Geoelectric Soundings for Predicting Aquifer Properties by Walter K. Kosinski* and William E. Kelly? ABSTRACT ‘Two bedrock valleys, filled with glacial oucwash, material, were investigated with Schlumberger resistivity soundings. Aquifer electrical resistivities were determined for 16 vertical electrical soundings ac seven sites in southern Rhode Island where pumping tests had been run previously. Resistivties for the different aquifer materials were derived with boring log control. The auxiliary point methods were used to reduce the aquifer layering to a single representative resistivity value. Relationships between the representative aquifer resistivity and aquifer permeability and transmissivity were derived. INTRODUCTION As ground water becomes more important as a source of uncontaminated water, methods for locating good aquifers must become more efficient. Partly for this reason, geophysical methods are playing an increasingly important role in ground- water investigations. Of all surface geophysical methods, the electrical resistivity method has been the most widely used in ground-water investigations. Resistivity methods, however, do not yield complete information and will never, even under favorable conditions, completely replace test drilling. They can, though, in many cases substantially reduce the amount of test drilling required by allowing a more ‘Engineer, Goldberg Zoino and Associates, Newton Upper Falls, Massachusetts; formerly graduate student, Department of Givil and Environmental Engineering, University of Rhode Island, Kingston, Rhode Island 02881 bassociate Professor, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Rhode Island, Kingston, Rhode Island 02881. Discussion open until September 1, 1981 Vol. 19, No. 2~GROUND WATER—March-April 1981 intelligent selection of test hole sites. In most vestigations, a combination of drilling and geophysical measurements will provide the optimum solution, Resistivity surveys are not practical in all ground-water investigations, but this determination can be made only with an understanding of the capabilities, limitations and costs of geoelectrical surveys (Zohdy et al., 1974). ‘A number of excellent papers and reports have been published on the utilization of resistivity techniques in ground-water investigations. Notable are reports of studies in Alabama (Joiner et al., 1968), California (Page, 1968; Zohdy, 1964), Hawaii (Zohdy and Jackson, 1969), and Texas (Zohdy, 1969). Zohdy et al. (1974) provide ‘useful summary of much that has been done in the United States. In glaciated regions, reports of studies in Illinois (Buhle and Brueckman, 1964; Foster and Buble, 1951; McGinnis and Kempton, 1961), Missouri (Froblich, 1973; Froblich, 1974; Meidav, 1960), and Rhode Island (Allen e¢ a, 1963) indicate some of the difficulties encountered in glacial materials. Liesch (1969) noted, based on work in Minnesota, that “Aquifers in glacial deposits are characterstically lenticular, sinuous and discontinuous. Past experience has demonstrated that che assumption cannot be made that a well died in the vicinity ofa successful producing wel in such aquifers will be equally successful.” The goal of this study was to develop surface resistivity techniques for making quantitative estimates of the water transmitting properties of glacial outwash materials. An ongoing evaluation by the Rhode Island Water Resources Board and the United States Geological Survey of ground-water 163resources in southwestern Rhode Island provided a unique opportunity to study surface resistivity methods in two aquifers~one, a largely undeveloped aquifer, and the other, a partially developed aquifer. Some of the data on which this paper is based has been presented in previous papers and reports (Kelly, 1976; Kelly, 1977a; Kelly, 1977b). In this paper, details on the method of sounding interpretation and additional data and correlations are presented. BACKGROUND Site Location Two areas in the Pawcatuck River Basin of southwestern Rhode Island were investigated. The Pawcatuck River Basin includes several north-to- south-trending preglacial valleys filled with glacial outwash materials which constitute the present-day aquifers. During the retreat of the last continental glacier, the Charlestown moraine, a 100-foot high ridge of till and stratified drift was laid down across the bedrock