PRACTICAL CENTRE (KARACHI) VISIT US AT: HTTP://WWW.PHYCITY.COM XvPhysics Chapter# 11 Pagot3 11.1 _ | Caloric Theory. 0s 113 [ite Ey 0 iia penne 08 11 |Rettn ewe Cok and Feo Se 08 116 [Themonetis Popes 0s 11 [Tel Espuson 0 11a [Lina Expansion 06 119 [Yomi Beso 7 Stow te coc of afl tpn ood nce OR Prove that B = 3. That nea Temong D 1112 BinealicTamgnele 08 113 [Bove ng 08 tia [chile ® 1138 [Gags Law ® 11.16_{ Absdlute Zero. 10 11a) Ruste Near Toy of Gas 0 TD | eye Pn af Gon Kasay van [Pim tatieasmage tansy tne emgy ofp moeeasis |g Aims poral oe aba onpea 1120 [Boy's Lo ote Batis of Kinsler Theoy fGen [13 1133” [He Canc is 1133 [ Late 5 t1a4_ [specie en py is 113s [Mar sei ea apc 5PRACTICAL CENTRE (KARACHI) VISIT US AT: HTTP://WWW.PHYCITY.COM XiuPhysios Chaptort 11 Paget 4 sym [eves pss woiypwotrmlrha piste pl Q. Why C,>C, 7 Explain Prove tat the difference of Molar specific heat enpacity a constant 11.27 | pressure and at constant volume 's equal to the universal gas] 17 constant. 11.28 | For a monoatomie gas prove that, C, 3 R and Cp= 3 R. 18 11.29 | Work Done in Thermodynamics. [9 11.30 | Thermodynamics. wv [11.31 | First Law of Thermodynamics, 19 11.32. | Sign Conversions. 2» 11,33 | Isolated System. 20 11.34 | Cyclic Process. 20 11.35 _| Applications of the First Law of Thermodynamics 20 11.36 | Second Law of Thermodynamics. 23 11.37 | Kelvin's Statement. 23 11.38 | Clausius Statement, ’ 24 11.39 _| Equivalence of Kelvin and Clauaiul Si. 24 11.40 | Camot Engine, 24 1141 | Camot Cycle. 24 11.42 _| Efficiency of Enging® 25 11.43 | Theoretical liit of Efficiency of Carnot Engine. 26 11.44 | Entropy. 26 11.45 | Questions from Past Papers. 27 11.46 | Solved Numericals of Book. 30 11.47 | Solved Numericals of Papers. 38 11.48 | Numericals for self practice from past papers 39 11.49 | MCQs of Papers. 41 11.50. | Multiple Choice Questions (For Self Practice) “a 0 anaemia mnt nner aensereenneenaes eatenPRACTICAL CENTRE (KARACHI) VISIT US AT: HTTP://WWW.PHYCITY.COM HEAT 11.1- Caloric Theory: In order to explain the nature of heat, in the beginning of nineteenth century a famous scientist Calorie presented the theory called as Caloric Theory. According to this theory “Heat is present in every material body in the form of a hypothetical weight less fluid called Caloric”. Further if there is no transfer of heat takes place from the material body then the amount of caloric remains constant in the body. Difference of temperature between the bodies was assumed to be due to the presence of different amounts of caloric. The reason of acceptance of caloric theory was its successful explanation of heat transfer, such as conduction and convection. Drawbacks of Caloric Theory: One of the main problem with the caloric theory was its unability to explain the heat generated by the friction, which was first noticed by Gounb>Rumford. Later on when it was proved that the sun-rays reaches the carth after-traveling through space and not through the material medium, caloric theory could.not explain this way of heat transfer which is called as Radiation. Hencé caloric theoty was rejected 11.2- Internal Energy: Internal energy is the energy contained ifa Body. It is the sum of all types of energies possessed by a body. For a mono al6tnje. or on ideal gas Microscopically it is defined as the sum of Translatory Kinetic energies of molecules. 11.3- Heat Energy: Heat is that internal energy whieh transfers from one object to another object due to the temperature difference bebween them. It is the energy in transit. Once the energy is transferred to a body then it Becomes internal energy of the body. ‘The S.1. unit of heat is Joule 11.4 Temperature; The measure of tie degree of hotness or coldness of a body is called Temperature. ‘Temperature is the property which determines the direction of flow of heat when two bodies are brought in thetmal contact with each other. Microscopically temperature is defined as, “the average of Translatory Kinetic Energy of molecules.” 11.5-Relation between Celsius and Fahrenheit Scales: at‘ consider that both Celsius thermometer and Fahrenheit thermometer are dipped in the same water bath placed at the room temperature, as shown in the figure. The final and initial points in Celsius thermometer are labelled as A and B, and that are in the Fahrenheit thermometer as A’ and B' respectively, where as the mercury level in both are labelled as C and C.. As the mercury level in both the tis will tise to the same height, therefore,the ratio of mercury level raised in the Celsius thermometer to the total height of mercury level is equal to the ratio of mercury level raised in the Fahrenheit thermometer to the total height of mercury level, mathematically. XiLPhysics Chaptert 11 Pages 5PRACTICAL CENTRE (KARACHI) VISIT US AT: HTTP://WWW.PHYCITY.COM XIlPhysics Chapters 11 Paget 6 Ac - T= We, 32) AB AD 180 TY, TY, -32 5 or 2-0 Teo 2 er, -32 100-0 212-32 © 9) 100 180 11.6- Thermometric Propertie: Property of substance which change uniformly with the change of temperature is called thermometric property. For example electrical resistance of wire changes with the change of temperature, the volume of a gas at constant pressure changes with the change of temperature. 