Melissa Griswold

IDT 7074 Dr. Trey Martindale

Spring 2016

Annotated Bibliography
Implications of Constructivist Learning Theory in the Mathematics Classroom

Chua, B.L. & Wu, Y. (2005). Designing Technology-based Mathematics Lessons: A Pedagogical
Framework. Journal of Computers in Mathematics and Science Teaching, 24(4), 387-402.
Norfolk, VA: Association for the Advancement of Computing in Education (AACE).
To integrate technology into mathematics teaching and learning effectively, teachers could create a
technology-based learning environment that provides students with opportunities to experience the
process of mathematical investigation. Teachers do not know how to effectively implement technology
into a mathematics classroom in ways that will help encourage students to explore and learn new
mathematical ideas. There is a want from teachers to be able to do this, but various reasons are given for
their inability to do so. One such reason is that they simply do not know how to effectively implement
technology based lessons. The articles purpose is to create a technology-based learning environment
where students can construct their mathematical knowledge through interactive activities with
computers. It has four key components: exploring, conjecturing, verifying, and generalizing, with the
last three being mathematical thinking processes.
Through exploration students will inquire and research about a task. Conjecturing involves students
inferring and making judgement based on their previous knowledge or evidence that they found. Students
will then be able to verify their reasoning. This process can take place several times before coming to a
generalization. The author gives an example of how a standard calculus problem could be solved in other
various ways including numerically, graphically, or algebraically when given the proper tools and support.
The study uses students innate curiosity to help solve a complex problem by playing to the students
strengths. The article shows how the constructivist philosophy can not only be applied to math, but how
you can incorporate technology effectively to help students explore concepts. This is part of the standards
of mathematical practice. Technology can be a very useful tool if it is used appropriately. Whereas most
often it is used as a presentation tool, here it is used to help students make meaning of a problem.

Connell, M.L. (1997). Technology in constructivist mathematics classrooms. Proceedings of Society for
Information Technology & Teacher Education International Conference 1997. 601-604. Retrieved
from: https://www.learntechlib.org/p/47140/
This article aims to see if implementing technology, when aligned with the constructivist instructional
philosophy, gives any added value that you might expect to see from using technology in the classroom.
Teachers and students were purposeful in the use of technology in the classroom. During the research,

students used HyperCad and Hypertalk technology to help them solve problems and as a bridge between
the sketch and the abstraction. Students did not use the technology until they were very familiar with the
problem that they had to solve. Students used the technology to help solve the problems and not as a
presentation tool. Researchers found that when technology was used to enhance the constructivist
philosophy there was an increase in students who scored well and more consistently, as well as a
significant increase in performance score when compared to the classroom that used technology in a way
that was at odds with the classrooms educational philosophy, which was also constructivist. While both
classrooms used a constructivist philosophy and had students succeed, the one in which the technology
was linked with the philosophy saw more success. Technology should be used as a tool for student use in
creating their own, personally meaningful, representations. I think the important thing from this article is
that using technology should be aligned with the teaching philosophy, should enhance learning, and that it
is more than just a presentation tool. Having the students start with and become more familiar with the
problem before being able to use the technology puts the focus on the problem and uses the technology to
enhance and support it.

Ertmer, P. A., Glazewski, K. D., Jones, D., Ottenbreit-Leftwich, A., Goktas, Y., Collins, K., & Kocaman,
A. (2009). Facilitating technology-enhanced problem-based learning (PBL) in the middle school
classroom: an examination of how and why teachers adapt. Journal of Interactive Learning
Research, 20(1), 35-54. Retrieved from: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/262269911_
Facilitating_Technology-Enhanced_Problem-based_Learning_PBL_in_the_Middle_School_
Classroom_An_Examination_of_How_and_Why_Teachers_Adapt
This article introduces what problem based learning (PBL) is, and discusses some of the challenges that
teachers face incorporating PBL into their classroom. Problem based learning that encourages students to
solve authentic, real world problems while also learning educational content at the same time. Some of
the challenges discussed are planning, implementation, classroom management, assessment, time
constraints and technology. The authors argue that while there are challenges in adopting and teaching
through PBL, the benefits to PBL outweigh the challenges and looks at finding strategies to help teachers
implement PBL into their classroom more effectively.
The study looked at five middle school teachers, from various contents, who had used technology
enhanced PBL for at least four years. These teachers taught in a one-to-one environment where every
teacher and student had a personal laptop. Teachers were given access to a variety of professional
development that focused on using technology to implement and enhance PBL. They interviewed the

