204 The Class Sirugglein the Ancient Greek World
the economy of the Greek world, then the properted classes must have extracted
their surplus in other ways, primarily chrough wxfe labour (hat of slaves, serfs
tnd borrlsmen) performed direct” for individual (a nubject U have alteady
‘deat with in Section iv ofthis chapter), bat also ‘indirecly’ to some extent, it
the form of ret (an money oF kind) from leases, or else from taxation, ot
‘compalery secs performed for the state or the municipalities (which I propose
ta deal with in the next chapter)
Te may not be out of place if add note listing all he references to hited
labour in the New Testament, of which the only ones of particular interest are
Mt. XX.1-16 (the ‘Parable ofthe Vineyard, referred to above) and James V.4
IV
Forms of Exploitation in the Ancient Greek World,
and the Small Independent Producer
@
‘Directindividual’ and “indirect collective’ exploitation
So far in discussing the forms of dass trig nthe ancient Gresk wor has
spoken mainly of the diet individual explowstion involved ithe mastersla
felationship and other forms of unfte Ibou, and in sage-abous.
little more than mention such relationships a chose of landlord and tena, and
the yieléing oflabour, and (exeept in I
nothing abour the indie clleave exploitation effected through the various
organs ofthe sate ~ aterm which, when applied to the Hellensec and Roma
periods, must be taken to include not only imperal officals (those of the
Fetlenivic kings and ofthe Roman Republicand Enpite} but abo the agent of
polet through which the Greck Kast eatne more and more 1 Be
tered, Broadly speaking, all those among the exploited canses who
‘were of sereile or quasi-srvile condition (including sets and bondsrnen) ant
also hired labourers tenants ane debtors were subyectto what Uhavecalled dirt
exploitation by individual members ofthe propericd cass, although ~even apart
from the slaves ofthe emperors and other members ofthe imiperal household.
the familia Caesrit = there were a certain number of publieslaves sis
public) owned by the Roman state or by particular ples. The forms of exploit
tion which [have called inde on the other hand, were plied by dhe state (e
‘ways I shall describe presently) forthe clletive benefit of faint) che proper
tied class, above allo persons oft least nominally fre satus who were smal
independent producers! ofthese a few were either traders (merchants, shop-
keepers of petty dealers) or else independent artisans (working not for wages,
bbutom their own account: Section vi ofthis chapter and e1above). bu d=
‘vast majority were peasants, and most of what Ihave wo say abour this cgory
‘of small independent producers will be concentrated on the peasantry torr
‘hich [shall define in Section i ofthis chapter.
Tdeally it might have been best to deal separately with the kinds oFexploita-
tion effected by landlords and mortgagecs (raking the form of rent or interes
together with ther kinds of what | have ealed “direct indiedual explosion
but since they applied almost enircly to those Tam calling “peasant as
found it convenient to ert them in thi chapter, with forms of
collective’ exploitation
By “indirect and collective” forms of exploitation I mean those py
services which were not rendered from individual t idivalual bat wer206, The Class Struggle in the Ancient Greek World
raced by the autho ofthe sete tv abo) roma whole commun
{@ village for example) o rom intvutals They would warmly take one of
Uhroe a cos 1) octet tmeyovin Kies Cy raiaryertcrpeo or
(3) eompulhory meal src such av te ogra netioned La above
Treat, of cour wis ul the mst portant of tee fm ofp
tion, Af working out hc postion hve jut sated, same asta statement
im Mars which proves dot he too dstnguinhed beeen what Lar cling
“vet individual andres ole caleaon, seal a regard
taxation, Inthe cars of is tree nar works on teat Freeh hry, Th
Cas Stas nFome publi neyo ails nthe Now Rue
eau dng 181), Marx sys the onion the French pests of ib
dy that "Their exploitation dies only in fer 0 the explokation ofthe
‘industria prolarat, The eaplerb these cpl The dividual apes
exploit the nvidia pessans through mona and vu, the apa ls
‘explo the pean cae dhrough de Sta er (WMECTW 129)
Now except im democracy. lik dat of Athens i the fit and fourth
centuries B.C. which extend! pica thlowear veh of thee
population the sate wohl bem cee spy the tseuen of te eave
Propecy-ovmers or ven of oH kin
Enis henchmen, for state, oa Romun pero and the perl abo
tracy To the wider eso tc rtm Sil inld Bel ont rte
‘ler may fer realy tren another: 0 fh essa the ference harm
eon thatthe one chs fn wth hit the ter wth sep
(Quite spar fom direct exploitation of wcrc, ser he labourers
tenanes, debrors and hors by nt el yropcrtymers sch vate would
Provide for is own nal’ by tact, the reaction of compar series
Siu conscnprion,Tasaton took nny ferent ors inthe Gc world
the cites fret Helleistic peat nyt have ee gute ht nly
becanetheck ofamything estmbhing a mndcr cioiscrvie made dial!