11.7- Thermal Expansion: The countable increase in the dimension of any substance by means of Thermal energy is called Thermal Expansion OR “The increase in size of a substance when heated is called Thermal Expansion.” There are following three types of thermal expansion: () Linear Expansion (2) Cubical or Volurietcie Expansion (3) Superficial Expansion ‘ 11.8- Linear Expansion: Definition: “The increase in length of a substance gm feating is called Linear Expansion.” Explanation: Suppose the length of a uniform thin taclallic rod at some initial temperature 7, is Lx. Let the rod is heated through a small temperature AT, such thatthe increase in length of rod is AL and the final temperature and final length of rod are Ts and La respectively, mathematically Change or increase in lengilP9f rod, AL Change or increase in temperature of rod, AT = Tz —T; Experimentally it has been found that the change in length of rod is directly Proportional to the oFiginal length and the change in temperature of the rod, mathematically ALR Li— (a) and AL a AT —() From comparing (a) and (b) ‘AL a _L,aT [ar aLatT] - =a) L-ky aLAT Li Lita Liat ly = Li fitaaty Where “a” is the constant of Proportionality known as “The Coefficient of Linear Expansion”, which determines the nature of material of the rod. Co-efficient of Linear Expansion: AL From equation (1) a= ca tis defined as “The change in length per unit length per Kelvin rise is temperature” The value of a is different for different materials Unit: The S.1 unit of co-efficient of linear expansion is *C"! or K!PRACTICAL CENTRE (KARACHI) VISIT US AT: HTTP://WWW.PHYCITY.COM XilPhysies Chapter 11 Paget 7 11.9- Volumetric Expansion: Definition: “The increase in volume of a substance on heating, ts called volume or cubical expension.” Explanation: Suppose the volume of a cube at some initial temperature T, is V1. Let the cube is heated through a small temperature AT, such that the increase in volume of cube is AV and the final temperature and final volume of solid are T; and V2 respectively, mathematically. Change or increase in volume of cube, AV = V2 Vi Change or increase in temperature of cube, AT = T2— Ti: Experimentally it has been found that the change in volume of cube is directly proportional to the original volume and the change in temperature of the cube, mathematically AVaV;——(a) and AVa AT—=() From comparing (a) and (b) AV_ a VAT [AV=B VAT a V2-Vi= BV, AT Vs= Vi + BV AT fr repr} ON Where “B” is the constant of proportionality known as “the Co-efficient of Cubical Expansion” Co-efficient of Volume Expansion: From equation (1 AV var It is defined am“The change in volume. per unit volume per Kelvin rise is temperature”. The value.ofPis different for different materials. Unit: Th STunit of co-efficient of cubical expansion is °C”! or K” 11.10-_Q.\Show that the Co-efficient of Cubical Expansion of a Solid Substance is the Thrice of Its Co-efficient of Linear Expansion: Or Prove that B. = 3a Let us consider a cube whose length is L,, width is W) and height is hy at some initial temperature T,, such that the initial volume of cube is Vy = LWity a Let the cube is uniformly heated and let the temperature rise is AT, such thatthe final length, width and height of cube are La, W, and hy respectively, which are given by, Li {1+aAT} W2= W, {1 +07} hy=hy {1+ aAT } volume of the cube iPRACTICAL CENTRE (KARACHI) VISIT US AT: HTTP://WWW.PHYCITY.COM xiLPaysics Chaptoré 11 Paget 8 Vz= Ls Wo by Ly {1 +aAT}W, (1 +adT} hy (1 +adT} LW hy f1+0a7T Vo=V, (1+aaTP Expanding the bracket term by, {arb }=a’ + 3a’b + Sab? + DY Vi=V, {1 +3aAT + 307AT? + 0°'AT? } as “a" is very very small, therefore neglecting its higher powers. V2=Vi {1 +3aAT } @ Bat Vi= Vi {1+ BAT} @ OR Vv: Wh, Therefore by comparing equation (2) & (3) we get. Mi (1+ BaT}=y\ (1 +3047} A+ paT=1+30AT Bgftaagt PROVEDevcsn 11.11- Bimetallic Thermostat: Thermostats are commonly .used for piGinglining desired temperatures. A bimetallic thermostat consists of two dissimilaz metal strips whose co-efficients of linear expansion are different. The Strips are joined very well. The metallic strip works as an electric contact breaker in electrical heétincircuit. When the desired temperature of the body is reached, the Strip bends and Whe circuit breaks. Thus the current stops flowing through the heating coil, when the\temperature falls, the Strip contracts and the connection is restored. 11.12- Bimetailic Thermometer: A bimetaili€ thermometer consists of two dissimilar metal Strips whose Co-efficient of linear expansion® are different. The Strips are joined very'well. The Strip is often is in the form of acoil. Its one end is fixed and the other end is attached to a pointer. This kind of thermometer is usually used as ordinary air thermometer, oven ‘thermometer and in automobiles for automatic choke. 