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Chemistry Form 4 A Notes PDF
Chemistry Form 4 A Notes PDF
SEPT 2013
Molecules
Ions
Matter
Elements
Description
Smallest particles of an element that retain the chemical
properties of the element.
Examples : Sodium atom (Na)
Zinc atom (Zn)
Helium atom (He)
Particles composed of two or more atoms.
Can be with the same or different atoms
Examples : Same atoms Oxygen gas (O2)
Different atoms Ammonia (NH3)
Charged particles positive or negative
Positive charged ion (Cation) Zinc ion (Zn2+)
Negative charged ion (Anion) Chloride ion(Cl-)
Compounds
Descriptions
Particles made up of the same atoms only.
Can be in the form of atom or molecules.
Cannot be split into two or more simpler substance by
chemical means.
Examples:
- Metallic Copper(Cu), Iron(Fe), Gold(Au)
- Non-metallic Oxygen(O2), Sulphur(S8)
Particles made up of two or more elements.
Can be molecules or ions.
Examples:
- Molecules Water (H2O)
Sulphur trioxide (SO3)
Tetrachloromethane (CCl4)
- Ions Sodium chloride (Na+, Cl-)
2
LIQUID
Boiling point
GAS
Melting point
Solid
Liquid
Gas
compact, orderly
manner
Loosely packed,
disorderly manner
Vibrate, rotate in
a fixed position
Move freely
Particles Kinetic
energy
Shape
Very low
Moderate
High
Fixed
Volume
Rate of diffusion
Fixed
Low
Attractive forces
between particles
Very strong
Medium
Very weak
Particles motion
3. Experiment (PeKa)
a. Heating curve of naphthalene/acetamide
Diagram:
Graph:
AB: Solid
EF: Gas
CD: Liquid
Explanation:
AB: When the solid is heated, heat energy is absorbed. This causes the
particles to gain kinetic energy and vibrate faster.
BC: The temperature remains constant because the heat energy absorbed by
the particles is used to overcome the forces between particles so that the
solid can turn into a liquid. At this temperature, both solid and liquid are
present.
CD: The particles in liquid naphthalene absorb heat energy and move faster.
During the heating of naphthalene:
- Water bath is used (ensure uniform heating, naphthalene is flammable)
- Naphthalene is stirred continuously (ensure an even heating)
Water bath: For heating a substance which is less than 100C.
Oil bath: For heating a substance which is more than 100C.
Latent heat of fusion: heat required to convert solid to liquid without a
change in temperature.
b. Cooling curve of naphthalene/acetamide
Diagram:
Graph:
PQ: Gas
TU: Solid
RS: Liquid
Explanation:
RS: When the liquid is cooled, the particles in the liquid lose their
kinetic energy. They move slower as the temperature decreases.
ST: The temperature of naphthalene remains constant because the
heat loss to the surroundings is balanced by the heat energy given off
during freezing.
TU: The particles in solid naphthalene release heat energy and vibrate
slower.
During the cooling of naphthalene:
Boiling tube containing naphthalene is placed in a conical flask. (to
minimize heat loss which may affect the accuracy of freezing point
air trapped in conical flask is poor conductor of heat)
Stirred by using thermometer (to ensure even cooling)
Super cooling
i.
ii.
b) J.J. Thomson
- Electrons of atom are arranged and move around the nucleus in orbital
called electron shells.
- Nucleus contains protons.
- The orbital has various radius form the nucleus.
9
Symbol
p
n
e
Relative atomic
mass (RAM)
1
1
Charge
+
neutral
3. Electron Configuration
Maximum number for each shell:
First shell : 2 electrons
Second shell : 8 electrons
Third shell : 8 electrons
Forth shell : 2 electrons
Valence electron = electrons found in the outermost shell of an atom.
10
11
Diffusion of liquid:
(Blue)
Diffusion of solid:
Jelly
3. Brownian movement
12
2.4 ISOTOPES
1. Atoms of same element with the same number of protons but different
number of neutrons.
