parents could
introduce their daughters into high society. Oftentimes, the coming out of the girls garnered
interest from the opposite sex and it was from those sorts of events that parents found suitable
matches or marriage prospects for their daughters. It was important for those of great wealth
to marry individuals of the same caliber, class, and comparable lineage. Mrs. Astors
exclusive 400 list, so named as that was the capacity of her ballroom, provided the best way
for rich New Yorkers to accomplish this goal. Consequently, it was rather easy for American
heiresses within the Knickerbocker society to find an opportune match and very hard for those
of new money as they were not allowed into these exclusive events. Therefore, in order to
gain acceptance and have a chance at finding appropriate husbands, these families traveled to
Europe to debut their daughters.
The aristocracy that existed in Great Britain had been the most powerful part of British
society for hundreds of years before the nineteenth century. They ruled the social scene but

Greg King. A Season of Splendor: The Court of Mrs. Astor in Gilded Age New York.
(Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2009), 23.

also possessed large amounts of land and held positions within the government. They were
influential, dominant, and a commanding voice in their communities. Towards the end of the
century, the expansion of the middle class in Britain started to threaten the overarching
dominance the aristocrats had held for so long.4 While the new threat would come to affect
ownership of land and government positions, it did not affect the pure power that was
attached to the titles and last names that the nobility held. The elite social scene was still run
by those who had the titles to do so.
While it is true that most American heiresses, whether they belonged to Mrs.
Astors 400 or not, were intrigued by the idea of possessing power and a prestigious
title, only a few women from the society of old money, such as Pauline Payne Whitney,
followed through with transatlantic marriage. It was the new money, those who were not
accepted into the Knickerbocker society of the social elites in New York City, that were
therefore forced to debut their daughters over in Europe that helped to initiate and
perpetuate the cycle of transatlantic marriage migration.
Historians such as Rebecca L. Peterson, of Brigham Young University, have touched
upon this topic of transatlantic migrations. In her thesis Gilded Age Travelers: Transatlantic
Marriages and the Anglophone Divide in Burnett's The Shuttle, Peterson analyzes the
changing feelings of Britain and America towards each other through the lens of fictional
literature on these transatlantic marriages during the late nineteenth and early twentieth
centuries. While American authors such as Edith Wharton and Henry James had previously
written about the difficulty and tension in these marriages brought upon by issues with

Kathryn Hughes, The Middle Classes: Etiquette and Upward Mobility, British Library
n.d. http://www.bl.uk/romantics-and-victorians/articles/the-middle-classes-etiquetteand-upward-mobility (accessed 3 May 2016)
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money, class, and manners, Peterson writes that in Frances Hodgson Burnetts novel The
Shuttle this tradition is broken and a spark of hope is ignited in favor of the potentially
positive outcomes of these marriages for all parties involved. Peterson notes that these
positive outcomes include, but are not limited to, the complimentary national traits of each
individual that then afford each nation a share of their Anglophone heritage.5 This particular
piece of literature, Peterson argues, helped to influence and change the social context of these
marriages after its initial publication in 1907 by introducing the idea, through a fictional story
that reached many, that the union of an American heiress and a British aristocrat could
actually be successful. By simply planting this idea of a transatlantic marriage not ending in
tragedy through the clever words of Burnett, the readers were given a chance to let it ferment
and grow into a changed opinion, perhaps without ever realizing it was happening.
In her thesis Informal Ambassadors: American Women, Transatlantic Marriages,
and Anglo-American Relations, 1865-1945 historian Dana Cooper also analyzed the topic of
transatlantic marriages from yet another angle. Cooper began by first establishing where the
shift of opinion between the nations of America and Britain occurred. While in the nineteenth
century the relations between the two were strained due to disputes over land and involvement
in wars such as the American Revolution, today Britain and America are close allies and in
the twentieth century fought many wars as such. This shift, she argued, happened then

Rebecca L. Peterson. "Gilded Age Travelers: Transatlantic Marriages and the Anglophone
Divide in Burnett's The Shuttle. All Theses and Dissertations. (Provo: Brigham Young
University Press, 2012).

