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Simple Bolts Are Not Simple
Table of content
Section
1.
2.
3.
4.
4.1
4.2
5.
6.
Introduction
Existing standards and published information
Recommended boundary for safe steel bolting materials
Use of the recommended boundary to select appropriate bolting
materials
Property class 12.9 steel bolt
The appropriate bolting materials
Quality assurance (QA) measures on bolts
Conclusion
Figure 1 Failure of high tensile steel bolt due to stress corrosion
cracking
Figure 2 Failure of high tensile steel bolt due to hydrogen
embrittlement
Appendix A: Different steels for different pressure level application
Appendix B: Hydrogen embrittlement
Appendix C: Stress corrosion cracking
Appendix D: The identification of EN 10269 material for the
starting material of ISO 898-1:2013 property classes 5.6 and 8.8
Reference
Table 1 Different warning levels on various mechanical properties of
steels suggested by the existing standards and related information to
deal with brittle failure
Table 2 Comparison between the key selection indicators and the
mechanical properties of different property classes of steel in ISO
898-1:2013
Table 3 The starting materials of EN 10269 for property classes 5.6
and 8.8
Table 4 Recommended standards for the testing methods according
to the key selection indicators
Table 5 Dimensional limitations on testing bolt in the elongation
percentage at break and impact strength tests
Table a: The chemical composition of ISO 898-1:2013 property
classes 5.6 and 8.8
Table b: The matching of EN 10269 materials to property classes 5.6
and 8.8 according to the chemical composition
Table c: The matching of EN 10269 materials to property classes 5.6
and 8.8 according to the tensile strength:
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2/18
1. Introduction:
Bolt is tiny in terms of size when comparing with the entire gas infrastructure but they
are used extensively in various pressure equipment (e.g. valves, pipework assembly
etc.) of gas network to be the primary means of transferring loads. Thus, bolt failure
in gas network could lead to serious consequences. For this reason, correct use of
bolts is important.
But Are Higher Strength and Harder Bolts Better? This is a common myth. In fact,
they are much susceptible to brittle failure. The common brittle failure modes are
stress corrosion cracking and hydrogen embrittlement. For example, the Hendrix
Group reported that the hard low alloy steel bolts (HRC 44) failed due to hydrogen
embrittlement which caused complete separation of the 1 inch gas ball valve without
warning leading to natural gas leakage [1]. Also, the US General Motor A ear rear
suspensions began to fail after just 2 years of service which led to the recall of 6.4
million cars as the carbon steel property class 12.8 bolts failed due to stress corrosion
cracking [2].
Although there are some existing standards of particular applications, national
guidelines and studies providing the information about preventing brittle failure in
steels, there is challenge on how to gather and use the important information for
pressure applications in the gas industry. This paper discussed the appropriate
selection and the quality assurance measures of the carbon steel and low alloy steel
bolts for gas distribution network in order to maintain a safe gas system.
2. Existing standards and published information:
Since hydrogen embrittlement (HE) and stress corrosion cracking (SCC) [Appendix B
and C] can be serious problems in some carbon and low alloy steels as shown in
Figures 1 & 2, it is important to choose the right bolting material. Standards and
published information now exist for steels which give different advices to one or two
mechanical properties to prevent brittle failure from happening. This paper studied
and listed them in Table 1 below.
Figure 1. Failure of high tensile steel bolt due to stress corrosion cracking [3]
3/18
Figure 2. Failure of high tensile steel bolt due to hydrogen embrittlement [4]
Mechanical
properties:
Existing
standards
published information:
Tensile
strength T /
Yield
strength Y
Hardness
Concerned
failure
mode:
SCC
T 1380 MPa
HE
T 1200 MPa
HE
Y 725 MPa
API 6D:2008
14313:2007 [10]
HE
HRC 35
HE & SCC
HRC 37
Institute
HE
HRC 37
Magazine,
HE
HRC 37
Brittle failure
HRC 38
[9]
and
ISO
Warning level:
< 14 %
4/18
However, the warning levels to different mechanical properties of steel to prevent the
occurrence of brittle failure shown in Table 1 are dispersed in different sources which
include national guidelines of particular areas, standards of particular applications,
professional journals and local technical institutes, and each source does not provide
comprehensive requirements on steels. Thus, there is a challenge on how to gather all
the useful information and make use of them when selecting the appropriate steel
bolts for pressure application in the gas industry.