teachers on planning, implementing, and assessing PBL. As challenges were identified, the authors looked
for ways that teachers solved the challenges.
This article will be valuable in my research to show how PBL is an effective way to implement the
constructivist learning theory in the classroom. While it is a challenging way to teach, there are steps that
teachers can take that will help with designing, implementing, and assessing PBL in their classroom.

Ferguson, D. (2001). Technology in a constructivist classroom. Information Technology in Childhood

Education Annual, 2001(1), 45-55. Norfolk, VA: Association for the Advancement of Computing
in Education (AACE). Retrieved from: http://ezproxy.memphis.edu/login?
url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=eft&AN=507746402&site=eds-live
Ferguson states that while technology has evolved and changed drastically in the last twenty years, it has
had minimal impact on education. Educators are not sure how to implement technology effectively in the
classroom to impact student learning other than as a presentation tool. It has been proposed that
integrating technology under the guiding philosophy of constructivism would be effective. Technology
should be thought of as an integral component of any curriculum. Technology could be helpful in
improving students abilities to solve problems, communicate, collaborate, process information, etc.
Ferguson offers five computer and constructivist based projects: Computer-Supported Intentional
Learning, Learning through Collaborative Visualization Project, Computer Clubhouse, JASPER, and
WebQuests. She also explains how a teacher could use technology to build a constructivist, web-based
technology project through four steps: determining outcomes, draft the project framework, develop the
evaluation tool, and design the task.
While this article is not math specific, using technology and appropriate tools is one of the eight
Standards of Mathematical Practices. Using technology more effectively to help solve problems will help
better teach and engage students. It could also be applied to other standards of mathematical practices
such as making sense of problems, persevere in solving them, and modeling with mathematics.

Juvova, A., Chudy, S., Neumeister, P., Plischke, J., & Kvintova, J. (2015). Reflection of constructivist
theories in current educational practice. Universal Journal of Educational Research, 3(5), 345349. Retrieved from: http://www.eric.ed.gov/contentdelivery/servlet/ERICServlet?
accno=EJ1062318

This article defines what the constructivist theory is and how it is used in education today. It discusses
that there are three basic concepts of the constructivist theory: learning is a reflection of teaching, an
adoption of reality, and an autonomously controlled cognitive system. Learning is constructed on top of
the foundation of preconceived ideas and that new ideas are built on top of this. The learner must
understand the problem and search for a systematic approach to solving the problem.
This article stresses that teachers should be better taught how to incorporate the ideas of the constructivist
theory into the classroom during their pre-service training. A teachers individual experience and
preconceptions of education will be the foundation of their perception of education. In order to be an
effective teacher, they must have an extensive knowledge base of skills and educational practices. The
Change of the teacher-student paradigm and laying the foundation for the acceptance of the concept of
self-managed (self-regulated) learning in school practice is necessary in professional training.
While this article is not specific to the mathematics classroom, its discussion on the constructivist theory
and what teachers should know about the theory will be valuable in my research. If teachers learn about
and how to implement the constructivist theory while still in their pre-service training, they will be better
equipped to implement it once in a classroom.