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between the mid-nineteenth century and before 1914.6 Cooper continued that though there are
discrepancies and disagreements among the historical community about what united the two
nations, a significant number of transatlantic marriages united British and American families
at the turn of the twentieth century.7 Coopers argument shows that the influence and impact
these American heiresses had upon the nation of Great Britain was large and quite important.
The heiresses effectively helped to change the relations between Great Britain and America
entirely from the time of their arrival in England on into the future. Cooper asserted that it
was the deep involvement in the British social scene and the intermixing of bloodlines that
were the product of these marriages in the form of their children that particularly prompted a
shift towards change in a positive direction regarding relations between the two countries.
Both of these historians arguments establish social context in their theses as to how
relations were between the two countries at the time and what/who influenced the relationship
to change. Cooper and Peterson provide great knowledge into the social aspect of the topic of
transatlantic marriages; however, they do not answer the central question of why these
marriages continued to occur as the framework for friendship between nations had not yet
been laid, the nations were still at odds during the Gilded Age. Therefore, expansion upon this
topic of transatlantic migration would prove to be insightful and helpful in understanding it
more fully. This expansion is accomplished by piecing together the evidence that shows how
and why some of these marriages took place even though, at the time, the individuals in each
country believed the unions to be detrimental to their societies. Specifically, the intention of
this paper is to focus on the marriages of those families who werent welcomed into the
Dana Calise Cooper. Informal Ambassadors: American Women, Transatlantic Marriages,
and Anglo-American Relations, 1865-1945. Theses and Dissertations. (Fort Worth: Texas
Christian University, 2006).
7
Ibid., 6.
6

Knickerbocker society or Mrs. Astors 400. By focusing on the precise reasons why these
families of new money went to Europe to debut their daughters, it provides perspective and
further explanation into this business of marriage.

I. The Relationship Between Great Britain and America in the Gilded

Age
Prior to the start of World War I in 1914, the world was a very different place than we
know it to be today. Whether it was the borders of the nations in Europe and Asia or the
names of the countries themselves, the geography of the world was far disparate from todays
standards. Entire countries, such as the Austro-Hungarian Empire, were present before 1914
and are no longer in existence. Many of the alliances between the big, powerful nations that
exist today had not yet been formed as no event had occurred on a global scale that would
have made it necessary or helpful to enact such a situation. During the Gilded Age America
and Great Britain were not allies; in fact relations were quite strained between the two nations
and the public opinion each society held of each other was that the other was truly subpar.
America and Great Britain did not like each other, at all.
In the nineteenth century the theory of degeneration spread rapidly through Europe.
The theory was first introduced by Benedict Morel, a French psychiatrist, whose book Trait
des dgnrescences physiques, intellectuelles et morales de lespce humaine was published
in 1857. The book described degeneration as a generationally progressive condition that
began with neurosis in the first generation and ended with sterility in the fourth generation.8
In essence, degeneration caused an individuals brain to be unable to function properly. It
caught on so quickly partly due to the fact that it was a convenient way to explain
8

"Benedict-Augustin Morel (18091873)." American Journal of Psychiatry, 161(12), p. 2185

inefficiencies in an individuals ability to conduct themselves properly in regards to morality

as well as any deficiencies in a persons physical and intellectual prowess.9 It was through
this idea of stunted progression that British individuals felt a strain on their personal, physical
development and began to fear the worst for the future of their society. The theory of
degeneration as stated by Edwin Ray Lankester, a British zoologist, claimed that in
comparison to the immediate forefathers of our civilization the ancient Greekswe do not
appear to have improved so far as our bodily structure is concerned.10 At a time when Social
Darwinism was incredibly popular, the philosophy that expanded upon Herbert Spencers
1850 invented term survival of the fittest, the thought of degeneration meant loss and
potential end to society as only the strongest and fittest could win and survive to fight another
day.11 Lankester strongly asserted in his writings that the European civilizations have at least
reason to fear that we may be degenerate.12 For the first time in the history of their nation,
institutions such as the British military were statistically smaller than in previous decades with
the average height of a British male ranging from only about 55-56 around the year 191413.
The general public was entirely aware of the deficiency of their race in terms of physical
stature and strength. This awareness was fully captured in the publication of the British Punch
Magazines March 1890 issue. In the cartoon titled Prospects for the Coming Season a

Nicole H. Rafter (ed.), The Origins of Criminology: A Reader. (Abingdon: Routledge,

2009), 89.
10 Edwin Ray Lankester, Degeneration, A Chapter In Darwinism. (London: Macmillan and
Co., 1880), 60.
11 Cashman, America in the Gilded Age,) 60.
12 Lankester, Degeneration, 60.
13 Tom de Castella, Bantams: The Army Units For Those Under 5ft 3in, BBC News
Magazine, 9 Feb. 2015, accessed 12 Apr. 2016 http://www.bbc.com/news/magazine31023270
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social event catering to bachelors and bachelorettes was depicted.14 This cartoon cleverly
captioned The lions are decidedly small this year, but the beauties are finer, larger, and more
like each other than ever showed very tall, elegantly dressed women all tilting their chins
downward, socializing with very short men. Each man in the cartoon was depicted as balding,
rotund, or had a face full of noticeable wrinkles as a sign of not aging well. The British race
appeared to be getting progressively weaker and this was no secret to the Americans.

