Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Transducers: by A Device Called "Secondary Transducer"
Transducers: by A Device Called "Secondary Transducer"
Hyderabad | New Delhi | Bhopal| Bengaluru | Bhubaneswar | Vijayawada | Visakhapatnam | Tirupati | Pune | Chennai
: 360 :
Rp
xt
Output e 0
Input
xi
Transducers
Rp
+
ei
xt
xi
e0
= k ei (1)
(Zero-order system)
kRp
ei
is
e0
ei
Rm
eL
(0,0)
xi
xt
x
e 0 ke i k i
xt
With Load:
xt
xi Rm
eL
kRp|| Rm
RL
kR R
kR R
p
m
m
Hyderabad | New Delhi | Bhopal| Bengaluru | Bhubaneswar | Vijayawada | Visakhapatnam | Tirupati | Pune | Chennai
: 361 :
R R p kR p
kR R
kR R
p
m
m
kR p R m R p k 2 R 2p kR m R p kR m R p
2
kR R
p
02.
Sol:
kR p 1 K R m R p
2
R m kR p
k
eL
k(1 k) R p
R
1
eL k
k(1 k) R p
R
.e i
1
.e i ------ (2)
Rp
where
Rp=
Resistance
of
Rm
potentiometer, Rm= Resistance of load
(meter)
So for better linearity RP should be less and
as Rm = .
ACE Engineering Academy
For potentiometer
under no load
condition the
output equation is
x
e0 i e i = k ei
xt
where e0 is output voltage , ei is input
voltage,
xt is total length of translational POT
xi is displacement of wiper from its
zero position
1
eL k
.
Rp
k(1 k)
R 1
Hyderabad | New Delhi | Bhopal| Bengaluru | Bhubaneswar | Vijayawada | Visakhapatnam | Tirupati | Pune | Chennai
: 362 :
Transducers
03.
Sol: When a bar is subjected to a simple tensile
loading, there occurs an increase in length of
the bar in the direction of the load. Strain
refers to the relative change in dimension of
the bar under load and it is prescribed as the
ratio of the change in length to the
unstressed length of the bar.
If
change in length
L
strain ()
unstressed length
L
L
as the axial strain, D/D as the
L
transverse or lateral strain;
D / D
Then Poisson' s ratio( )
L / L
This ratio is particular to any metal or
alloy; its value is 0.2 for metals and 0.3
for wires.
L
A
Hyderabad | New Delhi | Bhopal| Bengaluru | Bhubaneswar | Vijayawada | Visakhapatnam | Tirupati | Pune | Chennai
: 363 :
1 R
VB V
0.05
2 2R
dA 2dD
A
D
Where C is a constant; its value being unity
for a square cross-section of dimension D
and
for a circular cross-section of
4
diameter D.
Thus:
dR d dL 2dD
L
D
Dividing throughout by dL/L
A CD 2 and
dR / R d /
2dD / D
1
dL / L dL / L
dL / L
d /
1 2
dL / L
(or)
Gf
dR / R
1 2
dL / L
Resistance
change
due to length
change
04.
Sol:
Resistance
Change
due to area
change
VC 0.52 V VC V0
0
R
10 R
0
R
10 R
V0
= 0.3 V
05.
Sol:
B
350
350
d /
dL / L
Resistance
Change
due to piezo
resistance
effect
Active
gauge
C
350
350
Dummy
gauge
D
10V
By V.D.R
R V
VA V
R R 2
=143010-6
1450 m/m.
Even though strain gauges are present, only
By Nodal analysis at VC
Vs = 4
R R
VB V
2R
VC VB VC V0
10 R
Given
Gf = 2.03
0 (1)
Hyderabad | New Delhi | Bhopal| Bengaluru | Bhubaneswar | Vijayawada | Visakhapatnam | Tirupati | Pune | Chennai
: 364 :
VBridge
Vs
R
4 R 2 R
Transducers
R G f R
6
Principle of operation:
A.C. Excitation
Now
VBridge = 7.314 10 _ 3 V
Primary
winding
Arm
06.