11.13- Boyle’s Law: The relation between the Volume and Pressure of a gas was studied by Robert Boyle and formulated it in the form of a law known as Boyle’s law, which states that “For the given mass of a gas, the volume of a gas is inversely proportional to the pressure of aonrery the gas provided the temperature of gas remains constant” mathematically tonPuT 1 Val. “pPRACTICAL CENTRE (KARACHI) VISIT US AT: HTTP://WWW.PHYCITY.COM XILPhysies Chapter 11 Paget 9 oR PV= Constand For different states ofthe gas itcan be written as P,V, = PV Constant The Pressure — volume graph of Boyles law is a hyperbola. The inverse relation of volume and pressure of a gas remains valid until the mass of gas remains constant. If how ever the mass of gas varies then the product PV will be directly proportional to the mass of the gas. PV am OR OR Real gases obey Boyle's law at low pressure 11.14 Charle’s Law: ‘The relation between the volume of a gas and itf @bsblute temperature was first studied by Charle’s called the Charle’s Law, which gtat2¥'that “for the given mass of a gas, the volume of a gas is directly proportional to the absolute temperature of the gas provided the pressure of the gas remains constant’, inathematically vat oR ons ¥ x For different states Sf gas it can be wirtten as YS Y; Med Constant AS 7 > Constant 7 The VolusigS Temperature graph of a Charle’s Law is a straight line. The direct relation of volume and temperature of a gas remains valid until the ‘mass of gas rentdin constant. If however the mass of gas varies then the ratio will be directly propgrtional to the mass of the gas. v Yom Tr OR |Y constant! mT. For different states of gas = Y= constant mT, mT; Real gases Obey Charle’s law at high temperature 11.15- General Gas Law: The effect of simultaneous change of Temperature, Pressure and Volume for a given mass of a gas is called as general gas law. From Boyles law PY constant m ‘And from Charle’s law Y= Constant =PRACTICAL CENTRE (KARACHI) VISIT US AT: HTTP://WWW.PHYCITY.COM XIL-Physics Chaptor# 11 Paget 10 By merging both the equations, we get e Where Ra is the constant called gas constant, which has no significance ‘Mass in Grammes Molecular Mass ‘As number of moles ~ oR Where MRj is the product of molecular mass of gas and gas constant and this, product is « universal constant denoted by “R” A or ‘Where “R” is called universal gas constant, in SI. units its value 338314 J/mole-K. 11.16- Absolute Zeré According to the Charle’s Law the Volume of, 4 gas at constant pressure is directly proportional td its absolute temperature, and the graph of volume and temperature is a straight line. From the geaph Tt is found that at 0°C the gas still possesses yalume “Vq". When the straight line of a graph isvextra plotted to lower temperature as showa.jirthe figure, it intersects the temperature axis(ai\~273°C. This implies that if] gas could be cool@d off to -273°C, it would have no volume. Lord. Kelvin suggested this point as zero of Kelvin Ségl& which is called Absolute Zero. Thus absolute zero is the theoretical limit of least ostjble temperature. 11.17- Kinetic, Molecular Theory of Gases: | Kinetic moleclaP theory of gases explains the physical behaviour of gases in terms of the éneray nd interaction of gas molecules. Assumptions of this theory were Put forward by Maxwell, Boltzman, Celsius, Kelvin, etc. which are as follows: (1) All gases are composed of molecules, which posses similar physical behaviour. A finite volume of a gas contains a large number of molecules. (about 3x10 molecules of air in Im’ at S.T-P). (2) Sizes of molecules are considered as negligible as compared to the distances between them, (3) Molecules of a gas always remain in random motion, which follows the laws of mechanics. (4) There is no interaction between the molecules of a gas except when they collide with each other, which are perfectly elastic. (5) The collision of molecules with the walls of container are regarded as the pressure of the gas.PRACTICAL CENTRE (KARACHI) VISIT US AT: HTTP://WWW.PHYCITY.COM Xi-Physics Chapters 11 Paget 11 (©) The average translatory Kinetic energy of molecules is directly proportional to the absolute ternperature of the gas, 11.18-Interpretation of Pressure of a Gas on the Basis of Kinetic Molecular Theory of Gases: 1s OR Q. Prove that P = 3 P v Let us consider “n™ moles of a perfect gas are contained in a cubical vessel of equal dimensions each of length L. As gas molecules move randomly therefore for the sake of simplicity we first consider only one molgcule of mass “m” moving along x- direction only. The molecule from left face of the cube moves with velocity V, and collides with the right face of the cube and rebounds back with the velocity -V,. AS Force ~ Rate of change of momentum pe mY + Cm) t p= 2my, oR Cy ‘The distance traveled by the molecule during ohe collision or complete trip is: S=2L From S=vt Wehave 2L=V, xt 1 Me oR 1 2b Equation. (2) => F;= 2mVUQ% % 2 Fue ” L ‘The'above &ghiation is for the force applied by a single molecule on the face of the