Prospects for the Coming Season, Punch Magazine, 1890.

There was never a more apparent public portrayal of the degradation of the male
British aristocracy than those titled men portrayed in the cartoons of Charles Dana Gibson. In
the late nineteenth century, Gibson cleverly drew and captioned these cartoons containing
Prospects for the Coming Season, Illus. (London: Punch Limited, Vol. 98, 1890), 147.
https://archive.org/stream/punchvol98a99lemouoft#page/146/mode/2up (Accessed
25 Apr. 2016)
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scenes that reflected the American sentiment of the times that male, British aristocrats were
weak. These title-holders were shown usually in stark contrast to Gibsons Gibson Girl who
represented the epitome of American beauty. The Gibson girl was the it girl of the late
nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. She was strong, statuesque, beautiful, and the jack
of all trades of her time; she could do anything. One cartoon captioned The Ambitious
Mother and the Obliging Clergyman showed this beautiful woman kneeling gracefully at the
alter ready to marry her fianc, a short, subfuscous looking man who was hunched over and
uncomfortable looking with his hands in tight fists. 15 The bride had her head down as if she
had surrendered herself to the situation while the groom stared straightforward, lips pursed as
if he had just tasted something sour. Even by leaving his head up he wasnt anywhere close to
her height; he was still almost a head shorter. The brides mother was depicted as helping to
orchestrate the entire event as she held a tight grip on the rope tying her daughters hands
behind her back so she couldnt object or escape. The clergyman was shown wearing a
blindfold as otherwise it seems he would not have been able to perform the ceremony. This
cartoon is clearly the visual representation of the outlook of the Americans concerning these
transatlantic marriages. They saw these British men as nothing more than a title; they had
nothing to offer other than their name. Quite literally depicted here, the aristocrat could never
measure up; he was smaller, weaker, very awkward, and couldnt reach the heights of his
American heiress. She would forever be above him.

Charles Dana Gibson, The Ambitious Mother and the Obliging Clergyman. Illus. (New
York: Life Magazine, 1902), 488 & 489, http://www.loc.gov/pictures/item/2004678771/
(Accessed 7 Apr. 2016)
15

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Charles Dana Gibson, The Ambitious Mother and the Obliging Clergyman, Life Magazine,
1902.
British publications in turn produced literature and cartoons depicting the popular
English opinion that these American women, these gallant Gibson girls, were nothing more
than attractive, unsophisticated, uncultured individuals who were rather vulgar by manner of
dress and speech. This inappropriate behavior was especially obvious when the American
women were out in public, socializing with members of the upper echelons of British society.
This belief was publicized as early as the 1850s. In a cartoon published in Punch Magazine in
1851 titled Bloomerism- An American Custom artists John Leech provided an image for
this opinion. 16 Two American women were drawn in the middle of this cartoon, walking
down the street as if they hadnt a care in the world. They were shown smoking their
cigarettes producing large clouds of smoke around them, noses in the air displaying a fashion
John Leech,Bloomerism- An American Custom. Illus. (London: Punch Limited, 1851)
http://punch.photoshelter.com/gallery-image/Victorian-EraCartoons/G0000czGdMEOaVXY/I0000kb.TLxFFnxk (accessed 6 Apr. 2016)
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the British felt unbecoming of a lady, Bloomerism. Bloomerism was a short-lived trend
created by an American woman named Mrs. Bloomer where, as defined by author Jane
Patton, females wore long trousers tied in at the ankles, and with a short species of stuck-out
skirt similar to the one a ballet dancer used to wear.17 These Bloomer ladies in the cartoon
were being gawked at on one side by all of the men and boys on the street, the males were
waving and hollering in their direction in response to two ladies unscrupulous manner. The
Bloomers were also glared at by two fully clothed women with parasols from the other side of
the picture.