Marshall, J. C., & Horton, R. M. (2011). The relationship of teacher-facilitated, inquiry-based instruction
to student higher-order thinking. School Science and Mathematics, 111(3), 93-101. Retrieved
from: http://ezproxy.memphis.edu/login?url=http://search. ebscohost.com/login.aspx?
direct=true&db=eric&AN=EJ915573&site=eds-live
Inquiry based learning environments provides a setting in which students are given the necessary
scaffolding based on readiness while at the same time challenge students to think both critically and
analytically. During inquiry-based learning, more emphasis is placed on the process of developing a deep
understanding on the content versus solving a step process. While curriculum has been designed to
promote inquiry based learning, the author argues that the most important factor is the quality and
effectiveness of the teacher. Four components are present in an IBL model: engage, explore, explain, and
extend. Researchers studied teachers to see how they were conducting IBL lessons paying attention to the
time spent on the components, the order of the components, and the cognitive level of the components
required for the student to solve the problem. During the study, the teachers that were participating also
were a part of a yearlong professional development designed to encourage inquiry based learning.

The authors found that giving the students time to explore the concept before being given an explanation
earned the lesson a proficient or above rating. When teachers give students an opportunity
to Explore the concepts prior to an Explanation, no matter whether the teacher or
the students provide the Explanation, the students think more deeply about the
content. The less time teachers spent on non-inquiry instruction, the lower their rating was. Similarly,
teachers who spent more time on exploration scored a higher level than those that did not. Lessons were
also rated higher if teachers spent more time facilitating higher order cognitive thinking. As teachers spent
more time on explanation, the cognitive level of the students decreased. By giving students more time to
explore the concept before explaining them this will help them achieve a deeper level of understanding.
This article shows the benefits of another type of constructivist teaching. The study measures the
cognitive level of the students and shows how changing the time and order of events plays a key part in
how deep a students understanding of a topic is. Struggle is good, and oftentimes teachers will jump in
too early to save students or provide too much support and therefor weakening the cognitive level of the
lesson.

OShea, J., & Leavy, A. M. (2013). Teaching mathematical problem-solving from an emergent
constructivist perspective: The experiences of Irish primary teachers. Journal of Mathematics
Teacher Education, 16(4), 293-318. Retrieved from
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/257583684_Teaching_mathematical_problemsolving_from_an_emergent_constructivist_perspective_The_experiences_of_Irish_primary_teach
ers
Ireland underwent curriculum reform in 1999, with the central focus being shifted to the constructivist
philosophy. The authors state that a reason for slow change and reform could be contributed to the fact
that constructivism is a theory of knowing and knowledge, and not one on teaching. In the revised
curriculum, there is an added social element that is derived from the constructivist philosophy. The
curriculum encourages students to use personal strategies to solve problems, refine them with discussion,
and that they should work in small groups or pairs to help facilitate learning. It also acknowledges that it
is important to focus on the process of the learning rather than the end product. It is designed to use open
ended problems.
The studys purpose was to evaluate teachers understanding of the curriculum in terms of the
constructivist philosophy and mathematical problem-solving through the use of professional

development. Teachers from the same district, teaching various grade levels, and with varying
backgrounds were selected for the study. The teachers participated in a series of seven professional
development sessions involving reflection on methods and practices when teaching problem solving,
examining constructivist perspectives, and building on and incorporating their own constructivist
philosophy. Following the professional development, the teachers were observed by a researcher and was
offered support in implementing the constructivist philosophy into their classrooms and curriculum. The
final stage included interviews and focus groups of the teachers attitudes, beliefs, and experiences. Each
teacher was analyzed as their own individual case study. The teachers had common responses that the
constructivist approach was refreshing and would be a welcomed change. They acknowledged
challenges they faced while implementing the philosophy.
This article shows why Ireland changed the curriculum to focus more on the constructivist theory. It
discusses key components of the theory and how it explicitly incorporates it into the curriculum. Even
after the change, teachers were not using the constructivist theory with the curriculum, and had to be
taught how to incorporate it through professional development. I think all of this is important because it
shows what is needed in order to shift teacher thinking and therefor changing student thinking.