not impowableta collect smal mstitasespeottably fom poor empl hat
toy from the great mat of he poplar), without terreno
tarcfarmers Cela in Gaeet. Latin poblan), wo sre to have Been Wry
tunpope with all lise. We avs hardly any infrmation abut taxation
the Grek isin dc Clase pri cso Ate: wht the por were
Practice exept trun eh ipo te ony frm of dee taacion ad were
probably ie act by inet fuser er dha the ampore das ant
Feu cs iis elnchly ft charaeri of oar sure of inormaton
for Greck~cven Aihcnian ~etyoniestry hot our at tf taxes ora
yin any Bray wonrce sul wearin Comedy: Antophanee, Way
{See} The tov harden of atom the Goch ees and te terion.
certainly increased inthe Fallen und Roman pride. Ascording vo Row
tovtzefl. "the Hellenic peri di noire ny subtailcange no
the system which bad Bun ly ceed freer in the Grek ete
(SEHHIW BI.1374n 71, Wis mph om the word sania this on be
cepted, but the evidence consists tly sal erp te ony tia
Soure of any real significa ncpta en iy SIG HM (ich has
ten fly dncised up Enlist." Barto the Creek cies wer soon oF
Uter auger some aston by Hele Kings and oven te
redarieamong th
IV. Exploitarion, and the small independent producer (i) 207
wad to payrtance 0 Roo. Asia, of cours, the Hellenistic kings
Persian syste of axatin anised by Dariast atthe ond of
thesivth ceutury I. sand alhoxgh es Holienshe period many Greck ates
swore excrnpt Fem this, the peasants on lard not included inthe erenory of
fdty must alive have been subj: Yo tis berden, tn Egype, the Prolen
eomginised Hs 4
arrangenicets they 4
torts have ln
and Roman perry
material. Restoxtaod 5 pe
his SEHHIF (i. 1741-2) wilt sho
index to his SEHRE?
ur know
from an insctpt
by the Romans. Moder hie
iy Of carsion in dhe Hellenic
relevant mde of
ed with enteics
and ahalf nthe
irapncscoveris may wall extend
‘onc im the past. For etance 338
oy Bulgaria that the frst example
fame to light ofa poliax (oF cnc dewaréos pot head) collected by a lacal ty
from sonic of the inhabitants of Ws ar, vith the express perinesion of Ah
‘emperor, For ig.w eet (IGE. 1V_2263, nes 8)
tthe Middle and Later Roman opie, fn
Tahal expla
Soran al is of
Tecation gray i
noat heavily on hs peasnntry. who fa Kast poser tors
a VIlL blow. the rich nan haa fr better chance of scp
paymont. The small prodioce raat ab
Fompulory serices iii bist of the state, frat mainly aptaone pets of the
Grecke world (especially Eaypt snd Sor) soho byt nce formed part of
Persian enpite snd is wich there survived snefinitely forms of abgasory
personal service such ss the srr (Kor repairing cay st. onthe tape
‘Bates which were th origin wean ac Litabove ad te 8 Belov)
‘Among, he forms of what [have called “exrect collective exploitation
mint not fil ro wotie cooscription. tn the Grek cite, sary service nt
cavalry ote hetvy-arned infantry lve hoplite atmny) vas itargy expec
‘mainly of those lam callng "he propertod clase fee HL eakove),sthitah F
believe that hoplitesereice sometiies (pera otton vt des athe bet
that level and afeted some of those who noranlly had dee cera ama
(of work for thei living. Lightarmed troops and aval freee were tected
aves, amaatgoxbers, 29
from the nen-propertied, ae some cis even Us
row their wuships (are eg. The, 1542 55.0). |
‘Comeription of the poor for such purposes wat rather far
{or at least rations} were given. And T think 1 beliese Hat at
‘thers in particular those Below the oplte elas (the Thsts) were cnscrpted
‘only temporarily. in emergencies ($i 424, 46 and perhaps 37), ase 362
‘when — a8 I think ~ conscription of Thotes forthe fect wis iro and
became much more frequent”
The (eatare of military conscription whichis particularly relevant heres that
will have represented no relly scrious burden upon the well. whe did
jt have to work for their Living and whom muliary serve would merely
vert fron other occupations ~ often more profitable, struc. For al howe
below my ‘properticd class, conscription, diverting them from the actvtics by
‘which they earned their daily bread, could boa real menace, andthose who wore208 Thec
furthest {rom belonging to the properticd class would presumably sffr mos.