John Leech,Bloomerism- An American Custom, Punch Magazine, 1851

Some time later, in 1890, in a cartoon published in Punch Magazine titled A Practical
Memento artist George du Maurier drew an image maintaining the sentiment Leech visually

17

Jane Ellen Panton, Leaves From A Life, (London: Eveleigh Nash, 1908), 17.

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expressed four decades earlier.18 In his cartoon, Maurier drew two American women, a
mother and daughter, sitting in intense conversation with a sophisticated gentlemen at the
forefront of the picture while others were standing, socializing in the background. These two
very elegantly dressed women seem to have captured the gentlemans full attention as he was
drawn leaning forward in his chair, listening intently to their words. The script at the bottom
of the cartoon showed the gentleman, Sir James, asked the ladies And were you in Rome?
The American lady replied I guess not. Then, addressing her daughter, asked Say, Bella,
did we visit Rome? Her daughter replied Why, Ma, certnly! Dont you remember? It was
in Rome we bought the lisle-thread stockings! [American lady is convinced]. From this
caption it is apparent that these women were seen as terribly uncultured. A very fine
gentleman had asked them about their travels, most likely wishing to speak to them about the
fabulous history, architecture, and culture in Rome and the only thing the women could
remember was a pair of stockings they purchased. Clearly from these drawings we are
able to get a true sense for the British sentiment of the time: American women were simply
unrefined, uncultured, and shameless.

George du Maurier, A Practical Memento. Illus. (Punch Limited, Vol. 99, 1890), 6.
https://archive.org/stream/punchvol98a99lemouoft#page/322/mode/2up (Accessed
26 Apr. 2016)
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George du Marier, A Practical Memento, Punch Magazine, 1890.

This trend of American vulgarity did not cease in the eyes of the British; in all
actuality it appeared to them to only get worse over time. In 1895 the New York Times
published an article titled Trousseau for a Bride: Miss Consuelo Vanderbilts Fine Linen
and Lace. Rich and Dainty Embroideries. In the article, the author wrote about Miss
Consuelo Vanderbilt a member of New Yorks new money society and future Duchess of
Marlborough and, in excruciating detail, laid out the elements of the undergarments she
wore for her wedding to the Duke of Marlborough. The description was also accompanied by
a picture of her corset.19 Undoubtedly, the British most likely felt this article to be entirely
Trousseau for a Bride: Miss Consuelo Vanderbilts Fine Linen and Lace. Rich and Dainty
Embroideries, New York Times (New York: New York Times Company, 1895) http://0search.proquest.com.skyline.ucdenver.edu/hnpnewyorktimes/docview/95311641/D6FA6DB3
5D904479PQ/1?accountid=14506 (Accessed 6 Apr. 2016)
19

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inappropriate and completely typical of Americans.

From the information presented, it is clear that the evidence tightly weaves together
a common idea. The popular opinion on both sides of the Atlantic was that neither countrys
society appreciated the other and, consequently, did not want these transatlantic marriages to
occur. Their opinions were cemented through their obvious statements of disapproval
concerning one another that were published in very public, social mediums.

II. The Knickerbockers and Mrs. Astors 400, The Old Money
No city in the world experienced the dramatic extravagance of the Gilded Age quite like
New York City. What once had been a small city of about 30,000 people at the turn of the
nineteenth century roughly doubled in population size every 10 years so that by the beginning

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of the twentieth century the population sat at about 4 million people.20 Industry had flourished
in America during this time, wealth was garnered by many, and, consequently, the countrys
social and cultural capital, New York City, reached new heights of sophistication in the
artistic spectrum of art, literature, and architecture leading this period to be coined as the
American Renaissance in 1941 by author F. O. Matthiessen.21
New York had quickly turned into the place to be for members of high society, ruled
by its own version of aristocracy, the Knickerbockers, with Mrs. Astor as its reigning queen.
The Knickerbocker families, named after the knee-length pants worn by the Dutch, were
mostly descendants of the citys original Dutch settlers; they had been in the area for centuries
and had established their wealth long before to the Gilded Age. Before the start of the Gilded
Age these old money families were not interested in flaunting their wealth. The men in the
Knickerbocker society were typically landowners, lawyers, heirs or bankers who lived in
splendid modesty, residing in side-by-side brownstones, hosted simple yet sophisticated
events, and dressed with a moderate sense of fashion.22 All of this changed, however, when
the arrivistes arrived on the scene.