Pirie, S., & Kieren, T.. (1992). Creating Constructivist Environments and Constructing Creative
Mathematics. Educational Studies in Mathematics, 23(5), 505528. Retrieved from
http://www.jstor.org.ezproxy.memphis.edu/stable/3482850
This article discusses four beliefs of the author about how to create and provide a constructivist
environment in a mathematics classroom. The first belief is that student progress and understanding may
not be achieved or achieved as expected. Students will come to their own conclusions based on their
understanding at the given moment, and it is up to the teacher to be continuously evaluating students
understanding and to help guide students to the proper understanding. The second belief is that teachers
should understand that there are multiple ways to solve a problem and form a students understanding.
Another belief is that everyone holds a different mathematical understanding at any given time and
teachers must be able to help students evolve their own individual understanding. Learning is never
finished, and teachers should continuously encourage student growth.
The article then provides seven examples of the four beliefs of the author by analyzing lessons that were
designed constructivist intentions of teachers in various grade levels in respect to building a students
rational number sense with fractions. Student questions and work samples are included. Each example

provides one, if not multiple, references to the authors beliefs about creating and fostering a constructivist
philosophy in a mathematics classroom.

Shane, R. (1997). Examining the second grade mathematics classroom from a social-constructivist
perspective: the interrelationship of teaching, learning, learning to teach and teaching to learn.
Retrieved from: http://ezproxy.memphis.edu/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?
direct=true&db=eric&AN=ED407229&site=eds-live
This study looked at how preservice teachers taught in a more conventional classroom and how they
taught mathematics in a classroom with a constructivist philosophy. The two approaches are significantly
different. In the study two preservice teachers were assigned classrooms where the mentor teacher taught
mathematics by emphasizing the constructivist philosophy. They were then assigned a school that taught
mathematics using more conventional methods. Teaching mathematics comes from the combination of
content knowledge as well as pedagogic knowledge. They looked to see if an instructional design
approach that encouraged students to reflect more on their mathematical thinking would also provide
teachers an opportunity to reflect on their own mathematical thinking and pedagogy.
They discovered that in the conventional classroom mathematics was a formal procedure, with one
solution, facts and skills to master, and recalling concepts. The teacher will explain, demonstrate, and
define all new concepts. In the constructivist classroom, the mathematics was both procedural and
conceptual in nature. The concepts required higher order thinking skills and strategies in order to solve
them, students used their intuitive knowledge to help scaffold more formal knowledge. Students learned
from each other and the teacher would help guide them to the formal understandings.
This study was completed between 1994 and 1995 in a second grade mathematics classroom in Israel.
While it was not conducted in the United States and predates Common Core, there is still value in the
understanding and comparing of the two different types of classrooms, teachers, and students
understanding. This article and study does a good job at highlighting the differences through formal
(academic) and informal (interviews) assessment.

Simon, M. A. (1995). Reconstructing mathematics pedagogy from a constructivist perspective. Journal

for Research in Mathematics Education, 114-145. Retrieved from:
http://mathcurriculumreview.pbworks.com/w/file/fetch/67005807/Simon(1995).pdf

Simon states that while constructivism could potentially change how math is taught, it does not offer
specifically how it should be taught. Although constructivism has provided mathematics educators with
useful ways to understand learning and learners, the task of reconstructing mathematics pedagogy on the
basis of a constructivist view of learning is a considerable challenge, one that the mathematics education
community has only begun to tackle It provides a useful framework for thinking about mathematics
learning, but it does not tell how to teach mathematics using a particular model. In the study, lessons were
designed on small-group problem solving and teacher led whole-class discussion. There was never any
direct teaching. The analysis focuses on the lesson, the relationship between decision making and
classroom activities, and student understanding and response. Simon concludes that there is a need for
models of mathematical teaching that are derived from theories of learning. He states that the primary
roles of a teacher in the constructivist philosophy should be posing problems and encouraging reflection.
A teacher can create instructional goals and hypotheses about how student will respond to a task, but they
must be able to adapt to the students ever changing understanding of the situation.
This article is valuable because it looks at how math is currently taught and shows how it can be rewritten
using the constructivist theory. Simon discusses important themes of the constructivist theory and how
teachers must incorporate them in order to be effective teachers.