Core
Sol:
Displacement
ES1
S1
Sec.windings
S2
Former
Arm
Soft iron core
Displacement
ES2
S2
A.C. Excitation
Primary
winding
Core
Displacement
E S1
E S2
E0
Differential output E0 = E s1 E s 2
Hyderabad | New Delhi | Bhopal| Bengaluru | Bhubaneswar | Vijayawada | Visakhapatnam | Tirupati | Pune | Chennai
: 365 :
Characteristics:
The output voltage of an LVDT is a
linear function of core displacement with
in a limited range of movement.
The graph given below shows the
variation of output voltage with respect to
displacement of the core.
Linear
range
Output voltage,
E0
=60o
=180o
Residual
voltage
B
C
Displacement
Features:
Advantages:
LVDT has high range for measurement of
displacement.
As in LVDT core not came in contact
with coils it is a frictionless device.
Resolution of LVDT is purely infinite.
As it is a transformer it maintains
complete isolation between the excitation
voltage given to the primary winding and
output voltage produced from the second
windings.
Sensitivity of LVDT is high and it shows
low hysteresis.
Disadvantages:
Large displacements are required for
measurable differential output.
Performance of LVDT disturbs due to
vibrations.
The recoding instrument should operate
on a.c.
Uses:
Acting as a primary transducer LVDT
converts displacement into an electrical
output.
Acting as a secondary transducer it can
be used as a device to measure force,
weight and pressure.
07.
Sol:
a) for a displacement of 0.5mm, the output
is 2mv, so the
Sensitivity (s) = 2/0.5 mv/mm
= 4mv/mm
b) for the whole setup, the sensitivity is
S = 150 4mv / mm
= 1v/mm
Hyderabad | New Delhi | Bhopal| Bengaluru | Bhubaneswar | Vijayawada | Visakhapatnam | Tirupati | Pune | Chennai
: 366 :
c) Given that,
The output of the voltmeter is 5v with
100 divisions which means that each
division = 5v/100 = 0.05V
The minimum voltage that can read is
1/5th of a division, so the minimum
voltage is
0.05v
=
0.01V
5
Which corresponds to
Resolution R = 0.01mm
08.
Sol:
0.01mm
so
Transducers
E ex i p .R p LP
E s1 M 1
di p
dt
(1)
di p
dt
E s2 M 2
di p
dt
E diff E s1 E s2 M 1 M 2
di p
dt
(2)
RP
M1
fex>fx
Eex
Ns1
iP
Lp
E s1 E
dif
M. fex.
M2
N s2 Es2
Fx
(3)
(4)
Now
E diff s M 1 M 2 s M 1 M 2
.
E ex s
R P LPs
RP
Lp
RP
s
L
1 s P
RP
Time constant
E diff s M 1 M 2
.
2
E ex s
RP
1
Hyderabad | New Delhi | Bhopal| Bengaluru | Bhubaneswar | Vijayawada | Visakhapatnam | Tirupati | Pune | Chennai
: 367 :
Tan 1
2
09.
Sol:
Differential arrangement:- A linear
characteristic can be achieved by using a
differential arrangement for capacitive
displacement transducer.
Fixed
Plate P1
E
C1 C 2 A A
2d
d x dx
dx
Similarly E 2
E
2d
Now the differential voltage
x
E E 2 E 1 E
d
Output voltage varies linearly
displacement x.
E E
Sensitivity S
x d
C1, E1
x
d
C2, E2
as
Fixed Plate P2
E C2
C1 C 2
E C1
E2
C1 C 2
E1
Hyderabad | New Delhi | Bhopal| Bengaluru | Bhubaneswar | Vijayawada | Visakhapatnam | Tirupati | Pune | Chennai
: 368 :
1/ k
(2)
1
2
F
s 1
2n n
where n = 2fn is large, typically fn = 10 to
kHz, and is small, typically 0.01.