3. Recommended boundary for safe steel bolting materials
Since the challenge was identified, this paper studied different relevant sources and
formed a safe boundary for steel bolting materials suitable for gas distribution system
after the study. The safe boundary was composed by 4 key selection indicators (KSIs)
recommended by this paper related to the mechanical properties after the study in a
conservative point of view. Any steel bolting materials which can fall into this safe
boundary should be the appropriate bolts to be used in the gas distribution system for
pressure application.
The 4 KSIs were shown below:
i.
If tensile strength 1200 MPa or yield strength 725 MPa, extra caution
should be needed in ensuring the toughness and ductility of the bolt.
ii.
Elongation percentage at break 14 %
iii.
iv.
5/18
6/18
P.C.
Tensile
Yield
strength, MPa, strength,
min
MPa, min
1200
725
KSIs
* take extra
* take extra
caution
caution
Different property classes (P.C.) of ISO 898-1:
4.6
400
240
4.8
420
N.A.
5.6
500
300
5.8
520
6.8
600
8.8
800
d 16mm
8.8
830
d > 16mm
N.A.
9.8
900
d 16mm
10.9
1040
Elongation
percentage at
break, %, min
12.9/12.9
1220
14
22
N.A.
20
N.A.
Impact
strength, J,
min
27 at the
specified
temp.
N.A.
27, At -20 oC
N.A.
Hardness
< HRC 35
< HRC 22
< HRC 22
< HRC 22
< HRC 22
< HRC 22
HRC 22 - 32
12
27, At -20 oC
HRC 23 - 34
10
HRC 28 - 37
HRC 32 - 39
Under
investigation
HRC 39 - 44
Table 2 Comparison between the KSIs and the mechanical properties of different bolt
grades in ISO 898-1:2013 [18]
4.1 Property class 12.9 steel bolt:
From Table 2, the P.C. 12.9 steel bolts could not meet the key requirements which
implied that their susceptibility to HE and SCC. Furthermore, ISO 898-1:2013 has a
warning on the use of P.C. 12.9 bolts. It states that Caution is advised when the use
of property class 12.9/12.9 is considered. The capability of the fastener manufacturer,
the service conditions and the wrenching methods should be considered.
Environments may cause stress corrosion cracking of fasteners as processed as well as
those coated. [18] This warning was only added since 2009 version and not in the
older versions, year 1999 and before. On top of it, the standard of The Society of
Automotive Engineers, SAE J1199, no longer allows the use of high-hardness P.C.
12.9 bolt [19] because of its susceptibility to SCC which was in response to the US
General Motor case mentioned above [2]. Thus, it was suggested that P.C. 12.9 should
not be suitable to be the pressure bearing bolt in gas network.
4.2 The appropriate bolting materials
From Table 2, the P.C. 8.8 and lower could meet all key requirements except for the
min. elongation percentage at break (12 %) of P.C. 8.8. But the 12 % is just the
minimum value and there is still high possibility that P.C. 8.8 can still meet this 14 %
7/18
ii.
Bolt:
Screw:
Bolt, Screw, Nut:
Cap screw:
ISO 4014:2011
ISO 4017:2014
BS 4190:2001
ISO 4762:2004
P.C.
Starting materials of EN 10269
5.6
19MnB4; C35E; C43E; 35B2; 20Mn5
8.8
19MnB4; 42CrMo4; 42CrMo5-6; 40CrMoV4-6
Table 3 The starting materials of EN 10269 for P.C. 5.6 and 8.8
8/18
iii.
iv.