III.
The Nouveau Riche, Arrivistes, Social Climbers and All Those
Regarded as New Money
The Arrivistes, or the Nouveau Riche as they were often referred to, were considered to
be those families who had very recently acquired wealth or those, as defined by the

David Rosner, Portrait of an Unhealthy City: New York in the 1800s in The Living
City/NYC http://www.livingcityarchive.org/htm/framesets/living_city/fs_dev.htm
(Accessed 12 Apr. 2016)
21 F.O. Matthiessen, American Renaissance: Art and Expression in the Age of Emerson and
Whitman (New York: Oxford University Press, Inc., 1941)
22 Gail MacColl and Carol McD. Wallace, To Marry an English Lord (New York: Workman
Publishing, 1989), 7-10.
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dictionary, who were typically perceived as ostentatious or lacking in good taste.23 They
were flashy, very rich, and looked to gain recognition within the New York social scene.
According to May King Van Rensselaer, a Knickerbocker woman, all at once society was
assailed from every side by persons who sought to climb boldly over the walls of social
exclusiveness.24
Many of these new money families, mostly those who had earned their wealth through
the stock market or by becoming tycoons in the big business world, chose to settle within
Manhattans borders. They started building grandiose mansions along Fifth Avenue, right
across from many of the old money families modest looking brownstones. For the queen of
the social scene, Mrs. Astor, this was simply unacceptable. When a bold nouveau riche man,
Alexander Turney Stewart, dared to use his fortune to build a mansion of, as author Eric
Homberger stated, broad-ranging vulgarity right across the street from Mrs. Astors own
home, she fought back with a vengeance. 25 In 1893, Mrs. Astor arranged for a new mansion
to be built for her family. She intended for it to be the most opulent, far surpassing any home
occupied by arrivistes, and made sure that it included a magnificent new ballroom,26 a
ballroom that conveniently could comfortably fit 400 individuals hence how Mrs. Astors 400
came into existence. In order to stay on top, Mrs. Astor threw lavish balls, inviting only those
individuals of high sophistication and old money. If an individuals name was not on the list,

Oxford Dictionary, s.v. Nouveau Riche, (accessed 12 Apr. 2016)

May King Van Rensselaer and Frederic Van De Water, The Social Ladder (New York:
Henry Holt and Company, 1924), 9.
25 Eric Homberger, Mrs. Astors New York: Money and Social Power in a Gilded Age, (New
Haven: Yale University Press, 2002), 262.
26 PBS, Mrs. Astors House: 5th Avenue and 65th Street
http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/carnegie/gallery/astorman.html (Accessed 12 Apr.
2016)
23
24

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they did not have a prayer of having any sort of debut in high society.
Arriviste families, such as the family of Leonard Jerome, yearned to be accepted into
aristocratic New York. Leonard Jerome, a hard-working man of a modest background, made
his fortune by playing the stock market. He was a Wall Street speculator, an entrepreneur, and
during his time in that position he made, and lost, a total of three $1,000,000 fortunes.27 His
wife, Clara Hall Jerome, was an heiress in her own right. She came from a family of old
money; however, the Hall family had a reputation of their own: the Halls carried the
unforgivable stain of reputedly having Iroquois blood.28 In fact, it was rumored that Claras
grandmother wasnt Iroquois at all but actually African. During the period when slavery still
existed, which was at the time when Clara made her debut, this would have been considered
entirely unacceptable, which is perhaps why she insisted that her grandmother was Iroquois.29
This stain on her family tree, and her tainted bloodline, could also explain why Clara married
a man with strong future prospects of acquiring wealth and social recognition rather than one
from old money who was already in possession of those things. With these factors present it is
no surprise the three Jerome daughters (Jennie, Clara and Leonie) were not welcomed into
Mrs. Astors 400 and, therefore, could not make their official debut into society in the upper
echelons of New Yorks aristocracy. This was unacceptable to Clara, as she wanted her
daughters to have the best prospects imaginable for future husbands. Therefore, in 1867, she
took her three daughters, without the accompaniment of her husband, over to Europe for their
debuts.
The Jeromes first landed in Paris where they were welcomed by the court of Napoleon

Elizabeth Kehoe, Titled Americans: Three American Sisters and the British Aristocratic
World into Which They Married, (New York: Atlantic Monthly Press, 2004)
28 Ibid., XX.
29 Ibid., 4.
27

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III and his wife, Eugenie of Spain. Napoleon and Eugenie were welcoming to anyone who
had money and were fashionable and the Jeromes fit right in. When war broke out between
France and Prussia, it became very dangerous for the family to remain there. In 1871, they
managed to escape to London and immediately immersed themselves within the thriving
social scene. The Jeromes found great success in England with perhaps the greatest match
being made between Jennie Jerome and Lord Randolph Churchill, who became the future
parents of British Prime Minister Sir Winston Churchill.30 Being shunned from the New York
aristocracy forced the Jerome girls to seek elsewhere for suitable matches and those were best
found within the titled aristocrats of Great Britain.