valleys forming the present-day drainage divide between the basin and Block Island Sound (ee Figure 1). Adjustment of the drainage to the terrain, after the glacier retreated, ultimately resulted in the present-day Pawcatuck River System (Allen et al., 1966). Ke. = 5S oanerom tonne — = one ar Fig, 1. Location of study area. 164 The principal study area was the Beaver River Aquifer (see Figure 1) which is relatively small, about % mile wide by 7 miles long. This aquifer is presently undeveloped. The aquifer is bordered by low hills consisting of a thin veneer of till overlying bedrock; the highest hill, Shannock Hill, has an altitude of about 300 feet above mean sea level. Elevations along the Beaver River range from approximately 100 feet in the north to 90 feet in the south (Gonthier et al,, 1974). Resistivity soundings were also made in the Chipuxet River aquifer (see Figure 1). Soundings were in an area about % mile wide by 3 miles long which has been explored extensively and developed, resulting in more existing subsurface data (Allen et al., 1963; Allen et al., 1966; Dickerman, 1976). The southward-trending Chipuxet River aquifer is bordered by till-covered hills in che north and diminishes to a broad plain in the south at an altitude of approximately 100 feet, High-yield wells supply the University of Rhode Island, the Kingston Fire District, and several small industries with about 1 mgd. Geology ‘The Bedrock valleys are filled with stratified ‘outwash deposits which often grade into and are commonly underlain by till. Outwash deposits consisting of unconsolidated gravel, sand, and silt form the principal aquifers. The thickest deposits generally occur along the axis of the buried bedrock valleys and often vary abruptly in depth within short distances (Gonthier et al., 1974). Saturated thicknesses of outwash range from 40 feet to 90 feet in the Beaver River study area and from 50 feet to 190 feet in the Chipuxet River study area, In both areas, the deposits generally thicken to the south. Boring logs for many wells drilled in outwash indicate great variability both laterally and vertically. The lack of well-defined stratification and lithologic differences has precluded projection of individual beds over any significant distance (Gonthier et al., 1974). Laboratory analyses of the outwash deposits indicate porosities ranging from 25 to 50 percent and permeabilities from 100 to more than 2,500 gpd/ft? (Allen et al., 1963), Beneath the outwash, a discontinuous sheet of till (10 to 20 feet) commonly occurs. The till is made up of fragments of granite and gneiss, is well graded, and has a median permeability of from 5 to 10 gpd/ft? (Allen et al., 1966). Metamorphic and igneous rocks underlie the glacial deposits; they are dense and compact and considered to be impermeable.Ground Water Water in the Beaver River aquifer occurs generally under water-table conditions, although local confinement by beds of silt and fine sand is not uncommon. Ground water is generally soft, slightly acidic, typically with a dissolved solids’ content of less than 75 mg/l. Specific conductances are typically less than 125 umhos/em with temperatures ranging from 9.0° to 11° Celsius. In the Chipuxet aquifer, water generally ‘occurs under water-table conditions, although pumping tests in the deeper part of the central portion of the aquifer indicate semiconfined conditions. In the central portion of the aquifer, 25 to 65 feet of sand and gravel are overlain by 30 to 85 feet of very fine sand and silt which act as an aquitard. This in turn is overlain by an upper layer of coarse sand and gravel as much as 70 feet thick, In the shallower parts of the aquifer only the upper layer is present. Ground water in the Chipuxet aquifer is relatively soft and slightly acidic with dissolved solids’ content typically less than 125 mg/l (Dickerman, 1976). Specific conductance values are generally less than 250 umhos/cm with temperatures again around 10° Celsius. GEOELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS AND INTERPRETATION Measurements The Schlumberger quadripole arrangement was used for all depth sounding. Although the Wenner configuration is more common in the United States, the advantages of the Schlumberger method (Bhattacharya and Patra, 1968; Keller and Frischknecht, 1966; Zohdy et al., 1974), particu- larly