Uses
Isotopes
Carbon-14
Oxygen-18
Sodium-24
Magnesium27
Cobalt-60
Krypton-81
Technetium99
Iodine-131
Iodine-123
Uranium-235
Medical tracer
treat the thyroid gland &
used in the diagnosis of adrenal medulla
for imaging suspected neural crest and other endocrine
tumours
used in imaging to monitor thyroid function
detect adrenal dysfunction
Enriched as a fuel for most nuclear reactors
13
Americium241
Phosphorus32
14
M.M.
M.M.
M.V.
VOLUME OF
SOLUTION, cm3
2.
Avogadros Constant, NA
Number of particles in one mole of substance.
6.02 1023
Standard Temperature and Pressure (S. T. P.)
Temperature = 0C
15
3.
E.F.: CH2O
5. Determining empirical formula by using table form:
Element
Mass/Percentage
x
No. of mole
y(
Ratio
Empirical formula
4. Experiment for empirical formula:
For higher reactivity of metal (Mg, Zn, Ca, Al)
Metal tape
16
Precaution:
- Lift the lid at intervals to allow oxygen gas to enter for
combustion of metal.
- Lid is closed immediately after it is lifted to prevent white fume
from escaping to the surroundings.
- Stop heating the metal when it is started to glow.
Reactive metal: both reactant and products are solid and thus, the
individual mass of metal and oxygen cannot be determined.
For lower reactivity of metal (Cu, Sn, Pb, Ag)
17
8/2
15
16
17
18
18
Classify elements into 4 groups which are gases, metals, non-metals and
metal oxide.
Not accurate heat and light are included as gases.
ii. Johann W. Dobereiner
Classify elements with the same chemical properties into groups of three
(triads).
Discover relationship between R.A.M. in each triad. (Middle R.A.M. =
average R.A.M.)
iii. John Newlands
Arrange elements in order of increasing nucleon number (mass number)
in horizontal rows. Each row has 7 elements.
Law of Octaves every eighth element have similar chemical properties.
Only accurate for the first 16 elements.
Discover the existence of periodic pattern.
iv. Lothar Meyer
Volume of an atom =
of an element
Low boiling and melting point (weak Van der Waals forces /
intermolecular forces of attraction.
Do not conduct electricity.
Low density (atoms are far apart).
Going down the group,
Melting & Boiling point
Atomic size
Forces of attraction between atoms
Heat energy
Density
Atomic mass
Uses:
Helium
Fill airship, bicycle tyres of Olympic cyclist &
meteorological balloons.
Exist in the gas in divers oxygen tank.
Neon
Advertising boards / lights.
Electric discharge through glass tubes produces a red
light.
Argon
Electric light bulb.
Carrier gas in gas-liquid chromatography.
Krypton
Laser light
Flash lamps of a light house
Radon
For cancer treatment.
Xenon
For flash lamp.
b) Group 1 elements Alkali metals
Made up of Lithium (Li), Sodium (Na), Potassium (K), Rubidium (Rb),
Cesium (Cs), and Francium (Fr).
Has 1 valence electron.
Very reactive to become positive ions (easily to donate valence electron).
Physical properties:
Soft metal with shiny and silvery surfaces (can be cut by knife).
Good electric and heat conductor.
Less dense than water.
20
21
4Li + O2 2Li2O
Burns slowly with red light.
Sodium
4Na + O2 2Na2O
Burns quickly and brightly with yellow light.
Potassium 4K + O2 2K2O
Burns very quickly and brightly with reddish-purple light.
c) Alkali metal + halogen gas (Chlorine & Bromine)
Products: metal halides (metal bromide / chloride white powder)
Lithium
Halogen
22
Lithium
Sodium
Potassium
4.2 HALOGEN
1. Group 17 elements (Halogens)
Made up of fluorine (F), chlorine (Cl), bromine (Br), iodine (I), and
astatine (At).