Simon, M. A., & Schifter, D.. (1991). Towards a constructivist perspective: an intervention study of
mathematics teacher development. Educational Studies in Mathematics, 22(4), 309331.
Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org.ezproxy.memphis.edu/stable/3482427
Positive reform of mathematics instruction will necessarily require significant new initiatives in teacher
development. Simon conducts an intervention study through intensive summer courses designed to
develop teachers understanding of the constructivist philosophy in hopes to help them implement a
constructivist approach in their instructional design and planning. The study addressed three goals: to
create an innovative, research based professional development for precollege, mathematics teachers, to
study the effects of the program on teachers thinking and practice, and to study the effects of the program
on the students on the participating teachers. The intervention was analyzed through teachers writing and
interviews. The professional development showed teachers how to apply ideas of the constructivist
philosophy to a mathematics classroom. Students should be provided with an opportunity to create
mathematical ideas and thinking that allows them to form their own understanding and conclusions.
Students should be active in their learning and should not be in a passive role. Students do not apply skills
through practice and drill but by applying the skills to real world contextual problems. Teachers should be

a facilitator in discussions and problem solving by asking questions, guiding students to the correct
understanding, and without focusing on whether the student is correct. By implementing the constructivist
philosophy into their classroom, teachers reflected that they were listening to their students ideas, that
students were learning on another, deeper level, they enjoyed and were more comfortable teaching
mathematics, and that they wanted to continue learning about the constructivist philosophy. In this article
the teachers became the students while learning about and implementing the constructivist philosophy. It
focuses more on the teacher understanding and implementation versus the student understanding of the
content.

Walkington, C., Sherman, M., Howell, E., (2014). Personalized learning in algebra. The Mathematics
Teacher,108(4), 272279. Retrieved from:
http://doi.org.ezproxy.memphis.edu/10.5951/mathteacher.108.4.0272
Part of the constructivist philosophy is that students have their own personal background knowledge
based on their experiences, likes, and dislikes. This background knowledge can then be applied to
mathematical concepts to help students understand the content by having a personal connection with the
context. Teachers can pose simple questions can be to their students to gain insight into their personal
interests. These interests can then be used to personalize the learning in the classroom. In this study,
students were divided into two groups where one set of students were given the standard problems that
correlated with the unit while the second group were given problems tailored to their personal interests.
Students who received the personalized problems performed better and faster. These effects continued
throughout the year, and were more prevalent when students were faced with more difficult, complex
problems. The theory behind this is that personalization can create student interest. This can encourage
discourse between students, you can group students with similar interests and have them solve a more
complex problem together. This theory could be applied to the constructivist philosophy when creating
problem based learning lessons and real life contextual problems.

Widjaja, W. (2013 The use of contextual problems to support mathematical learning. Indonesian
Mathematical Society Journal on Mathematics Education, 4(2), 151-159. Retrieved from:
http://eric.ed.gov/?q=problem+based+learning+Mathematics+ Classroom&id=EJ1078956
The authors state that a good contextual problem has multiple mathematical interpretations and different
solution strategies. Context helps students find a starting point for them to build on. In Indonesia,

contextual problems have been introduced in mathematical classrooms through games, resources, and
modelling. The article discusses the potentials of using contextual problems in the classroom. Using
contextual problems allows a student to start solving a problem by the use of an informal strategy. They
can then be guided to the more formal strategy and solution with the help of a teacher as a facilitator.
Whole class discussion at the end of the lesson is important to help students synthesize the connections.
The author also highlights some of the challenges that could be encountered. Students will often ignore
the context of the problem and solve it using only mathematical processes and skills. Teachers will
recognize that students are struggling and will draw models or offer further explanation.
This article focuses on examples of how contextual problems were incorporated into the classroom and
then critiques them offering ideas on how to improve the lesson. They show that students can make
meaningful learning when they are taking an active role in their learning and discussion.