Marx, who knew his Appian, quotes in a footnote to Vol, LoF Capa pp.725-7
1) part of the passage in which Appian describe the growth of great estates
apd the impoverishment ofthe Ialian peasantry during the Republic (BC 17)
indus the comment, "Military service hastened to so great an exten the ruin
fof the Roman plebcians.” (Appian indced, in that passage ives the Feedom oF
Slaves from conscription as te reson why Roman landowners ‘osd lave 38
ealeators and herdsmen’, rather than free mien.) With the tceptin of the
Roman Principate (and indeed even earlicr, from the time of Marit, the late
second century B.C.) conscription came to be replaced to some coasidcrable
extent by voluntary reerutment, although it continued toa greater degece dha
‘many historins have realised (ce Section i ofthis chapter and ite. below
5 Struggle in the Ancient Greek World
Gi)
The peasantry and their villages
Althoaigh the peasantry represents an aspect ofthe past surviving i the con=
temporary world’ yeti ie'worth remembering that as inthe past 4a in the
[present = peasants are the majority of mankind! Thus Teodor Shani, in his
nroduetion (p17) to the valuable Penguin volume on Prasae and Prasant
“Saceties whic he ete in 1971." In the preset generation, party aa result of
the revent proliferation of studies of backward or exploited counerice (the
sonclled developing countries) there has boon aremarkabicrowchofinerest,
sn what some peape ike to refer toa -peusant economics’ or peasantsoccties,
‘anda Jour of Pestant Stes began to appear in 1973. A grat deslofwaormation
fas been collected about peasants; but st as this branch of studies had to rly
[agely in ime past upon historians units iu sociology and with Mec or no
regard for wider sociological issue, 20 now inn anger of bocoming mainly
the province of sociologists who have an invites historical apraach or are
not qualified by ther texning to make the best use of nscrieal material ~ in
particular that from dhe ancient world, much of which s very had for anyone
bur a tained Classical scholar and ack historian to se pray
"Now Iadmit that avery linge pare ofthe Grek (nd Roman) world ehroughout
most ofits history woul stnfy some ofthe carrnty popular definitions of
my’ of "peasant sity not one tts eel sceeped today
I Thomer, presented tthe Second International Conference Of
Bistory at Ait in 1962, a a papcr entitled "Peasant cconomty 383
category in economic history’. published n 1965 in the Proceedings of the
ence and reprinted in Shanin’s Pengin reader mentioned above (PPS
202-1 se esp. 218-5). where we at find a number of atemaive definitions
and discussions of the concep of "peasant economies’ (e.g 2-100, 150-40,
323.4)and ‘peasans' (108-105, 240-5, 2545, 322.5) The ancenthistorn needs
to be able co operate occasionslly withthe concept of 3 ‘peasant economy’, a
Jeast for comparative purposes, and he may sometimes find this category relly
tsefl in dealing with Greck and Roman society. On the other hand he will also
‘want to isolate the speitc fearures which differentiate the various phases of
‘ancient Greck (and Roman) society from peasant exonoonics~ orate pease
‘economies, My own inchnations ae ather of tho secon variety, and ainough 1
IV. Exploitation, and the small independent producer (ii) 208
shall certainly make woe (after defining it} oF the category of "yeasts [sal
Tarely think in terts ofa "peasant enemy’ Tage with Rede Hilin, sth
the publication of his 1973 Ford Lectures at Oxfors has punted oot ths “Os
concept "peasant economy” could embrace most of basa history Sete
toibal” (American, "folk" society and the compleion af etastrl wast
mation in modem tints, [could certaly apply co 28
states! (EPLMA 7). If we fel the necessity 9 cass
are studying, in order to group it with certain broly saa sates ya
“istinguish i from thosein other groups, then for mest purywsesahoik we shall
find ie more profitable o place the ancknt Greek word, ins successive andi
some ways very different phases, within the fil of ‘save soe: hs
‘peasant society" alchough ofcourse operating tainly wit da forarer cence}
docs noe by any micans exclude the use of the later i approgeate stations
Pethaps {should repeat here what Uhave said before (eg. in IL an I30
above): for my purposes, the fact chat the propertid eases the Greck 204
[Roman world derived th bulk of det suri from the cxpletatcs oF wns
labour makes it possible for us to consider that world (i ery lose sense)