Exist in diatomic molecules.
Non metal.
Physical properties:
Heat and electrical insulator.
Low melting and boiling point (weak forces between the molecules).
When going down the group,
Atomic size
Van der Waals forces
Heat energy used to overcome forces
Boiling and melting point
Colour of halogen darker.
2. Chemical properties:
Same chemical properties (same valence electrons 7)
High electronegativity
When going down the group,
Reactivity/electronegativity
Van der Waals forces
Tendency to accept electron
Solubility
Atomic size
Distance between the nucleus and outermost shell
Reaction:
Halogen + water
Product: two acids.
23
24
/ Lime soda
26
8. Transition Element
Elements between Group 3 until Group 12.
Metals
Show metallic properties:
Shiny surface
Ductile
Malleable
Can withstand high tension
High melting and boiling point
High density (big atomic mass despite small radius)
Electric and heat conductor
Form coloured compounds or ions
Transition elements
Colour
3+
Chromium ion, Cr
Green
2+
Iron(II) ion, Fe
Green
3+
Iron(III) ion, Fe
Brown
2+
Copper(II) ion, Cu
Blue
2Chromate ion, CrO 4
Yellow
2+
Manganese ion, Mn
Pink
2+
Cobalt ion, Co
Pink
2+
Nickel ion, Ni
Green
2Manganate ion, MnO 4
Purple
2Dichromate ion, Cr2O 7
Orange
Act as catalyst to speed up the reaction.
Iron, Fe Haber process (producing ammonia, NH3).
Platinum, Pt Ostwald process (producing nitric acid, HNO3).
Nickel, Ni manufacture of margarine.
Vanadium (V) oxide, V2O5 Contact process (producing sulphuric
acid, H2SO4).
Form complex ions.
Polyatomic anion/cation consisting of more than 2 metal ions with
other group bonded to it.
Examples hexacyanoferrate (II) [Fe(CN)6]4 Tetramine copper (II) [Cu(NH3)4]2+
27
Colour
Green
Red
Blue
Purple
Transition elements
Nickel, Iron
Chromium
Iron, Titanium
Iron, Manganese
28
Formula of ionic
compound
M3X
M2X
MX
M3X2
MX
MX2
MX
M2X3
MX3
29
30
Molecular
Formula
PQ4
P2Q4 / PQ2
PQ3
PQ2
31
Properties
Examples
Melting and boiling
points
Solubility
Electrical conductivity
Volatility
Covalent compound
O2, CO2, H2O, N2, Cl2
Low has weak
intermolecular forces of
attraction (Little heat is
needed)
Soluble
in
organic
solvent, insoluble in
water.
Do
not
conduct
electricity.
Volatile
32
Ionic compound
Covalent compound
Simple
Giant
Examples
High
Soluble
in
water, insoluble
in
organic
solvents
Low
High
Insoluble in Insoluble
organic
both
solvent,
soluble
in
water
Electrical Conduct
in
Does not
Does not
conductivity molten state or
aqueous
solution
Volatility
No
Yes
No
Metal
Cu, Zn, Na,
Ca, Pt, Ni,
Mg
High
in Insoluble in
both
Conduct
in
solid or liquid
No
33
CHAPTER 6: ELECTROCHEMISTRY
6.1 Electrochemistry
1. Electrochemistry: study of the interconversion of chemical energy and
electrical energy.
2. Electrolyte: chemical substances that can conduct electricity in molten or
aqueous form.
Examples:
Molten potassium iodide, KI
Molten lead(II) chloride, PbCl2
Molten aluminium oxide, Al2O3
Sulphuric acid solution, H2SO4
Copper sulphate solution, CuSO4
Sodium chloride solution, NaCl
3. Non-electrolyte: chemical substances that cannot conduct electricity either in
molten or aqueous form as they have no free-moving ions.