IV.

The Insatiable Lure of A Title

Whether Mrs. Astor wished to admit it or not, the thought of attaining an official
aristocratic title was entirely enticing to most young women in the New York social scene.
Whether or not the young women chose to chase that alluring opportunity was quite another
business entirely. British aristocrats, though seen as pathetically weak physically, were
extremely wealthy and powerful by virtue of their names alone. They were among the highest
standing in society and were the authority in their country in most social and political matters.
In 1880, approximately 7,000 families were in possession of four-fifths of all the land in Great
Britain; within this spectrum were those families, around 250 to be exact, who owned over
30,000 acres of that land. While some of these landowners were also titleholders, the majority
of titles resided with the 580 individuals who occupied places in the House of Lords.31 With
so many titled families, young ladies of new money had to be sure of the exact lineage of each

Cash For Class, Million Dollar American Princesses, Documentary series.

(Smithsonian Channel, 2015)
31 Kehoe, Titled Americans, XIX
30

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potential suitor or bachelor whom they wished to pursue. The new money women had already
been shunned from New York society, they had to make sure the bachelor they decided to go
for overseas would be the right match for them. This was initially hard to accomplish for most
new money American heiresses as they lived an ocean away from the British men whom they
were chasing.
An annually revised book entitled Titled Americans, A List of American Ladies Who
Have Married Foreigners of Rank, published by the New York company Street & Smith
publications, greatly assisted in the hefty process of weeding through the marriage candidates.
It served a purpose rather like a how-to guide for landing a titled European. Not only did it list
all of the American heiresses who had married titled Europeans, it also provided a list of all
eligible, titled bachelors including the names of their estates, their total incomes, and their
occupations. Books such as this one greatly aided in the process of locating titled prospects
for those new money young ladies, and their families, who not only desired a title but felt that
was their only recourse of action in attaining a proper husband.

V. The Final Pieces

Humans yearn for acceptance. We are social beings who crave acknowledgement and
recognition from our peers. The new money families tried so hard to be accepted into
Knickerbocker society and yet, they were turned away and shunned time and time again.
Individuals can only be put down, ridiculed, and ignored so many times before they strike
back, acting out against the very establishment they wished so much to be a part of.
Most nouveau riche families eventually realized that no matter what they did, most of them
would never be able to hold a place within New Yorks elite social scene. As one
Knickerbocker woman, May King Van Rensselaer, noted in her book The Social Ladder those

21
of old money knew the history of the families with which they associated for generations,
and these histories were vital parts of the record of the city in which they lived. The segments
of the social circle were held together by intimate ties, and this intimacy made the social
organization a clan into which few might expect to force their way.32 The Knickerbockers
realized that it was hard for the families of new money to make a name for themselves in the
elite New York social scene and to find acceptance from their peers. They acknowledged the
fact, recognized it and yet, did nothing to make it any easier for them. If anything, they only
continued to make it even harder for them to join, eventually pushing them to either force
their way in or seek elite status elsewhere.
While some new money families, like the Vanderbilts, were eventually able to gain a
foothold in the New York aristocracy, this was not commonplace as it was so incredibly
difficult to do. The Vanderbilts worked tirelessly and continually pushed their way in to high
society by attempting to make themselves, and the objects their great gobs of money could
purchase, impossible to ignore. The Vanderbilts not only built a large, gaudy mansion on 5th
Avenue, they held an incredible housewarming party that truly outdid any others preceding it.
Mrs. W. K. Vanderbilt threw such a lavish costume party that an author at the New York
Times wrote it agitated New York society more than any social event that has occurred in
years. In the article published by the New York Times after the ball, the author described that
the ball had been on every tongue and a fixed idea in every head. It disturbed the sleep and
occupied the waking hours of social butterflies, both male and female.33 Plainly, the

32

Van Rensselaer, Social Ladder, 3.