cube, the farce applied by “N” molecules is =m 4 MM, mM cook L Fel a+ Va + Me As Pressure is the force per unit area \ F pee (where A= P+ + MS Z m Pam ae VAs VA ee fn, is the number of molecules per volume, then N neaPRACTICAL CENTRE (KARACHI) VISIT US AT: HTTP://WWW.PHYCITY.COM Xil-Physies Chaptor# 11 Page# 12 OR pen ny Equation (3) => P= (v2 + Vi + Vi + ----+Vi) Nin, 24 ye 2 2 or pena + Va + Vi + a+ Vie) Where Va + Vi Vie +> N and nium = p,, the density of gas Pa pVp --------- (4) The total velocity of molecules could be expressed as VieWi+ Wr VE Butwhere Wievi-V Therefore VieVie Virw OR Via3P a Ww Vyas 3 Now equation (4) => Proved 11.19-Q.Prove that the-Average Translatory Kinetic Energy of Gas\Molecules is Directly Proportional to the Absolute, Temperature of Gas: OR S Prove that T « K.E Proof: . According to the kinetic molecular theory, the pressure of a gas is given by: Equation (4) => P= = pv" Where" p= nym , the density of gas And n= x, the number molecules per unit volume of a gas, therefore, Nm oR PVE Nm ve Multiplying and dividing R.HE.S. by 2, we net.PRACTICAL CENTRE (KARACHI) VISIT US AT: HTTP://WWW.PHYCITY.COM XIlPhysics Chapter# 11 Paget 13 o) 2n(ImF) Py=ZN G mv") According to the general gas law PV=nART As avagadro’s number is the number of molecules present in a mole of a kas therefore, vn OR Where = | the Boltzman's constant “ PV=NKT -- (2) By equating equation (1) and (2), we get 2 (lnc) C ZN(Gmw) =nKr . . 1 3 : dmv?=2er - . gm 3 5 \ -E)ave= 3 KT ($Elee= 3 . Since the factor \“ 3 SK = Constant ) 3 ns : K.E=Constantx OR KY a T Proved 11.20- Boyle’s Lawson the Basis of Kinetic Molecular Theory of Gases: ‘Acconling g We kdnetic molecular theory of gases, the Pressure ofa gas is given by: PZ } pe buXQ’s/nvm, the density of gas and w= ¥ the number of molecules of @ gas per unt volumes OR PV= ENme Multiplying and dividing by 2 pv=2n (3) =2 PV= SN (KE)mPRACTICAL CENTRE (KARACHI) VISIT US AT: HTTP://WWW.PHYCITY.COM XILPhysies Chapterd 11 Paget 14 Bur Ene = 2 KT pve Pn xX xr PV=NKT ‘Where temperature in Boyle’s law remains constant so the factor NKT = Constant which proves the Boyle's Law 11.21- Charle’s Law on the Basis of Kinetic Molecular Theory of Gases: According to the kinetic molecular theory of gases, the Pressure of aff38is given by: 1 P=. pv 3P but p =nym, the density of gas and ove ste smb lel otgatge vote ‘Multiplying and dividing by’ 2 (1 P a : v 3n( me) 2 PV=2NRB ane FN @p), But gba 3 ar Pe- Ew x Jar PV=NKT on ¥.(N4) . TP Where pressure of gas in Charle’s Law remains constant, so the factor NK = Constant Vv <= Constar Eo Constant Which prove the Charle's Law.PRACTICAL CENTRE (KARACHI) VISIT US AT: HTTP://WWW.PHYCITY.COM 11.22- Heat Capacity: ‘All cubstances naturally posses ability of absorbing some heat. This natural ability of substances is called Heat Capacity. Heat capacity of a substance depends ‘upon many factors, such as nature, mass, temperature etc. Upon absorption of heat either temperature of substance changes or state of substance changes. The quantity of heat, which changes the temperature of substance, is called Specific Heat and the quantity of heat, which changes the state of substance, is called Latent Heat. When the temperature of substance changes its state remains same and when state of substance changes its temperature remains same. 11.23- Latent Heat: Latent heat of a substance is defined as the amount of heat required to change the state of unit mass of a substance. Mathematically, n= 42 . m oR [4Q-= mi S.L. unit of Latent Heat is VK Latent heat is of two types, 1) Latent Heat of Fusion: Latent heat of fusion is the amount of heat reguided to melt the unit mass of «solid. AQ Hy = 42 OR [4Q_= mA \ 2) Latent Heat of Vapoutization: Latent heat of Vapourization)s the amount of heat required to vopourize the unit mass of a liquid. OR [AQ = THY 11.24- Specific Heat Capacity: {Al subsiaices absorb heat when heated through some range of temperature, This, ability of/Objeets of absorbing heat depends upon their masses and as well as upon their nature'ijso,ealled as Specific Heat Capacity. The specific heat capacity of a substance is definew28 “The amount of heat required 10 rise the temperature of a unit mass of a Substance through one Kelvin or one degree Celsius”. If a substance of mass “m” is heated through a small range of temperature AT, such that AQ is the amount of heat absorbed, then specific heat capacity of a substance is given by: S.L Unit of Specific Heat Capacity is J.Ky"K. 11.25- Molar Specific Heat Capacity: ‘As we know that Specific Heat capacity of a substance depends upon the mass of the substance in addition to the nature of the substance, whichis given by. AQ oy maT city is independent of the mass of the gas, therefore, if But for gasses their heat ¢: “n” is the no of moles of a gas and “M" is the molecular mass of the gas, thenPRACTICAL CENTRE (KARACHI) VISIT US AT: HTTP://WWW.PHYCITY.COM XiLPhysics Chapter# 11 Paget 16 No. of moles of Gas = ofgas _ Molecular mass of gas, OR + Eq C= So Mc= @ Where MC is