Examples:
Sulphur
Wood
Molten sugar
Naphthalene
Covalent compounds except ammonia and hydrogen chloride
4. Conductor: substances that can conduct electricity in liquid or solid state (not
regarded as electrolyte as they are not decomposed)
Copper
Iron
Platinum
Silver
5. Electrolysis: process whereby a compound is separated into its constituent
elements when an electric current passes through an electrolyte.
Electrical energy chemical energy
34
Set up of apparatus:
Electrolysis of molten compound
6. 2 types of electrodes:
a) Active electrode
- do not react with electrolytes
- do not involve in chemical reactions
- Carbon, platinum and graphite electrodes
b) Inert electrode
- react with electrolytes
- involves in chemical reactions
- Copper, silver, or mercury electrodes
7. Anode: electrode that connect to the positive terminal of battery.
8. Cathode: electrode that connect to the negative terminal of battery.
9. Anion: negatively charged ions and attracted to anode.
10.Cation: positively charged ions and attracted to cathode.
11.Half equation:
Positive ions (Cations)
Negative ions (Anions)
+
K +eK
2F - 2e F2
+
2F- F2 + 2e
Na + e Na
Ca2+ + 2e Ca
2Cl- Cl2 + 2e
Mg2+ + 2e Mg
2I- I2 + 2e
Al3+ + 3e Al
4OH- 2H2O + O2 + 4e
Zn2+ + 2e Zn
2O2- O2 + 4e
Fe2+ + 2e Fe
2Br- Br2 + 2e
Sn2+ + 2e Sn
Pb2+ + 2e Pb
2H+ + 2e H2
Cu2+ + 2e Cu
Ag+ + e Ag
35
Observation
Shiny grey solid is formed.
Shiny grey solid is deposited.
Shiny grey solid is formed.
Brown deposit is formed.
Observation
Brown gas is produced. (pungent smell)
Purple gas is produced.
Yellowish-green gas is produced.
Colourless gas bubbles are formed. (effervescence)
Colourless gas bubbles are formed. (effervescence)
36
Kalau
Nak
Cari
Minum
Air
Zappel
Free
Sila
Pergi
Hotel
Curi
Agar
Anions
-
F
SO42NO3ClBrIOH-
Father
Say
Nothing
Can
Buy
Indian
Oranges
The lower the position of the ion, the higher the tendency of the ions to be
discharged.
Sulphate ion, SO42- and nitrate ion, NO3- cannot be discharged.
5. Concentration of ions
The anions in a lower concentration solution will be chosen to be
discharged. (diluted)
The cations in a higher concentration solution will be chosen to be
discharged.
Diluted 0.0001, 0.001, 0.01 dm-3
Concentrated 0.1, 1.0, 2.0 dm-3
K+ and Na+ cannot be discharged even if their concentration of the
solution is high.
6. Types of electrodes used
Inert electrodes: Carbon, graphite and platinum (Both of these electrodes
do not react with the electrolytes or products of electrolysis)
Active electrodes: Silver, copper and nickel (Active anode ionises and
concentration of cations in the electrolyte does not change)
Conditions:
Object to be plated cathode
Electroplating metal anode
Electrolyte used must contain the metal ions.
Surface of electroplating metal must be cleaned.
Set-up apparatus:
2. Extraction of metals
Reactive metals (Na, Ca, Mg, Al) are extracted from their ores
compounds using electrolysis.
These metals cannot be extracted by reduction using carbon.
a) Extraction of aluminium metal from bauxite (aluminium oxide)
39
Set-up apparatus:
Observation:
Copper anode becomes thinner and the impurities are deposited below
it.
Copper cathode becomes thicker.
Intensity of blue solution remains the same. Rate of formation of
copper(II) ions of anode = rate of discharge of copper(II) ions of
cathode. Concentration remains the same.