Widyatiningtyas, R., Kusumah, Y. S., Sumarmo, U., & Sabandar, J. (2015). The impact of problem based
learning approach to senior high school students' mathematics critical thinking ability. Indonesian
Mathematical Society Journal on Mathematics Education, 6(2), 30-38. Retrieved from:
http://www.eric.ed.gov/contentdelivery/servlet/ERICServlet?accno=EJ1079642
Problem based learning (PBL) is a type of learning that is built on constructivist principles. Problem
based learning is when students are given a complex, real world problem that is based on mathematical
concepts. Teachers are supposed to facilitate student learning and encourage them to use background
knowledge, mathematical reasoning, and thinking strategies to come to a solution and build on their prior
background knowledge. Learning through the more conventional teaching creates students that are
passive and lack higher order thinking skills. With the use of PBL, students are able to think more in
depth, solve problems, and make conjectures.
During this study, PBL was designed over a two hour lesson in which the teacher gave a five minute
explanation about the tasks before dividing into groups. Each group had a problem and forty minutes to
discuss the problem. There was a ten minute class discussion, where the teacher facilitated group
discussion about the problems and students were able to form new knowledge to the context of the
problem. The groups had to do a thirty minute presentation followed by a question and answer session.
The teacher then concludes the lesson with a small summary of the material.
The research in this study showed that students who participated in problem-based learning approaches
have better mathematical critical thinking skills rather than those students who participated in

conventional learning. It was recommended that PBL should be implemented and would help challenge
more students and to encourage mathematical thinking.
This article does not go into the specifics of what the PBL lesson was in regards to, but compares the
student learning over the same lesson that was taught with two different approaches, PBL and
conventional teaching methods. Students that were in the PBL group had greater critical thinking skills at
the end of the lesson. From the article, only one lesson was conducted. I would be interested to see if the
same results would be possible from different lessons, possibly over different mathematical strands.

Wood, T. L., Nelson, B. S., & Warfield, J. (2001). Beyond classical pedagogy: teaching elementary school
mathematics. Mahwah, N.J.: Routledge. 127 134. Retrieved from:
http://ezproxy.memphis.edu/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?
direct=true&db=nlebk&AN=129639&site=eds-live&ebv=EB&ppid=pp_Cover
Research about teaching first came into its own field between 1960 and 1970 with process-product
research. Students achievement test scores were used to attempt to determine teacher behavior. There
were no alternative theories on teaching and the direct instructional model was developed based on a
singular view and without any supporting theory. Mathematics classes were taught with whole-class
instruction and teachers transmitted knowledge to students. Effective teachers were teachers whose
students gained more on standardized mathematical tests.
Concerns about the process-product approach, research, and effects led to other studies. Between 1980
and 1990, researchers turned away from studying teacher behaviors to attempting to determine teachers
thought process. Now effective teachers were not to be in front of the classroom giving students
information but to be more of a facilitator of learning to help students make meaning through their
environment, tasks, and discourse with their students. They should use their background knowledge, find
multiple ways to solve a problem, and build on their existing understanding. With the constructivist
philosophy, students have a unique background knowledge that teachers must adapt to. Professional
development shifted from being on classroom behaviors to construction of making meaning. Teachers
also had to change their own thinking to adopt this new philosophy. Teachers would attend professional
development workshops where they were lectured to on the constructivist theory and how to implement
them in the classroom. But as transmission model was not appropriate for students, it soon became
apparent that it was also not appropriate for teaching teachers. Through this, teacher beliefs and
knowledge has become the center to helping promote change to the constructivist philosophy. Teachers

are said to need both practical and pedagogical content knowledge, and that their beliefs will affect their
teaching. This text highlights the history of teaching and how we came to use the constructivist view
today. It talks about how teachers had to change their thinking and personal philosophies in order to better
adapt the constructivist view. What is interesting to me is how even professional development and how it
was taught had to change from the transmission view to a facilitator view in order to be more effective.