the product of molecular mass of the gas and the specific heat capacity of the gas, which is called the molar specific heat capacity of a gas, which is given by: MC=C’ AQ Eq. c= ‘Thus molar specific heat capacity of a gas can be defined as-“4elamount of heat required to rise the temperature of one mole of a gas through one Kelvin or one degree Celsius”. ‘The S.1. unit of molar specific heat capacity is J.mot\K™ Molar specific heat capacity is of two types which’are> @ Molar specific heat capacity at constant pressure(C,) It is define as “the amount of heat required-ta Vise the temperature of one mole of a gas through one kelvin at constant pressure.” AQ, > na - (ii) Molar specific heat capacity ateonstant volume (C,). tis define as “the amountof Heat required t0 rise the temperature of one mole of a gas through one kelyin.g? constant volume.” AQu naT 11.26- Q.Why.a"gas possess two types of molar specific heat capacities? Ans. A gas possess two types of molar specific heat capacities, because when a gas is heated, its rise in temperature depends upon the fact that whether the gas is allowed to expand or not. When a gas is allowed to expand, than its volume changes but preasure remains constant. Such type of heat capacity is called molar specific heat capacity at constant pressure. When a gas is not allowed to expand, then its pressure changes but volume remains constant. Such a type of capacity is called molar specific heat capacity at constant volume, Q. Why Cp > Cv? Ans, At constant pressure, the amount of heat given to the gas changes its internal energy and does work also, But at constant volume the amount of heat given to the gas changes its intemal energy only and no work is done. That is why molar heat capacity at constant pressure is greater then molar heat capacity at constant volumePRACTICAL CENTRE (KARACHI) VISIT US AT: HTTP://WWW.PHYCITY.COM Xi-Physies Chapter 11 Paged 17 11.27* Q, Prove that the. Difference of Molar Specific Heat Capacity at Constant Pressure and at Constant Volume is Equal to the Universal Gas Constant: OR Prove that ¢, -¢, =R: Let us consider “n” moles of an idéal or perfect gas enclosed in a cylinder fitted with a frictionless movable piston. The cylinder is placed on a heat reservoir, the temperature of which can be raised or lowered as needed. From kinetic molecular theory, molecules of ideal gas always remain in random motion and collide elastically with the walls of cylinder and with its piston, thereby exerting pressure on the piston which is balanced by the weight of the piston and load placed on the piston. Consider two isotherms (or curves) of an ideal gas at temperatures T; and T2. Suppose the gas is at state “a” with temperature T; and the temperature of the gas is to be raised to T;. For this purpose there are two paths which are@~>b and a~rc. “The path a > b is a constant pressure path. The volume of gachanges to V2 from Vi, AV = Vo-Vr ‘Therefore, some work is said to be done by the Bas AW = PAV ‘And consequently the rise in temperature of gaa AT=T2-Ts evn ‘Thus at constant pressure, thegmount of heat given to the gas changes its internafrenergy and also does work against. the external Pressure, mathematically AQp = AU +AW OR nCeAT Applying the genetal’Bas equation PV = nRT to the Constant Pressure Path a—> b: Initially? NPVs = nT: 0 Firfally PV2= nRTo 0) Subtracting Equation ({) from equation (ii) PV2 — PV; Eq(1) > nCpAT = AU + nRAT -- ‘The path a —> c IS a constant volume path, that is the volume of gas does nut change: av=0 ‘And hence no work is said to be done by the gas AW=0 The rise in temperature of the gas is “AT” The change in internal energy of the gas is “AU” Thus at constant volume, the amount of heat energy given to the gas does nothing but only changes its internal energy, mathematically ‘AQy = AU + AWPRACTICAL CENTRE (KARACHI) VISIT US AT: HTTP://WWW.PHYCITY.COM XILPhysies Chaptard 11 Pagoe 18 AQy= AU +0 OR AQy= AU [+ 4Q, =nC,4T} OR nCyAT = AU--~ -(3) By substituting the value of “AU” from equation (3) in equation (2), we get NCpAT = nCyAT + RAT Cop = Xt (Cy +R) Ce=Cy+R OR [Cp -Cy=R Proved 11.28- Q. For a Monoatomic Gas Prove that, C= Rind Ge RE Proof: 3 kes Skt 4 3 (a) But k= R Ny And Nas n : R a Nin k= Rn N Putting oN =t K=Rn aK. Wh ee AT is the amount of heat required to rise the temperature of ‘n’ mole of a gas at constant volume, which is the molar specific heat capacity at constant volume, ie E. . (3) By comparing equation (2) and (3), we get cade 2 As G-C.=R GdRer c= ER zPRACTICAL CENTRE (KARACHI) VISIT US AT: HTTP://WWW.PHYCITY.COM XIlPhysies Chaptor# 11 Paget 1 11.29- Work Done in Thermodynat Consider an ideal or perfect gas enclosed in a cylinder fited with frictionless and movable piston of eros: ‘A. A constant pressure on the gas is applied by placing a load on the piston. Let the initial volume of the gas is V,, and the cylinder is placed on a heat reservoir and AQ amount of heat flows into the system and the gas expands by pushing the piston upward through a displacement hY and the Volume of the gas becomes V:. sectional at 5 as P £ TH OR F=PA i ! ‘Work done by the gas is AW = Force x Displacement AW = PAdh Where An = AV, the change in volume of gas AW = PAV (1) ‘That is in thermodynamics work is said to be done whGhyolume of the system change at constant pressure ‘Applying gas law for initial and final conditions offyStemn By comparing e.g, (1) and (2) wélge) [AW=nR AT 11.30- Thermodynaniics: The branch of phiytics which deals with the transformation of heat energy into mechanical energy Reulled thermodynamics. 