Half equation at anode : Cu Cu2+ +2e
Half equation at cathode : Cu2+ + 2e Cu
40
2. Daniell cell
Produces more stable cell voltage.
Cell built with two pieces of different metal immersed in a salt solution
of their respective metals.
Porous pot: to complete the circuit by allowing the transition of ions and
separate both solutions.
Porous pot can be replaced by salt bridge.
Salt bridge: consists of filter paper soaked with a concentrated salt
solution such as sodium chloride, potassium chloride, potassium nitrate,
ammonium chloride and dilute sulphuric acid.
Weaknesses:
Electrolyte can spill out easily.
Difficult to carry around.
Voltage produced decreases quickly due to the polarity of the
cell(formation of gas bubbles around the electrodes)
41
42
43
Lead(II)
salts
(Pb2+)
No
~
Yes
Yes
Yes
Iron(II)
salts
(Fe2+)
No
No
~
Yes
Yes
Zinc salts
(Zn2+)
No
No
No
~
yes
Magnesium
salts
(Mg2+)
No
No
No
No
~
44
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
45
Strong acid
Dissociate
completely
into
hydrogen ions in water.
Degree of dissociation is 100%.
Produces higher concentration of
hydrogen ions and lower pH
value.
Eg:
Hydrochloric acid
Sulphuric acid
Nitric acid
Weak acid
Dissociate partially into hydrogen
ions in water.
Degree of dissociation is <100%.
Produces lower concentration of
hydrogen ions and higher pH
value.
Eg:
Ethanoic acid
Methanoic acid
Citric acid
Condition
Dissolved in
methylbenzene
(non-acid)
Aqueous
solution (acid)
Observation
Inference
No changes in the colour Does not show
of litmus paper. Bulb does acidic properties.
not light up.
Does not conduct
electricity as there
are no free moving
ions.
Blue litmus paper turns Show
acidic
red. Bulb lights up.
properties.
Conduct electricity
as there are free
moving ions.
3. Bases
Chemical substances that can neutralise an acid to produce salt and water
(Neutralisation process).
Most are not soluble in water. Soluble bases are called alkali.
Eg:
zinc oxide, ZnO
copper(II) oxide, CuO
magnesium hydroxide, Mg(OH)2
46
4. Alkali
Chemical substance that dissociate in water to produce hydroxide ion,
OH-).
Have alkaline properties as the formation of freely moving hydroxide
ions in water.
Eg:
Sodium hydroxide, NaOH
Aqueous ammonia, NH3
Potassium hydroxide, KOH
Calcium hydroxide, Ca(OH)2
Physical properties:
Feel soapy when in touch
Bitter in taste
Turns red litmus paper blue
Has a pH >7
Conducts electricity
Chemical properties:
Acid + Alkali Salt + Water (neutralization)
Alkali + ammonium salt salt + water + ammonia gas
5. Water and alkaline properties
Alkaline properties only can be shown in the presence of H2O (presence
of free-moving ions).
Ionic compound NaOH, KOH, Ca(OH)2
Cannot show their properties in organic solvent.
Ionisation of alkali produces hydroxide ions in water.
Covalent compound NH3
Can dissolve in both water and organic solvent (trichloromethane).
Only show its properties in water.
Conduct electricity only in water.
There is no mobile ion in organic solvents.
47
Strong alkali
Dissociate
completely
into
hydroxide ions in water.
Degree of dissociation is 100%.
Produces higher concentration of
hydrogen ions and higher pH
value (pH 14).
Eg:
Sodium hydroxide, NaOH
Potassium hydroxide, KOH
Weak acid
Dissociate partially into hydrogen
ions in water.
Degree of dissociation is <100%.
Produces lower concentration of
hydroxide ions and low pH value.
Eg:
Magnesium hydroxide,
Mg(OH)2
Aqueous ammonia, NH3
Calcium hydroxide, Ca(OH)2
1. pH concept
To measure acidity and alkalinity of a solution.