the interpretation techniques available, made it the choice in this study. Only vertical electrical soundings (VES) were made in this investigation. Horizontal profiling was not done due to man- power and time restrictions. A portable resistivity unit (Soiltest R-60) was used for all measurements. Separate transmitting (power) and receiving (potential) units eliminate errors due to mutual interference. The transmitter is capable of supplying 45 to 810 volts DC with a current of up to’l ampere. The normal operating range was between 50 and 100 milliamperes. The receiver has a range from .002 ohms to 22,500 ohms resistance or from .02 to 10,000 millivolts with an accuracy of £2% above .02 ohms and +8% from .02 to .002 ohms. Current was passed into the ground through two steel electrodes. The electrodes frequently had to be watered to insure good electrical contact. Potential drop was measured between two porous pot electrodes filled with a saturated copper sulfate solution which was allowed to soak through the porous bottoms insuring excellent electrical contact with the ground. This equipment is capable of sounding to depths of 250 feet. Interpretation Initial interpretations of the Schlumberger VES field curves were made by curve matching using available two- and three-layer master curves (Compagnie Generale de Geophysique, 1955). In general, field curves resembled four-layer sections, with the top two layers representing unsaturated strata above the water table, the third layer representing the saturated aquifer, and the fourth layer representing bedrock. The last three layers were matched to obtain an over-all estimate of the probable resistivity ratios and section thicknesses. Also, field curves from adjoining areas were compared, In the second phase of interpretation, auxiliary point charts and two- and three-layer master curves were used to obtain a good match for entire field curves. Interpretations for sites in similar geologic settings were adjusted within the range of equivalence using Pylaev’s nomograms (Bhattacharya and Patra, 1968; Keller and Frischknecht, 1966) to bring resistivities and depths into agreement. The geoelectric section determined in this way is not unique and may not correlate with the geologic section. This is because of the problems of equivalence and suppression which cannot be resolved without independent geologic control In the final phase of interpretation, boring logs were used for geologic control and 2 computer program (Zohdy, 1974b) was used to calculate theoretical curves. When the initial four layer interpretations were compared with boring data, the effect of electrical averaging became apparent. Boring logs typically revealed three or more layers in the aquifer, while sounding curves typically showed only one. This is because resistivity contrasts and “effective” relative thicknesses (Flathe, 1955; Flathe, 1976; Keller and Frischknecht, 1966) within the aquifer are too small to be distinguishable. Suppression also occurs because the ground-water aquifer is overlain and underlain by highly resistive layers Theoretically, the aquifer layering can be calculated; but realistically, it cannot be observed on the field curve 165‘The effect of variations of layer properties within the aquifer section was studied. Substantial changes of equivalent resistivity and thickness within the suppressed aquifer section had little or no effect on the theoretical curve shape. Although it was generally possible to fit the geoelectric to the geologic section, layers within the aquifer section could not have been determined from the sounding curve alone. An alternative to a multilayer aquifer interpretation is to use a single resistivity value for the entire aquifer section. Even with different geologic layering within the aquifer, an equivalent single value is calculated. For the purpose of this analysis, two assumptions are made: (1) the flow of electricity through the aquifer follows the same general path as the flow of water to a well and this flow is horizontal; (2) a single value of resistivity for an aquifer section is a representative average for the entire saturated thickness just as transmissivity represents the capacity of an aquifer to transmit water through its entire thickness. These assumptions are reasonable for conditions in the study area. ‘Transmissivity values