11.31- First Law of Thermodynamics: ‘The fit Nai of thermodynamics is merely the statement of the. law of conservatioh Of Energy when it is stated with reference to heat energy and mechanical energyedt eaitibe stated in thé following ways, “Puen heat energy is transformed into mechanical energy or when other mechanical eneryis converted into heat, the total amount of energy remains constant”. OR “For an isolated system the sum of all forms of energy (ie. heat energy and ‘mechanical energy) remains constant.” EXPLANATION: Consider a system consisting of an ideal of perfect gas which is fitted with a frictionless piston. Let AQ amount of heat energy is supplied to the system and the some quantity of which converts into the work, AW, then the remaining energy (AQ = AW) is retained by the system, due to which intemal energy of the system changes from U, to Uz. It is found experimentally that during the repetition of this process the change in intemal energy (U: — Ui = AU) does not depend upon the path adopted by the system), but it only depends upon the initial and final states of the system. Thus we can write as: AQ. AW = UU,PRACTICAL CENTRE (KARACHI) VISIT US AT: HTTP://WWW.PHYCITY.COM oR AQ - AW =aU AQ =AU + AW 11.32- Sign Conventions: @ AQ is taken as positive when heat enters the system and negative when heat leaves the system (fi) AW is taken positive when work is done by the sysiem and negative when work is done on the system. (iD) AL! is taken positive when intemal energy of the system increases and negative when it decreases, 11.33- Isolated System: An isolated system is the one which has no surroundings, that is there is no low of heat in or out from the system and hence system is not capable to do work, therefore: And From the first law of Thermodynamics AQ =AU + AW We have 0 =au+o0 \ OR AU : OR W=U; Above result proves the law of conservation of entgy i.e. the internal energy of ‘an isolated system cannot be changed by any process\aking within the system. 11.34- Cyclic Process: A cyclic process is the one which ay and ends up at the same state, ic. system finally attains its initial state: oR From the first law of Thephodynamics Q> AU +aw OR AQyo+aw oR AQ = aw It means thabitwork obtained from a cyclic system can be at maximum eque} to the energy supp)iéd twit and no machine in any number of cycles can perform mor: Work than the\energy gained by the machine. A perpetual motion machine of the F:3t Kind was the cohcept of an imaginary machine which could do more work than the energy gained by it. The above result of the first law proves that it is impossible to construct such a machine. 11.35- Applications of the First Law of Thermodynamics: (1) ISOBARIC PROCESS: Definitior An isobaric process is the one in which pressure of the system remains constant, so that the Charle’s Law is applicable. Explanation: Consider an ideal gas system enclosed in a cylinder provided with a frictionless piston. Let the system is placed on a heat reservoir and let AQ be the amount of heat supplied to the system, due to which kinetic energy of gas inolecules increuses which increases the internal energy of the system from Uta UsPRACTICAL CENTRE (KARACHI) VISIT US AT: HTTP://WWW.PHYCITY.COM XiL-Physics Cheptect 11 Pages 21 AU=U)-U; also: the piston of cylinder moves upward which means change in volume of system form V, to Vz but pressure of system remains constant, pezeacibzczzc} AV=V2-Vi 5 Hence some work is said to be done by the system against constant pressure Pov aw Pav, AW =P(V2~V) Barer ae According to the first Law of ‘Thermodynamics AQ=AU+aw OR 4Q= AU +P(V2~Vi) Above result shows that in an isobaric process, all heat energy given to the system is utilized in two ways, One in increasing the intemal energ of the system and second in doing some work done against external pressure. Graphical Representation: On PV-diagram, thie graph of an isobaric process is a straight horizontal line called as an- Asobar. (2) ISOCHORIC PROCESS: Definition: An isochorie process is the dren which volume of the system remains cofistaht, so that the pressure law is applicable, Explanation: . Consider a systeq\otan ideal gas in a cylinder provided witlsa\piston, which is fixed. Let the system is placéd on a heat reservoir and AQ be the amoyrit OFheat supplied to the system which increases “he kinetic energy of gas molecules “and sence internal energy of the systeng Siahges from U) to Uz BU =U:-U; As WistBn'can not move, therefore, there will be no change in volume of