In a piezoelectric crystal, this deformation
of the crystal lattice results in the crystal
acquiring net charge q, proportional to x,
i.e.
q=Kx
(3)
Transducers
(9)
V i N s 1 R L C N C C s
The overall system transfer function relating
recorder voltage VL to input force F is:
Hyderabad | New Delhi | Bhopal| Bengaluru | Bhubaneswar | Vijayawada | Visakhapatnam | Tirupati | Pune | Chennai
: 369 :
i N
s VL i N x (10)
F
i N x F
From equation (2), (8)and (9) we have
VL
RL
s
Ks
F
1 R L C N C C s
1/ K
1
2
s 1
2 2
n
n s
(11)
R L C N C C s
K
1
k C N C C 1 R L C N C C s
1
1
2
s 1
2 2
n s
n
(12)
1
G j
2 2
2
1
2 2
2
1 2 4 2
n
n
(15)
VL
s
1
s R L
C N C C 1 s 1 2
F
2 2
s 1
n
n s
(13)
Where, RL (CN+CC).
The above transfer function emphasizes the
two disadvantages of this basic system:
The steady-state sensitivity is equal to
d/(CN + CC). Thus the system sensitivity
depends on the cable capacitance CC, i.e.
on the length and type of cable.
G(j)
Amplitude
ratio
Charge amplifier
F = RFCF = 1
Cn = 1600 pF
CC= 600 pF
RL = 106
= 2.2 ms
1.0
1
0
+190o
10
10
Basic system
n
103
104
10
106
0o
G (s)
s
1
(14)
s 1 1 2
2
s 1
n
n
90o
Charge amplifier
F = RFCF = 1
180o
Hyderabad | New Delhi | Bhopal| Bengaluru | Bhubaneswar | Vijayawada | Visakhapatnam | Tirupati | Pune | Chennai
: 370 :
RF108
0
i=0
i=0
dq
i
N dt
1600
pF
CN
Piezoelectric
crystal
iI
i+ = 0
600
pF
CC
Cable
Cable
capacitanc
e
CF 104 pF
iF
Charge generator
V =0
i = 0
Transducers
10
RL
o
V out
Rleak
Ccryst
Ccable
Ramplifie
r
Out put
al
0
Charge amplifier
Crystal
resistance
Recorder
03.
Sol:
Piezo-electricity represents the property of a
number of crystalline materials that cause the
crystal to develop an electric charge or
potential difference when subjected to
mechanical forces or stresses along specific
planes. Conversely, the crystal would undergo
change in thickness when charged electrically
by a potential difference applied to its proper
axis. Elements exhibiting piezo-electric
qualities are sometimes known as electro
restrictive elements
The following fig indicates the schematic
arrangement and the equivalent circuit for a
piezoelectric measuring system.
R leak R amplifier
R leak R amplifier
Force F
Crystal
Amplifier Amplifier
capacitance capacitanc resistance
e
electrical
equivalent
circuit
of
Electrodes
Below
Output
VoltageE0
W
C
i1
l
Piezoelectric crystal
The various capacitances like Ccrystal, Ccable
and Camplifier are in parallel and the combined
i3
Current
generator
V0
i2
Hyderabad | New Delhi | Bhopal| Bengaluru | Bhubaneswar | Vijayawada | Visakhapatnam | Tirupati | Pune | Chennai
: 371 :
dQ d
dF
KF K
dt dt
dt
dV
V
dF
C 0 0
dt
dt
R
(or) KR
(or)
dV
dF
RC 0 V0
dt
dt
dV
K
dF
RC
RC 0 V0
C
dt
dt
dF
dV
(or) K
0 V0
dt
dt
d
, we get KDF 1 D V0
dt
Hyderabad | New Delhi | Bhopal| Bengaluru | Bhubaneswar | Vijayawada | Visakhapatnam | Tirupati | Pune | Chennai
: 372 :
Glass
bead
probe
Leads
Lead
Disc
Transducers
Resistance-Temperature characteristics:
The mathematical expression for the
relationship between the resistance of a
thermistor and absolute temperature of
thermistor is
1
1
RT1 = RT2exp
T1 T2
Where, RT1 = Resistance of the thermistor at
absolute temperature T1 in K
RT2 = resistance of the thermistor at absolute
temperature T2 in K
= a constant depending upon the material of
thermistor typically in between 3500K to
4500K
The resistance temperature characteristics of
a typical thermistor are shown in figure.