used in this investigation were obtained using standard interpretive methods (Walton, 1970) which are based on the assumption of horizontal radial flow. At least for longer pumping times in an unconfined aquifer, vertical flow components are not important, and flow is approximately horizontal. Electricity follows the path of least resistance, as does water. At the pore level electricity is conducted electrolytically by the interstitial fluid so that resistivity is controlled more by porosity and water quality than by the resistivities of the rock matrix. This means that the electrical path is similar to the hydraulic path at the pore level, and resistivity values must reflect this. Also, electrical flow in this investigation is considered to be principally horizontal at the aquifer scale. This may be explained by reference to the auxiliary point method of sounding curve interpretation. ‘The applicable case in this study is the minimum type sounding curve. It can be shown that the aquifer resistivity, which here is the minimum resistivity, can be obtained by reduction of several layers in the “isolated” case (Bhattacharya and Patra, 1968; Kosinski, 1978; Zohdy, 1965). In the study area, bedrock resistivity is very high so that at large current electrode spacings current flow is, deflected by the bedrock and tends to flow parallel in the aquifer. Current flow through the highly resistive unsaturated zone is essentially vertical. 166 According to the auxiliary point method, the longitudinal unit conductance (S) of the upper layers is the important factor and the transverse unit resistance need not be considered. Similarly, it can be shown that the longitudinal resistivity (0) of the equivalent anisotropic layer, obtained by reduction in the “isolated” case, will be the governing resistivity. Since reduction need consider only the longitudinal direction, interpretation of field data yields the aquifer thickness (H,) which is the sum of the individual aquifer layer thicknesses (hj), and the aquifer resistivity (pq) which is the aquifer Iongitudinal resistivity, Ha Pa = PL qa) and the aquifer longitudinal conductance (Sa) sa= 2 disod @) It can be seen that reduction of a multilayer aquifer section to a single layer is theoretically possible through the principles of the auxiliary point method; also the single aquifer resistivity value (pq) calculated from the field curve is representative of the entire aquifer section in the horizontal direction. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Results from a total of 23 vertical electrical soundings will be presented; 19 VES from the Beaver River aquifer and 4 VES (VES 54, 59, 60, 62) from the Chipuxet. One sounding will be presented in detail to illustrate the interpretation procedures used. Results for the other soundings and wells and more detailed analysis of the data can be found in a thesis by Kosinski (1978). ‘Two interpretations are given for each sounding curve, In the first interpretation only depths to the water table and bedrock were used to obtain three or fourlayer interpretations, A single resistivity value was determined for the entire aquifer section. Results of these interpretations are tabulated in ‘Table 1. In the second interpretation, boring logs from nearby test wells were used to estimate layer thicknesses within the aquifer section so that multilayer aquifer interpretations could be made (see Table 2). For VES 59 a sixth layer with a resistivity of 200 ohm-ft and a thickness of 16.5 feet was determined, but it is not tabulated. AfterTable 1. Four-Layer Sounding Results opel Unsaturated Zone aquifer ves Reaistivity | Thickness | Resistivity | Thickness Resistivity ) thickne umber in ohm-feet | in feet in ohm-fect | in feet in ohm-feet | in feet a @ a (4) 6) (6) a Neel 7000 3.0 125000 9.0 500 98.0 [3 6500 310 125000 9.0 600 98.0 la - ~ iaooo aotor ee 487 75.0 7 2800 3.0 33600 as | 500 80.0 9ai0 1200 6.0 - : | 650 70.0 6 1550 3.0 sooo | (3.0 760 75.0 ages 8000 3.0 36000 6.0 1450 75.0 eis 6700 2.7 36000 48 1400 75.0 aa 12000 2.7 36000 5.4 1400 75.0 28 7700 216 - = 1250 80.0 36 5700 3:0 17500 3.0 1537 10 3000 2.0 120000 8.0 as7s | +0 21000 Bla 120000 ais 75 | 20 | 6000 3le 190000 ala 32s | | Lo000 ae | ‘90000 is 1000, 3800 1.0 78000 720 986 1350 313 12150 313 580 5 2 40000 1.0 1000 4300 45 81700 4.5, 375 - : ‘9100 5.7 2275 it