system av=0 Hence there will be no work done by the system aw=0 According to the first aw of thermodynamics dQ= AU + aW OR aQ= AU +0 AQ = AU (Pu 4. T The above result shows that in an isochoric process the heat energy given to the system does nothing. but only changes the internal energy of the system.PRACTICAL CENTRE (KARACHI) VISIT US AT: HTTP://WWW.PHYCITY.COM XILPhysics Chaptert 11 Paget 22 Graphical Representation: On PV diagram, the grxich of an Isoe horic Process is a vertical straight line called as Isochor. (3) ISOTHERMAL PROCESS: Definition: An isothermal process is the one in which temperature of the system remains constant, so that the Boyle’s law is applicable. Explanation: Consider a system of a'gas in a cylinder, which is provided with a frictionless movable piston. Walls of the cylinder and piston are ideally heat insulating and its base is ideally heat conducting. The cylinder is placed on a heat reservoir at a temperature T,. The gas is allowed to expand by decreasing the load on the piston and the temperature of system is maintained by supplying some heat energy to the system from heat reservoir. Such an expansion is called Isothermal Expariston. As From the first law of thermodynamics AQ= AU + AV laa sa=aw 4 Above result shows that in ag\jsotitrmal process the heat energy given to the sysiem is converted all into doing saiye work, Ifthe cylinder is placed.ghWecold reservoir at a temperature Ts, then thd gi is. allowed to compressed by increasing’wig load on the piston, The temperature of the\s¥stem is maintained by allowing the heat tp-leaye out form the system to the surroundings.“Subh a contraction is called Isothermal cdiitraetion. Mathematically wos -AQ = -aw | oR AQ = aw Graphical Representation: ‘On P-V. diagram the graph of an isothermal process is a smooth curve called as isotherm, (4) ADIABATIC PROCESS: Definition: An adiabatic process is the one in which system has no surroundings that is no heat can flow in or out from the system. Explanation: Consider a system of a gas in a cylinder provided with a movable frictionless piston, Let the system was initially at temperature Ty. Now let the system is placed on 2iveiPs. Ty)PRACTICAL CENTRE (KARACHI) VISIT US AT: HTTP://WWW.PHYCITY.COM Xi-Physics Chaptor# 11 Ps falls to T, cols off adiabatically and its temperatur: s into work done, Since, AQ= 0 From the first law of Thermodynamics AQ=AU+AW O =au+aw OR ~ AU AW co Above equation shows that in-an adiabatic process, work is done at the cost of internal energy of the system. This process is called adiabatic expansion. Ifthe system was intially at temperature T> and then it ig placed on Insulator then thé gas compresses and its temperature rises, Thus the gap-g? the cost of ite internal energy does some work. This process is called Adiabatic Cohapression. Graphical Representation: On P-V diagram, the graph of an adigbatlte process as a smooth cure called as an adiabati@eurve. 11.36+ Second Law of Thermodynamics: The limitations regarding the transformation of heat energy into mechanical eneig\ate skated by the second law ‘of thermodynamiessfft Yah be stated in a number of ways. The two bgsig siatements were stated by Lord Kelvin and Clausipss 11,.37- Kelvin’s Statement: STATEMENT; “It is impyskible 10 drive a continuous supply of work by cooling a body t0 a lemperatupetawer than of the coldest of its surroundings”. EXPLANATION: (Av machine which works on Kelvin’s statement is called as Heat engine, the working 6f which can be understood by the following flow chart, [source P+ Work ene z eg i.e. a continuous supply of heat can never be obtained from a single supply of heat. The conversion of heat into work is possible only when the working substance works between two different temperatures, It means that, heat engine cannot convert all the heat energy into mechanical energy without giving a part of it to the cold body or the sinkPRACTICAL CENTRE (KARACHI) VISIT US AT: HTTP://WWW.PHYCITY.COM 11.38- Clausius Statement: STATEMENT: Xin Physics Chapter# 11 Paget 24 “Ir is imposable to cause heat to flow from a cold body to a hot body without doing any work” EXPLANATION: A refrigerator is the machine which conveys heat from a body at lower temperature to a body at higher temperature. This can be achieved only when it is connected by a suitable working substance or extemal agency which can provide it enough energy so that heat can flow in reveres direction. Cold Body ot Body Work 11,39- Equivalence of Kelvin and Clausius Statentent: ‘The two statements of the second law of thermodynasnics)seem to be ifferent but the fact is contrary. If any one of the two statements\is Violated, another one also violates, Suppose that Kelvin statement is false, that is it is possible to construct an engine which takes heat from the source and convert, it completely into work aid rejects no heat to the sink. It means that source is capable'tg Wo work by itself. Thus it will extract heat)from the cold body, which provides the basis of such a refrigerator which trangféfstheat from cold body to the hot bgdy “Without the expenditure of energy whiehtis tontrary to the Wer shayartemperaure Ty nQ ae Retrigector (Cd body at tmperaure Ts claussius statement. 