The resistance temperature characteristic of
figure shows that a thermistor has a very
high negative temperature co-efficient of
resistance, making it an ideal temperature
transducer.
The resistance temperature characteristics
of platinum which is a commonly used
material for Resistance thermistors. Let
us compare the characteristics of two
materials.
Rod
1010
108
106
Thermistor
104
Resistivity, m 10
10
102
104
106
108
Platinum
100
Temperature 0C
Hyderabad | New Delhi | Bhopal| Bengaluru | Bhubaneswar | Vijayawada | Visakhapatnam | Tirupati | Pune | Chennai
: 373 :
02.
Sol:
Most metals becomes more resistant to the
passage of electric current as they become
hotter, i.e., their resistance increases with
growth in temperature. The relation between
resistance and temperature is given by
Rt = R0 (1+t +t2)
We can write
2 1
R 2 R1 R 2 R1
;
R 0
R 0
2 1
Platinum
sensing
coil
Glass or
pyrex bulb
laboratory type
Hyderabad | New Delhi | Bhopal| Bengaluru | Bhubaneswar | Vijayawada | Visakhapatnam | Tirupati | Pune | Chennai
: 374 :
Transducers
Advantages:-
Metal sheath
Resistance
wire
Ceramic former
Industrial type
Hyderabad | New Delhi | Bhopal| Bengaluru | Bhubaneswar | Vijayawada | Visakhapatnam | Tirupati | Pune | Chennai
: 375 :
Disadvantages:
04.
Sol:
801.26 800
801.26 800
= 400.3147
Given
R1=R2=R3=R4 = 400;
= 0.042/oC
T = 30C;
A
I = 30mA
RTD
400
400
400
Vth = 24
800 801.26
Rth
I=30mA
400
C
R
Vth
24V
400
400
I=
=
Due to temperature rise of 300C, increase in
the resistance of sensor by = 0.042 30
Im(100) Rm
Vth
R th R m
0.0188
= 37.58A
400.3147 100
= 1.26
Hyderabad | New Delhi | Bhopal| Bengaluru | Bhubaneswar | Vijayawada | Visakhapatnam | Tirupati | Pune | Chennai
: 376 :
Transducers
01.
Sol:
Advantages of the venture meter:
High pressure recovery is attainable, i.e.,
loss of head due to its installation in the
pipe lines is small.
Because of smooth surface, the meter is
not much affected by wear and abrasion.
Well established characteristics; years of
applicational experience.
Less likelihood of becoming clogged with
sediments.
Due to low value of losses, the coefficient of discharge is high and
approaches unity under
favourable
conditions
Long laying length; space requirements
are more
Venturi meters are ideally suited for
measurement of :
Large flow of water
Process fluids, i.e., fluids used in
industrial processes
Industrial wastes
Gases
Suspended particles, slurries and dirty
liquids Orifice
Advantages of orifice meter
Low initial ease of installation and
replacement.
Characteristics are well known and
predictable ; years of applicable
experience.
Requires less space as compared with
venturi meter
ACE Engineering Academy
02.