From pH 0 14
pH 7 : the concentration of H+ ions = the concentration of OH- ions
Acid
Red
Alkali
Blue
Neutral
Purple
Colourless
Red
Red/orange/yellow
Pink
Yellow
Green
Colourless
Orange
Blue/purple/violet
Yellow
Blue
Green
48
3. Concentration / molarity
No. of moles =
1000cm3 = 1dm3
Concentration =
7.4 Neutralisation
1. Neutralisation
Titration method
Reaction between an acid and a base to produce salt and water.
Acid + Base Salt + Water
H+ ions from acid will react with OH- ions from the alkali to produce
water molecules.
H+ + OH- H2O (ionic equation)
Neutral solution produced pH 7.
Titration: method used to determine the molarity of a solution by using
another solution with a known molarity.
49
End point: all the ions dissociated from acid and alkalis have reacted
completely to form water molecules. (neutral, pH 7)
The water molecules dissociated into ions and thus do not conduct
electricity.
Formula:
Graph:
50
CHAPTER 8: SALTS
8.1 Salts
1. Salts
Ionic compound that is formed when H+ ions in an acid is replaced by a
metal ion or ammonium ion.
Neutral [ pH 7 phenolphthalein (colourless)]
Neutral in term of electrical charges.
Can be produced through neutralisation process.
Examples:
Acids
Hydrochloric acid
HCl
X chloride
Nitric acid
HNO3
X nitrate
Sulphuric acid
H2SO4
X sulphate
Carbonic acid
HCO3
X carbonate
Phosphoric acid
H2PO4
X phosphate
Ethanoic acid
CH3COOH
X ethanoate
2. Solubility of salts
Type of salts
Solubility in water
Sodium, potassium & ammonium All are soluble except oxide,
salts
hydroxide and carbonate
Nitrate, ethanoate salts
All are soluble
Chloride salts
All are soluble except PbCl2, AgCl,
HgCl2
Sulphate salts
All are soluble except PbSO4, BaSO4,
CaSO4
Carbonate, oxide & hydroxide salts
All are insoluble except sodium,
potassium & ammonium
Lead(II) salts
All are insoluble except Pb(NO3)2
and Pb(CH3COO)2
***Lead hallides such as lead(II) chloride, lead(II) bromide and lead(II)
iodide are insoluble in cold water but soluble in hot water.
***Lead(II) nitrate is soluble in both cold and hot water.
3. Preparation of soluble salts except soluble salts of sodium, ammonium and
potassium
Acid + alkali salt + water
Acid + metal salt + hydrogen
Acid + base salt + water
Acid + metal carbonate salt + water + carbon dioxide
51
Colour
Aqueous solution
Green
Blue
Insoluble
Blue
Black
Insoluble
Light green
Light green
52
Brown
Yellow (hot)
White (cold)
Brown (hot)
Yellow (cold)
White
White
Brown /
Green brownish
Insoluble
Insoluble
Insoluble
Colourless
6.
Smell
Oxygen, O2
Colourless
Hydrogen, H2
Colourless
Carbon
dioxide, CO2
Colourless
Ammonia,
NH3
Colourless
Pungent
Chlorine, Cl2
Greenish
yellow
Pungent
Hydrogen
chloride, HCl
Colourless
Pungent
Sulphur
dioxide, SO2
Colourless
Pungent
Nitrogen
dioxide, NO2
Brown
Pungent
2. Production of gases:
Gases
Effect on damp
litmus paper
-
Confirmation
test
Light
up
glowing splinter
Lighted splinter
is placed near
the mouth of the
test tube. A
pop sound is
produced.
Damp blue litmus Bubbled through
paper turns red lime water. It
will turn milky.
Damp red litmus Forms
dense
paper turns blue white
fumes
with hydrogen
chloride gas.
Damp blue litmus Tested by using
paper turns red, litmus paper.
then decolourises
/ bleaches it.