‘slave economy’ or slavesocicty’ even though wehave-toconcade thi unig
large pare of Greek and Roman history peasants and other independent ro
ducers may not only have formed the actual majortyof the total populace nt
‘may also have ad a larger share (usually a much larger shar) in prolactin chan
slaves and othcr unfree workers. Even when, By the focth cemuiry of th
(Christan era atthe very latest ts posible to be fay te that predacton by
chattel slaves in the striet sens has dropped wel blow thecombel redaction
c Peasants, peasant ers, and miscellaneous artisan othe ise workers
fof all nds, wiaether working on their own account or for wages (ore HI
above) the unftee labour ofthe ser isa major facior. and rrmating thes hae
Society isthe universal and unquestioning acceptance of avery a8 part af
natural order (ef IILiv above and Section i of this chapte) As shall demion-
Strate in V.vi and VIL below, Christianity made na diflereace watever to
this situation, except perhap= to strengthen the position of the governing Few
and increase the aequrescence of the exploited Many, even if did encourage
individual aes of charity
"The townsman throvigh the ages has always regarded the peasint’s ot a+
tunenviable, except on those oceasions when he has allowed hireel some
‘sentimental reflection upon the morally superior quality ofthe peaart sie (ce
aph of Liliabove). Edward Gibbon, congraulatiag hinsclfinhis
autobiography on having been born into “a fimily of honosrable rank and
‘needing sumed greater economic portance ater Arusts" (M78): and
vwemay surly areca leas thar bythe stond entry of eure wes payne
_much large ol than nh se eury Bn th cco se ed entre
the lawyer someximes use the cores chica expres fo he "consort of
Slave, dumber, but yrmetimes re fo the at aie unre, whch
Suit law they culdneverb although he tem aay often have bev ait
them in popusr speech. as by Caro, Dew 141 quoted above Ulan
Big XX Kio Tbe ehh words 7 ofthese
side he actully ret to the ear swore = surprising poe by Jar
tls it had become very common fr slaves to have perma convo to
IV, Exploitation, and the small independent producer (it) 237
such an extent that even a lawyer could ffer to dhem loosely as ‘wives! A
particularly interesting text fom Salvius Juliane, weting probably inthe (50s,
ontemplates a cate in which a man provided in his will hat his lave woman
‘Should be foe 'ifshe bore thee slaves. bur she ws prevented rom doing so by
his heir either giving her some ‘medicimentum’ to prevent conccption 0
procuring aortion (Dig, XL,vi.3 16) Imay add that children orm 6 te
Saves in a man’s urban familia might be eared on his country estate see Dig
XXXll.xcx.3 (Paulus); xe. 210 (Mareianus).
11, Thope Ehave now established that, insofar 25 permistible co speak of
4 “decline’ of slavery during the Pmexpat, what we must concenerate on is the
face that asa result of slaves being ca large extent bred within the economy
instead of being brought into it under exceptionally favourable conditions. he
‘ate ofexplouation of the lave population 26a whole must have diminished, to
allow for the diversion of effort to producing and rearing children, snchuding 2
‘cmsidcrable number who would nor survive to become uefa o thei owners
The increased cost of slaves imported from outside the economy would ako
iminish thie profitability,
12., We have now admited the necessity for slave-breeding inthe Princpate
and the desirability of encouraging slaves co breed by establishing them in|
tonditions conducive to che rearing of families. Ie need not surprises, there=
fore, to find actual evidence, from a5 ctl 2 the ast century B.C. onwards of
slaves setled as virtual tenants of 2griculcral plots ~a situation which might
have been widespread without its making an appearance im our sources, but
‘which we happen to know about from quotation in Justinan's Dige fom
some ofthe culier lawyers whore works are cited there, including two of the
‘ery caries: Alfonas Varus, consul in 39 8.C., and bis younger contemporary
(M. Antonius Labeo, who flourished under Augustus. Alen wrote of aman
‘who leased a farm to his slave for culsvation (ida fidion colendion sr 8
Ibcavit: Dig, XW si 16), and mentioned the posmbalty of such lease at We
‘normal occurrence (XL-vi. H4.p.). Labeo (and also Pegasus, who was at work
tn the 70s of the first century), as quoted by Ulpian, wrote of serous qui gus!