Sol: For a variable head flow meter for in
compressible fluid
m = fluid mass flow in certain time,
p1 = static pressure at inlet
p2 = static pressure at outlet
v = specific volume,
V1 = average flow velocity at inlet,
V2 = average flow velocity at outlet,
A1= area at inlet
A2= area at outlet
1=density of fluid at inlet
2=density of fluid at outlet
By Bernoullis equation we can write
2
2
P1 V1
P2 V2
...........(1)
1
2
2
2
The continuity relation for the flow
is m 1 A 1 V1 2 A 2 V2
situation
V2
1
1 A 2 / A 1
p1 p 2
............(3)
Hyderabad | New Delhi | Bhopal| Bengaluru | Bhubaneswar | Vijayawada | Visakhapatnam | Tirupati | Pune | Chennai
: 377 :
V2 actual C v
1 A 2 / A1
2p1 p 2
2p1 p 2
1
1 A 2 / A 1
Q C c A 2 C v
1
1 A 2 / A 1
2p1 p 2
Q Cd
A2
1 A 2 / A 1
2p 1 p 2
...........(4)
2p1 p 2
Hyderabad | New Delhi | Bhopal| Bengaluru | Bhubaneswar | Vijayawada | Visakhapatnam | Tirupati | Pune | Chennai
: 378 :
2g
p1 p 2
w
2g
p1 p 2
w
Converging
cone
Diverging
section
Throat
0.5D
1 = 21020
2 = 50 to150
Pressure
sensing
holes
Transducers
Flow nozzle
Hyderabad | New Delhi | Bhopal| Bengaluru | Bhubaneswar | Vijayawada | Visakhapatnam | Tirupati | Pune | Chennai
: 379 :
Orifice plate
Low initial
replacement.
ease
of
installation
and
Hyderabad | New Delhi | Bhopal| Bengaluru | Bhubaneswar | Vijayawada | Visakhapatnam | Tirupati | Pune | Chennai
: 380 :
04.
Sol:
The operation of electromagnetic flow-meters
is based on Faradays law of electromagnetic
induction, which states that an emf of e volts
is induced in a conductor of length l metres
when it moves with a transverse velocity of v
m/s across a magnetic field of strength B
wb/m2 and the induced emf in the conductor
is given by the expression e = Blv volts
Transducers
Advantages:
Electrode
N
B
S
V0
d
V
Flow
Electrode
Electromagnetic flow-meter
Hyderabad | New Delhi | Bhopal| Bengaluru | Bhubaneswar | Vijayawada | Visakhapatnam | Tirupati | Pune | Chennai
: 381 :
02.
Sol: In the resistance thermometer (Pirani) gauge,
an estimate of the filament temperature and
hence pressure of the gas is made by
employing the following alternate techniques
:
Maintenance of constant voltage on the
wire, and noting change in the current as a
function of pressure.
Maintenance of constant resistance and
hence the temperature of the wire, and
noting change in the energy input as a
function of pressure.
Maintenance of constant current, and
observing change in filament resistance as
a function of pressure.
The last technique is recommended as
being the most sensitive for making
pressure measurements. The resistance of
the filament can be measured by the
Wheatstone bridge arrangement.
Heater element
Vacuum
|Absolute pressure
(greater pressure)
greater than
atmospheric
Atmospheric
pressure line
Vaccum
Absolute pressure
(less than atmospheric)
Milli
ammeter
Atmospheric
pressure
Absolute
zero pressure
Relation between absolute, gauge and atmospheric pressure
Hyderabad | New Delhi | Bhopal| Bengaluru | Bhubaneswar | Vijayawada | Visakhapatnam | Tirupati | Pune | Chennai
: 382 :
Transducers
Hyderabad | New Delhi | Bhopal| Bengaluru | Bhubaneswar | Vijayawada | Visakhapatnam | Tirupati | Pune | Chennai
: 383 :
Diaphragm types :
The diaphragms can be in the form of flat,
corrugated or dished plates; the choice
depending on the strength and amount of
deflection desired. Most common types of
diaphragm are shown in Fig.
Dish
Corrugated
Flat
Capsule
Advantages :
Relatively small size and moderate cost.
Capability
to
withstand
high
overpressures, and maintain good linearity
over a wide range.
Availability of the gauge for absolute and
differential-pressure measurements
Minimum of hysteresis and no permanent
zero shift.
Limitations:
Needs protection from shock and
vibration.
Can not be used to measure high
pressures.
Difficult to repair.
Hyderabad | New Delhi | Bhopal| Bengaluru | Bhubaneswar | Vijayawada | Visakhapatnam | Tirupati | Pune | Chennai
: 384 :
Transducers
Hyderabad | New Delhi | Bhopal| Bengaluru | Bhubaneswar | Vijayawada | Visakhapatnam | Tirupati | Pune | Chennai