All Society in Costume. Mrs. W. K. Vanderbilts Great Fancy Dress Ball. A Brilliant Scene
of Bright and Rich Costumes, Profuse Decorations of Flowers, and Some Unique Dancers.
New York Times (New York: New York Times Company, 1883)
33

22

Vanderbilts pushed their way to the forefront until they could be ignored no longer; even Mrs.
Astor attended their costume ball. Unlike the Vanderbilts, most new money families had
enough of trying so hard after a period of time and followed suit with the Jeromes; they went
over to Europe to find a suitable match for their children.
It is also entirely possible that some families who were rejected by Mrs. Astor became
resentful and revengeful over time. The human brain, when we realize we have been wronged
by another individual, becomes distressed and seeks ways in which it might recover and
satiate its lust for vengeance. Psychological studies have been done, such as those noted in the
article The Complicated Psychology of Revenge, that show the initial thoughts of enacting
revenge with the intended target receiving their just desserts is sweet to the brain. 34 It is
entirely possible then that perhaps these families traveled to Europe, seeking titled British
aristocrats as not just a means of finding a suitable match but with also the added bonus of
feeling as if theyd gotten back at their New York counterparts. Whether this thought process
was conscious or not, there is no denying that it absolutely adds to the complexity of
transatlantic marriages.
Therefore, it is likely to assume that the major reason transatlantic marriages
continued to take place even though public opinion of both America and Britain as seen by
the other was less than desirable to say the least was because these new money families
were continually disregarded, shamed, and eschewed by the Knickerbocker society.

http://query.nytimes.com/mem/archivefree/pdf?res=9E02E3DC1731E433A25754C2A9659C94629FD7CF (Accessed 26 Apr. 2016)

34 Eric Jaffe, The Complicated Psychology of Revenge, Association for Psychological
Science, n.d.
http://www.psy.miami.edu/faculty/mmccullough/Media%20Coverage/The%20Compli
cated%20Psychology%20of%20Revenge%20%20Association%20for%20Psychological%20Science.pdf (accessed 15 Apr. 2016)

23

Bibliography
I. Primary Sources
All Society in Costume. Mrs. W. K. Vanderbilts Great Fancy Dress Ball. A Brilliant Scene
of Bright and Rich Costumes, Profuse Decorations of Flowers, and Some Unique
Dancers. New York Times. New York: New York Times Company, 1883. Accessed
26 Apr. 2016http://query.nytimes.com/mem/archivefree/pdf?res=9E02E3DC1731E433A25754C2A9659C94629FD7CF
Newspaper article describing the Vanderbilts breaking into society and the impact
their major costume ball had on New York high society
Du Maurier, George. A Practical Memento. Illus. London: Punch Limited, Vol. 99, 1890
July 5. pp 6. Accessed 26 Apr. 2016.
https://archive.org/stream/punchvol98a99lemouoft#page/322/mode/2up
Cartoon depicting sentiments about the frivolity and uncultured aspects of American
women
Gibson, Charles Dana. The Ambitious Mother and the Obliging Clergyman. Illus. in: Life,
1902 June 5, pp. 488 & 489. Accessed 7 Apr. 2016.
Illustration depicting how Americans felt about British aristocrats.
Lankester, Edwin Ray. Degeneration, A Chapter In Darwinism. London: Macmillan and
Co., 1880.
Provides insight into the psychological mindset and theories present during the
nineteenth century.
Leech, John.Bloomerism- An American Custom. Illus. London: Punch Limited, 1851.
Accessed 6 Apr. 2016. http://punch.photoshelter.com/gallery-image/Victorian-EraCartoons/G0000czGdMEOaVXY/I0000kb.TLxFFnxk .
Cartoon depicting how the British felt about American women.
Matthiessen, F.O. American Renaissance: Art and Expression in the Age of Emerson and
Whitman. New York: Oxford University Press, Inc., 1941.
Source containing the first use of the term American Renaissance in reference to the
Gilded Age.
Panton, Jane Ellen. Leaves From A Life. London: Eveleigh Nash, 1908.
Panton was a British author who composed books of advice and wrote about many
domestic subjects. Provides quotes regarding how English women reacted to female
American fashion trends.
Prospects for the Coming Season, Illus. London: Punch Limited, Vol. 98, 1890 March 29.
pp.147. Accessed 25 Apr. 2016.
https://archive.org/stream/punchvol98a99lemouoft#page/146/mode/2up

24

Cartoon depicting how the British publicly recognized smaller physical stature of
male, British aristocrats
Trousseau for a Bride: Miss Consuelo Vanderbilts Fine Linen and Lace. Rich and Dainty
Embroideries, New York Times. New York: New York Times Company, 1895.
Accessed 6 Apr. 2016. http://0-search.proquest.com.skyline.ucdenver.edu/
hnpnewyorktimes/docview/95311641/D6FA6DB35D904479PQ/1?accountid=14506
New York Times article showing what was socially acceptable in publication to
Americans at the time.
Van Rensselaer, May King and Frederic Van De Water. The Social Ladder. New York:
Henry Holt and Company, 1924.
Gives first hand reactions from a Knickerbocker woman to the influx of arrivistes
arriving in New York during the Gilded Age.