‘oles in ro erat "a save who a8 on agricultural land as fhe were a tenant
(Dig. XXXII vi, 12.3). The same situation is alo referred vo hy Q. Gervidius
‘Seaevoa, leading jurist ofthe second half ofthe second cneary CCXML Wi. 20.
with 18.4; ef. XX132). and [ would see it relecred again im two other texts of
Scaevola: Dig. XXXII. vii.23,3 (clr! prado who are sive) and vi.20,3
(Where the religus due from vill, as well as colon, may well be, oF at least
include, rents). All the texts in question mention this situation quite casually as
‘fit were well known, and I suggest chat i was probably very common indeed
‘rom the frst cencury onvards. In such eases the tenant, considered from the
strictly legal aspect, was ill slave, but fom the economic point of view the
Slave was properly atenant, and he might even employ slaves of is own (ar
mentioned by Seaevola, for example, in Dig. XX132), as an ordinary fee
‘olonus might (see e.g. Dig. IX279.11; XIXH.30.9). Ulpian could con
‘template a slave as occupier (habitatr of ahouse (Dig. Di. he goes on 9
define a habiavr ax one who oecuplesa house thats his own or leased to him. oF
Which he is occupying by favour vel lnsuo vei conduc vel gratuie.§ 9).238 The Class Struggle in the Ancient Greek World
In the late fourth century slave tenants wore spparnely stileommon, for an
imperial constitution of 392 (CT XViv20) ordering the punishment as
ciminals of those who allowed herical wactings take place am lands they
fowned oF leased, decrees that ) guilty of any such heinous
fflence isto pay a large fine ta 8 fepring of servile
droge’ (vile face derondon) nde conten he vine becaune of his
poverty and his low condition, he & to be Rogged ond deport. realise, of
ours. that the Latin phrase I ave quoretneed noe rcvesarly imply more than
servile birth, and was presumably used to covce bo saves and feedeven,) A
century liter inthe 40s, «slave the Roman Chur narsed Ampiaas, who
had boca conductor of some of ts Land, i nietioncd in seer (28) of Pope
Gelasius (A.D. 492-43," If such tenancies of slaves were found eo be wo ehe
master’s advantage. they would donbuoss be senso indeimitey. and the
slave~olonus, n0t manutd in hit maser’ fesime, might wel be freed by
his master's wil (asin Dig, XXXILxcvi, Pavls), The stuaton I have been
dlscussing has long ben known of course, an goals hasTocen made of some
‘vious modern hastorne ncding foe instance
‘of the texts Ihave quoted b
Mare Bloch (in CEFIE F.251-2). although he concentrating entirely on the
Latin West, whereas we ate primarily wntcrested inthe Greek East The “tte
slave’, sero waynes 90 much im evidence by the ime of Charkemage, fs HOt
known under that designation in dhe Roman empire the er casa
before the Middle Ages. and the cauni who are bracketed with oo
constitution of 369 ares likely eo be fre "eottager as “huts saves (CTH
IX-xit7 = CJ IX.slie. 7), But Pope Pelagivs I, n 2 wer giving sections
about an inheritance, part of which could be claimed by ls Chueh (Fp. #4, of|
‘A.D. 5e-1), advises his agent, Bishop Julian of Cinguhns, that a rasticus vel
colonus'is preferable tan arife et mniotrilspocr (1) asd warashim not
torelease ‘those who can become rondutore ot colon? (§ Band wo to giveaway
“auch men as may be able to oecupy cottages oF to come eestor’ (ui oe
soninee casas vel clerepessunt,§ 2) ~ whete the words “cominere cass" come
art calling these mich scrv cost
The serene gua clin was well known among the German eibes a carly 28
the first century, for Tacitus describes the condition oF sack aman as the
characteristic forma of German slavery, Eachslave, hess ivexon sown, ad
the miaster imposes on hin Tabilty for fixed sjuatty of comm ee cattle or
slorhing, "3.0m cole’, or “asi he wer cole a loo: Germ, 281, We