Damp blue litmus Forms
dense
paper turns red white
fumes
with ammonia.
Damp blue litmus Decolourise
paper turns red purple colour of
potassium
manganate(VII)
solution
/
changes orange
potassium
dichromate(VI)
solution
Damp blue litmus Tested by using
paper turns red litmus paper.
Production
54
Oxygen, O2
Hydrogen, H2
Carbon dioxide, CO2
Ammonia, NH3
Chlorine, Cl2
55
Nitrate salts
Sulphate salts
i. Group 1 and 2 sulphate salts do not decompose when heated.
ii. The sulphates of heavy metals decompose into metal oxides and
sulphur trioxide when heated except iron(II) sulphate which
release sulphur dioxide gas.
iii. Ammonium sulphate sublimates at first and decompose into
ammonia and hydrogen sulphate when further heating.
56
Chloride salts
i. All are stable to heat except ammonium chloride.
ii. Ammonia gas emerges first, then followed by hydrogen chloride.
4. Test for anions
57
5. Confirmatory tests
58
59
CHAPTER
INDUSTRY
9:
MANUFACTURED
SUBSTANCES
IN
Sulphur, S
Step II
Sulphur
dioxide, SO2
Sulphur
trioxide, SO3
Step III
Sulphuric acid,
H2SO4
Oleum, H2S2O7
60
Step I
i. Production of sulphur dioxide
ii. S + O2 SO2
Step II
i. Production of sulphur trioxide
ii. 2SO2 + O2 2SO3
iii. High % of SO2 is converted into SO3.
Step III
i. SO3 + H2SO4(concentrated) H2S2O7 (oleum)
ii. H2S2O7 + H2O 2 H2SO4
9.2 Ammonia
1. Main uses:
To manufacture fertilizers
As a cooling agent in refrigerator
To produce nitric acid (Ostwald process)
To make explosives
To prevent coagulation of latex
To produce ammonium chloride
2. Haber process
Nitrogen, N2
Hydrogen, H2
Ammonia, NH3
Excess N2 and H2
61
550
9.3 Alloy
1. Advantages of alloying:
Increase the hardness/strength of metal
Prevent corrosion/rusting
Improve appearance of metal
2. Physical properties:
Ductile can slide over when external force is applied.
62
Alloy
Carbon steel
Composition
99% iron
1% carbon
Properties
Hard
Stainless steel
74% iron
18% chromium
8% nickel
90% copper
10% tin
Rust resistant
Bronze
Brass
70% copper
30% zinc
Magnalium
70% aluminium
30% magnesium
95% aluminium
1% magnesium
4% copper
97% tin
3% lead and
antimony
Duralumin
Pewter
Solder
Cupro-nickel
50% tin
50% lead
Copper, nickel
Uses
For
construction,
bridges,
vehicles,
tools, heavy machinery
For
crockery,
kitchenware
and
machine parts
For kitchenware, ship
propellers, decorative
ornaments and art
crafts.
For
musical
instrument, electrical
connecter, decorative
ornaments
For
mugs,
candlesticks,
decorative ornaments
and souvenirs.
For soldering electrical
wires and metal pipes
For coins
hard, transparent
solid
Uses
film wrap,
plastic bags
electrical
insulation
bottles, toys
similar to LDPE
carpet,
upholstery
pipes, siding,
flooring
seat covers,
films
toys, cabinets
packaging
(foamed)
rugs, blankets
clothing
non-stick
surfaces
electrical
insulation
lighting covers,
signs
skylights
latex paints,
adhesives
64
cis-Polyisoprene
natural rubber
Polychloroprene (c
is + trans)
(Neoprene)
isoprene
CH2=CHC(CH3)=CH2
chloroprene
CH2=CHCCl=CH2
requires
vulcanization
for practical use
tough, rubbery solid synthetic rubber
oil resistant
65
66
/ Optical fibres
~ THE END ~
~ febianhenry_96 ~
67