11,40- Carnot, Engine: ‘Camot engine\is an ideal heat engine which was assumed by Sadi Camot, It is, free from all, Squpbriections of réal heat engine, thus its efficiency would be an ideal efficiency Wadeauld never be obtained by any real heat engine, Garhiot"engine consists of a cylinder with ideally heat insulating frictionless piston. Further whose walls are ideally heat insulating and base is ideally heat conducting. An ideal gas is enclosed in the eylinder. For the operation of carnot engine, itis also supposed that source and sink are of infinite capacities 11.41- Carnot Cycle: The operating cycle of a camot engine is called camot cycle. It consists of four following processes. PROCESS: 1 In this process the cylinder is placed on a hot body having temperature T). The gas is allowed to expand by decreasing the load on the piston slowly and at the same time some heat Qu, from the heat reservoir flows into the cylinder, so that its temperature remains constant and its volume change to V2 from Vj. This expansion is called as Isothermal expansion,PRACTICAL CENTRE (KARACHI) VISIT US AT: HTTP://WWW.PHYCITY.COM XILPhysics Chapter! 11 Pagel 25 PROCESS: 2 In this process the cylinder is placed on an Ant) insulator and the gas continues to expand a little, Since no heat can enter or leave the system, Boveento therefore this expansion is calied adiabatic expansion, In is process the temperature of gas decreases from T; to T; and its volume change to V5 from V2 PROCESS: 3 In this process the cylinder is placed on a cold body at a temperature T and the gas is compressed very slowly by Increasing the load on the piston. The temperature of the gaf"is,thaintained at T, by the transfer of heat Q: from the gas to thé cold reservoir andits Wolume change to V, from Vs. This compression is called Isothermal Compression» PROCESS: 4 \ . In this process the cylinder is once agaix placed on the insulator and the gas is compressed until it attains its initial state. In thiSprocess no heat can enter or leave the system, therefore this compression is called as Adiabatic compression. The temperature of the gas increasing from T: to T; and its oluine comes back to V, from V.. Ifa graph is plotied betweemyoluie and pressure of the camot cycle a loop is obtained. Curves “AB” and “CD” are the isothermal whereas curves “BC” and “DA” are the adiabatie. 11.42- Efficiency of Engine: . The ratio between oiftput and input is called efficiency mathematically it can be written as: Workdone Heat absorbed Derivation of Efficiency of Carnot Engine: "AP earnot engine operates in a cyclic process therefore, during the cycle, Qy heat is adiigd to the system and Q; heat is rejected, OR Efficiency AQ = QQ. = Output After the completion of the cycle, the ° E Input #100 system retums to its initial state, ie. or 5-4. U=U, a, «10 Ur-U;=0 | - auce e- (25% 21) x 100 From the first law of thermodynamics. ©, @,) AQ=AU+AW e-(&. GE) x 100 OR AQ= aw | es _ oR aW= QQ: e=(s - &)x 100 The efficiency ofa heat eagie is given by a,PRACTICAL CENTRE (KARACHI) VISIT US AT: HTTP://WWW.PHYCITY.COM Xli-Physles Chapteré 11 Paget 26 Since the heat transferred to or frm the carot engine is directly proportional to the absolute temperature of the cold and hot bodies, therefore ‘Thus efficiency of Camot engine depends only upon the temperature of hot and cold bodies. 11.43- Theoretical Limit of Efficiency of Carnot Engine: In order to obtain 100 % efficiency of camot engine, factor 2: in equation (-8) 2 } x 100 should be zero i.e. no heat is transferred to the sink, which is not possible, Also in equation ef - a x 100, for hufdFed percent efficiency factor should be zero. eo T, > Tr =0 Kelyi i.e. sink is kept at absolute\Zeto which is no attainable by any mean, Henee efficiency of ideal heat engine gout not be hundred percent or even camnot engine is not perfect heat engine. 11.44- Entropy: Entropy of a system is the measure of the molecular disorder. It is also defined as the measure of the uhavailability of useful energy in the:system, Mathematically change in entropysis “defined as the heat transferred to the systemt at the constant absolute temperature, S.L. unit of entropy is jk" The change in entropy is taken as positive when heat is added to the system and negative when heat is removed from the system. In any process, molecular disorder of the system either increases or remains constant, which is expressed in the from of a law called “The law of increase of entropy” which states that “Al! natural processes always take place in such a direction so as to cause increase in the entropy of the system and surrounding”. The law of increase of entropy is a direct result of the second law of thermodynamic, so the second law can be stated as “when an isolated system undergoes a change, the disorder of the system, either increases oF remains constant”