fan accepe this without snigiving: it was probably tn best way of preventing
the slave from escaping o bs borne, which might quite ncar (ce Thompson,
SEG 22-3, 1819 = SCA od. Finley] 195-7. 192-9,
‘According wo 3 much-qued letter of Piny the Vounge. erie i the fist
years of the second entry he bitislf nowhere ime chained slaves (eit
flsewhere als compe allt), noe dad anyone else m Uae part Tayo which
he is referring (Ep. IML... 7). Sherwin-Whitc, in his commentary on Play's
levers, has shown that the arc in question must be onthe edge of Tuscany,
where Pliny ad an estate in the upper valley of the Tiber. at Tiferaun
Tiberinum (.P 254), A passage m the poot Mart, probably wnt within
decade bofore this eter of Piny's, contemplates the prospect of ‘the elds of
“Tuscany resounding with courless fetrs’ (ene mimes compe Tass er.
IV, Exploitation, and the small independent producer (iii) 239
1X soe); but this may not refer toa real contemporary situation. Inthe carly
70h the Flder Pliny had deplored large-scale cultivation by vn, housed in
prison-lke barracks (rgstla): hi. he says. is ee worst kind of farming. and
‘ne could well believe that it makes Mother Earth hese unwilling and ind
‘nand (NH XVII.21.35-6). However, Columella (writing probably afew years
carlier) docs refer occasionally to chained saves: and although two of thse
[passages rather suger thatthe mn concemed {erat mamcpu, Li tT
‘manips vinta, 813.22) will be in that condition as special punishment,
Colmells also speaks of vineyards a8 being ‘very often cultivated by Ktered
slaves! (vines pluriaon per algoes excohmur, Lix-t; of. Lvi3: Wil: aso
I.praef3: 8.12). Evidently the use of chai-gangs in agriculture was on the
decline even in aly in the time ofthe to Pings but had not entirely ded out by
the Beginning of the second century.
13, T wish to mention at this point three works which have made a pat
ularly vahuble contribution to our understanding of Reman land tenure and
the rise of the colonate ts earlier form, before ie Was converted into serfdom.
() The first is a brillant lecture delivercd by Max Weber in 1896 and
published inthe same year. Itemained unread even by Rostoviel (se SEHRE*
1.751 n.9) who did not miss much; but i recent yeas ie has become easily
available in good English translation in no Fewer than three diferent paper
backs, under the tile,“ The socal eaues ofthe decay oF ancient civilisation” (ce
Iv above and its m8 below). and Mazzarino has described it (with some
exaggeration) as really the mos fundamental work and the greatest work of |
genius which has ever been written on the economic eri of aniguty” (EAN
40). Weber's interesting approach to hin problem i frm the point af view of
the supply of labour. He points out, as Thave done, that dhe slave-barracks
‘which had lourishod in certain areas tn the Late Republic were anything but
sel-reproducing, and that when the extemal supply of slaves began t some
extent to dey up, “the effect on the save-harracks must be the same a that of
tcthaustion of the coaldeposts on the Blstfumaces’. When that happen,
‘Weber adds, “we have reached the suring. point in the development of ancient
civilisation’, But his sketch ofthe decline of slavery nd the development of the
colonate, perfectly valid as fr as t goes." ls fo bring out the complex of
connected processes which I explained in § 6 above: the fall the rate expla
fo o slave labour consequent upon the widespread extension ofslave-breding,
and also an increased expliarion of humble free me, 382 material result of the fact,
Thar the propersied clases were deermined eo maintain thet relatively high
standard of hfe and had all the politcal control necesiry to enable them £0
‘other.