II. Secondary Sources

"Benedict-Augustin Morel (18091873)." American Journal of Psychiatry, 161(12), p. 2185
Describes who Morel was as well as how he defined his original theory of
degeneration
Cash For Class, Million Dollar American Princesses. Documentary series. Smithsonian
Channel, 2015.
Helpful source for background context on the nouveau riche families of the Gilded
Age.
Cashman, Sean Dennis. America in the Gilded Age, Third Edition. New York: New York
University Press, 1993.
Provides context to the industry occurring during the Gilded Age as well as those
individuals who took advantage of the opportunities new industry presented.
Castella, Tom de. Bantams: The Army Units For Those Under 5ft 3in, BBC News
Magazine. 9 Feb. 2015. Accessed 12 Apr. 2016 http://www.bbc.com/news/magazine31023270
Provides helpful statistics regarding men who enlisted in the British armed forces at
the onset of the first World War.
Cooper, Dana Calise. Informal Ambassadors: American Women, Transatlantic Marriages,
and Anglo-American Relations, 1865-1945. Theses and Dissertations. Fort Worth:
Texas Christian University, 2006.
Describes another position on the topic of transatlantic marriage migrations and allows
me to further position my thesis historiographically.
Homberger, Eric. Mrs. Astors New York: Money and Social Power in a Gilded Age. New
Haven: Yale University Press, 2002.

25
Gives context to how the Knickerbocker families behaved prior to the arrival of the
nouveau riche as well as how these newcomers influenced and rather forced change in
the established families of old money.
Hughes, Kathryn. The Middle Classes: Etiquette and Upward Mobility, British Library n.d.
Accessed 3 May 2016. http://www.bl.uk/romantics-and-victorians/articles/the-middleclasses-etiquette-and-upward-mobility
Article provided background information regarding the power of the aristocratic
society in Great Britain in the late nineteenth century.
Jaffe, Eric. The Complicated Psychology of Revenge, Association for Psychological
Science . Accessed 15 Apr. 2016.
http://www.psy.miami.edu/faculty/mmccullough/Media%20Coverage/The%20Compli
cated%20Psychology%20of%20Revenge%20%20Association%20for%20Psychological%20Science.pdf
Presents evidence regarding psychological principles around the idea of revenge.
Kehoe, Elizabeth. Titled Americans: Three American Sisters and the British Aristocratic
World into Which They Married, (New York: Atlantic Monthly Press, 2004)
Describes the background of not only Jennie Jerome, but of her mother and
father. It provides insight as to why they were nouveau riche.
King, Greg. A Season of Splendor: The Court of Mrs. Astor in Gilded Age New York.
Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2009.
Describes the background and life of Mrs. Astor, the queen of the New York social
scene.
MacColl, Gail and Carol McD. Wallace. To Marry and English Lord. New York: Workman
Publishing, 1989.
Describes the origins of the Knickerbocker society and their feelings towards the
arrivistes.
Oxford Dictionary, s.v. Nouveau Riche. Accessed 12 Apr. 2016
Provides definitions for the unfamiliar Gilded Age words.
PBS, Mrs. Astors House: 5th Avenue and 65th Street Accessed 12 Apr. 2016.
http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/carnegie/gallery/astorman.html Accessed
Background information and pictures related to Mrs. Astors home on Fifth Avenue
Peterson, Rebecca L. "Gilded Age Travelers: Transatlantic Marriages and the Anglophone
Divide in Burnett's The Shuttle. All Theses and Dissertations. Provo: Brigham Young
University Press, 2012.
Provides information to position my argument historiographically.
Rosner, David. Portrait of an Unhealthy City: New York in the 1800s in The Living

26

City/NYC. Accessed 12 Apr. 2016.

http://www.livingcityarchive.org/htm/framesets/living_city/fs_dev.htm
Provides statistics regarding how many individuals were living in New York prior and
during the Gilded Age. There were parts of New York City that, from that time until
the present, were among the most densely populated areas in the entire world.