Test items
Tensile strength
Elongation percentage at break
Hardness
9/18
6. Conclusion:
This paper formed a safe boundary for steel bolting materials suitable for gas
distribution system after various study. The safe boundary was composed by 4 Key
Selection Indicators (KSIs) recommended by this paper in a conservative point of
view as shown below:
ii.
If tensile strength 1200 MPa or yield strength 725 MPa, extra caution
should be needed in ensuring the toughness and ductility of the bolt.
Elongation % at break 14 %
iii.
iv.
i.
Also, this paper pointed out that the use of P.C. 12.9 bolt of ISO 898-1 should be
forbidden in the gas distribution network system while bolts of P.C. 8.8 were
suggested as the appropriate bolting materials. Moreover, some appropriate quality
assurance measures on bolts were recommended to work with the bolt selection
boundary in order to ensure the safety of the gas distribution system.
10/18
Appendix A
Different steels for different pressure level application:
According to EN 1515-1:2000, low to medium carbon steel and low alloy carbon steel
bolts are suitable for the application under pressure level at and below 40 bar while
high alloy steel bolts are needed for the application under a higher pressure level [23].
It is because that high alloy steels possess less stress relaxation at constant strain at
elevated temperatures as shown in BS 4882:1990 Appendix A and Table 24 which is
suitable for high pressure application and better ductility as well as toughness [24].
BS 4882:1990 points out that relaxation of stress at constant strain occurs in all bolts
at operating temperature > 300oC and the initial elastic stress applied to the bolt
would be reduced. Thus, the tightening force of the bolt reduces. Since high alloy
steels possess less stress relaxation at elevated temperature, they are much suitable to
be used for high pressure application.
11/18
Appendix B
Hydrogen embrittlement:
ASTM F1624 points out that the cause of hydrogen embrittlement is the introduction
of hydrogen into steel that can initiate fracture when stress, including residual stress
or external stress applied during service, is present [25]. ASM Handbook states that
even small amounts of hydrogen can have a deleterious effect, particularly for highstrength steels with tensile strengths of 1240 MPa or more. A few parts per million of
hydrogen dissolved in steel can cause hairline cracking and loss of tensile ductility.
Even when the quantity of gas in solution is too small to reduce tension-test ductility,
hydrogen -induced delayed fracture may occur [26].
Source of hydrogen:
The source of hydrogen can be come from cleaning or plating processes or the
exposure of cathodically protected steel [25].
How to eliminate hydrogen:
During the acid pickling cleaning process before plating, the addition of suitable
inhibitors to the pickling solution eliminates or minimizes attack on the metal and the
consequent generation of nascent hydrogen.
Furthermore, appropriate plating solutions and plating conditions can be selected to
produce a high-cathode efficiency which minimizes the amount of hydrogen
generated on the metal surface. Because the metallic coatings plated on metal often
prevent the hydrogen from leaving the base metal, elevated-temperature baking right
after plating is generally required to allow the hydrogen to move to microstructural
positions in the part interior that are less damaging to the atomic bonds of the iron
matrix. [26]
12/18
Appendix C
Stress corrosion cracking SCC:
Stress-corrosion cracking is a generic term describing the initiation and propagation
of cracks in a metal or alloy under the combined action of tensile stresses (applied
and/or residual) and a corrosive environment [27].
The condition for SCC [28]:
1) The use of susceptible material to SCC
2) Tensile stress, either from structural loading or present as residual stresses from
forming or welding operations during manufacture and installation; and
3) The presence of a specific aggressive environment, e.g. Chloride
The mechanism of SCC [27]:
1. The coating becomes degraded and corroded
2. An electrolyte comes into contact with the surface.
3. The corrosive environment (e.g. chloride and sulphur) and tensile stress cause
SCC, including transgranular stress corrosion cracking (TCSCC) and
intergranular stress corrosion cracking (ICSCC), to develop
4. The initiation and growth of multiple cracks
5. Dominant crack reaches grow a critical size for rapid growth to failure,
producing either a leak or a rupture
13/18
Appendix D
The identification of EN 10269 material for the starting material of ISO 898-1:2013
property classes 5.6 and 8.8:
Table a: The chemical composition of ISO 898-1:2013 property classes 5.6 and 8.8:
Property
class
5.6
8.8
0.55
0.025
0.025
0.003
0.20
0.55
0.025
0.025
0.003
Others
min. Mn 0.6 % if
C < 0.25 %
Also contains Cr
or Ni or Mo or V
Table b: The matching of EN 10269 materials to property classes 5.6 and 8.8
according to the chemical composition:
EN 10269
material:
C%
Si %
Mn %
P%
max
S%
max.
Al %
B%
19MnB4
Suitable for
the property
class of steel:
5.6 / 8.8
Cr%
Mo%
Ni %
0.17 0.24
0.4
0.8
1.15
0.03
0.035
0.02
0.0008
0.005
C35E
5.6
0.32 0.39
0.4
0.50
0.80
0.030
0.035
0.4
0.10
0.4
C43E
5.6
0.42
0.50
0.4
0.50
0.80
0.030
0.035
0.4
0.10
0.4
35B2
5.6
0.32
0.39
0.4
0.50
0.80
0.030
0.035
0.02
20Mn5
5.6
0.17
0.23
0.4
1.00
1.50
0.030
0.035
0.02
0.4
0.10
0.4
42CrMo4
8.8
42CrMo5-6
8.8
40CrMoV4-6
8.8
0.38
0.45
0.39
0.45
0.36
0.45
0.4
0.60
0.90
0.40
0.70
0.45
0.85
0.025
0.035
0.025
0.035
0.025
0.030
0.015
0.90
1.20
1.20
1.50
0.90
1.20
0.15
0.30
0.50
0.70
0.50
0.65
0.4
0.4
V%
Others
Cr+Mn
+Ni
0.63
Cr+Mn
+Ni
0.63
0.0008
0.005
Cr+Mn
+Ni
0.63
0.25
0.35
14/18
Table c: The matching of EN 10269 materials to property classes 5.6 and 8.8
according to the tensile strength:
ISO 898-1:2013 property class 5.6
ISO 898-1:2013 property class 8.8
EN 10269 material:
19MnB4
C35E
C43E
35B2
20Mn5
42CrMo4
42CrMo5-6
40CrMoV4-6
800 - 950
500 - 650
560 - 710
500 - 650
500 - 650
860 - 1060
860 - 1060
850 - 1000
15/18
Reference:
[1] The Hendrix Group, Failure Analysis Case Histroy No.
http://hghouston.com/resources/failure-case-histories/case-history-001.aspx
001,
16/18
[13] ASTM A490M-12 Standard Specification for High-Strength Steel Bolts, Classes
10.9 and 10.9.3, for Structural Steel Joints (Metric) , alloy steel, bolts, metric
[14] ISO 4014:2011 Hexagon head bolts. Product grades A and B
[15] ISO 4017:2014 Hexagon head screws. Product grades A and B
[16] BS 4190:2001 Metric black hexagon bolts, screws and nuts Specification
[17] ISO 4762:2004 Hexagon socket head cap screws
[18] ISO 898-1:2013 Mechanical properties of fasteners made of carbon steel and
alloy steel Part 1: Bolts, screws and studs with specified property classes Coarse
thread and fine pitch thread
[19] SAE J1199, Mechanical and Material Requirements for Metric
17/18
[27] G.F. Vander Voort, Embrittlement of Steels, Properties and Selection: Irons,
Steels, and High-Performance Alloys, Vol 1, ASM Handbook, ASM International,
1990, p 689736
[28] Stress corrosion cracking of stainless steel in swimming pool building, Food and
Entertainment Sector, Commercial and Consumer Service, Transportation and
Utilities Sector, Health and Safety Executive, FOD Scotland, 2 August 2002
18/18