Fustel de Coulanges. ‘Le colomat
romain’ in his Recherhes sur quelques problemes @kioie (Paris. 1885) 1-196,
Fustel his 3 great deal to say on the development ofthe colonate that will of
seal interest He lays particular stress on the fact that on often went decply
to debe, like che eenantof the Younger Pliny some of whom seem tohave got
‘hopeless postion, wich their arrears (rdigud) ever mounting and thie
sceuriies forfeited (Pliny. Ep. 119.67. IX.37.1-3: of, VIM IX 3.65
X-A.5) There are many referees inthe works of the Ronan layers cited in240 ‘The Class Struggle in the Ancient Greek World
the Digest 0 ‘rents cutstnding from tenant’ (liu colon). These would
surely inch rents merely due after the etators dest, and not only rent hen
already overdue in area (for no text Thave noticed distinguishes between che
two): Bucof course they would also ince any arrears, suchas the cig that 0
worried Pliny (Ep 19.6; IX.37.2, More recent work as shown tht Fustel
‘was mistaken on certain technical questions of Roman law: in parbcula, he as
wrong in believing that a fixed rene was essential for the Roman contract of
lease, lovtio comdutio (see e.g. Clausing, RC 161-2: Thomas, NM). Never
theless, his works wery uso in is demonstration ofthe humble status and the
precariousness ofthe legal and economic poiion, ofthe clon ofthe Principate
Horace, asthe very opposite of kings, had chosen ‘strengths colt (apes
‘oloni: Od. ILxiv11-12). Later we ce them dominated by thet landlords even in
religious matters: im 251 Se. Cyprian could praise African landlords who had
thee Christan inglin et colont from the act of pb sacrifice
demanded by the Emperor Decius (Ep. LV-xii.2). and around che year 400
‘masterful landowners in North Africa took it upon themsclves a convert their
‘colon from Donatism to Catholicism (August...Ep. 581) or vie versa (Aug.
‘Li, Pei. 184, 28)
(¢. The ls of the thece works i an article by Bembard Klee (SCRK, esp.
580-8) which Brings out better than anything cls know the very weak position
lof the lessee under the Roman contrat of lovato conde. Iis wort drawing
attention hereto something recently pointed out by Elizabeth Rawson: "the ray,
among the upper dss [of Late Republican Ron), of renting. wich may be
‘connected with dhe unfavourable position at aw ofa tenant’ (SRP. ed. Finley, #7,
And here. going back to what I said under the heading “I, Debt bondage! in
IIL above about persons] execution’ for debt, I mist point out that rent in
arrear, 2 breach of the contract of lovato conducts between landlord and tenant,
‘would constitute a debr for which the landlord would be ented to “personal
‘execution’ against the defauling tenant, as against any other debtor. lean now
add an importane consideration to one | advanced in UL. above (in the pars
raph just before the one containing 1.70), to the effect that the aldiate oF
lindicatis, who could have slave-termnology =pplicd wo him in popular ussge,
may often have been obliged in practice to work for his creditor sit not very
Hikely indeed that m sucha situation 2 Lndlord would often offer 10 kev his
tenant on the same land, under moe burdensome conditions thax could rly Be
exacted from a willing tenant, and that the tenane would prefer we aept sah
‘ditions, rather than risk Being tamed into an adéue and simply kept i 3
prison, or taken away elsewhere to work off his arears? We kiow trom &
Statement in the treatise of Calistatus, De tre fi, pooscrved in the Dig
(OXLIX-xiv-2.6), char by the second quarter ofthe secon! cemary a practice had
{grown up of foreing the lessees of public land to renew thei tenancies ifno one
flse could be found to take the property atthe same rent, (Tax farmers. t00.
‘were similarly made ro renew their contracts.) Hadrian, rebaking stich a pro~
cedure, ceferstoit asa thoroughly inhuman auton (reldeinkaoas mes) rom
‘which we must conclude chat it had already occurred on numerons occasions.
And according t 3 provision of che Emperor Philip in 244 the retention of
“unwilling lessees or their heis after the expiration of a lease had “ofter® bon
IV, Exploitation, and the small independent producer (iii) 241
forbidden by imperial script (CJ IV. Dev. 11) leis indeed cay to believe that
private landlords. a5 well as imperial agents, often attempted to keep their
fenantson the land after their leases had expired although of course they had no
right todoso~vness, I would emphasise, the tenant was in deb to the landlord
see the reference at the beginning ofthis pacsgraph to IIL iv above, dealing with
‘personal execution’ for debt. I would assume that in the ease which ix being