is demonstrated that the aquifer resistivity from the three- or four-layer interpretation is the equivalent longitudinal resistivity of the multilayer section after reduction by the auxiliary point method, these aquifer resistivities will be related to transmissivities and permeabilities determined from pumping test results. ‘The sounding curve selected for analysis (VES 36) is located aboutl 100 feet north of a test boring (RIW 367), at a site later chosen for a pumping test (RIW 385). Inspection of VES 36 indicates a four-layer case. Depths to water of three feet and to bedrock of 88 feet obtained from the test boring were used to arrive at the four-layer interpretation shown in Figure 2. The resistivity for the thin sand and gravel layer at the water table is very high and probably reflects a lowered water table at the time the sounding was made, A resistivity value of 1,537 ohm-ftis representative of the entire aquifer section. Table 2. Multilayer Sounding Results ] Laver 1 Tayer 2 layer 3 ayer 4 ayer 5 Reaie- | THICK] Reais | ThIGk- | Reels | TIC FALSE [Reais | TAICK-| tivity | ness | tivity | ness | tivity | ness | tivity | ness ves | wet |inobm| in | inohm| in | in ohm| in | in ohm | in wunber | umber | fect | fect | fect | feet | fect | foot feet | feet | fect @ | @ @ |e |e [oe | om | @ ao | an | az a |rrwase | 2000 | 36.5 | 628 | 36.0 | 300 | 26.0 - 2 - | 6 |arwssa | 1000 | 26.0 | 425 | 26.0 | 2000 | 23.0 = = = sero | rrwas9 | 1000 | 29:0 | 400 | 24.0 | 2000 | 17.0 : = 2 11 |rrwass | 1200 | 210 | 500 | 9.0 | 2490 | 45.0 - - 2 20621 | rrw36s | 5000 | 10-0 | 1800 | 10.0 | 750 | 10.0 13.0 | 3000 | 37.0 22 |nrw35s | 2077 | 24.0 | 480 | 21.0 | 1500 | 11.0 1010 | 1500 | 12.0 23 |rrwaes | 3500 | 34.0 | 400 | 20.0 | 2000 | 40.0 = aaa ee 25 |rrw3s | 1200 | 10.0 | 410 | 11-0 | 2500 | 54.0 - - - 2g |nrwae7 | 1200 | 21.0 | soo | 13-0 | 2250 | 46-0 E : 36 | rtw367 | 1200 | 16-0 | 685 | 16.0 | 3000 | 50.0 - : : 4 |snwioao| 750 | 26.0 | 550 | (5.0 | 750 | 20.0 49.0 - - 59 |sxwii37| 1200 | 21:0 | 2000 | 10.0 | 1200 | 20.0 | 26.5 | 610 | 21.0 60 |ssw90s | 2200 | 10.3 | 3000 | 26.0 | 2200 | 11-0 | 4:0 = E 62 |sswiosa| e00 | 20:4 | 600 | 91.0 | 550 | 28.0 asio | 550 | 13.6Bewp og i ij | fyi da if ; as er ececaa[aare| Fig, 2. Vertical electric sounding curve near test boring RIW367. In the second interpretation, six-layer resistivities were determined using the boring log for layer thicknesses. The aquifer section consists of a 16-foot layer of fine sand and silt, overlying a 16-foot layer of silt, over a 50-foot layer of sand and gravel. Computed theoretical curves were used for matching. ‘The auxiliary point method can be used now to show that reduction of the multilayer aquifer to one representative layer. Since the aquifer section is overlain and underlain by highly resistive materials, reduction need only consider the longitudinal case where, Haguifer = (16 + 16 +50) (ft)=82f (3) and Saquifer = (16/1200) + (16/685) + (50/3000) =.05336umhos (4) so that oy = HHA. 82 feet_ 1537 ohm-feet (5) Sq .05336 umhos the same value determined for the aquifer from the four-layer interpretation; these sections are equivalent with respect to $ (Bhattacharaya and Patra, 1968). Several important factors must be recognized. First, equivalence by S is neither a necessary nor a sufficient condition for the two curves to coincide (Keller and Firschknecht, 1966; Zohdy, 1974a). However, to be consistent in this analysis equal S values have been assumed in each case. Second, the resistivity values determined for aquifer materials are arbitrary to a degree. Values 168 for resistivity were assumed to increase in a regular manner as the material graded from silt to coarse sand and gravel, The best absolute resistivity values were determined by varying resistivities, maintaining relative magnitudes and using boring log thicknesses, ‘until computed sounding curves matched field curves. Finally, it is important to emphasize that pq could be determined without test borings if accurate independent measures of depth to water and depth to bedrock are available, In the study area, depth to water often can be measured by a shallow hand boring at which time water resistivity and temperature also can be measured. Seismic refraction can be used for deeper water tables and to determine bedrock depths. It will be shown that for estimating aquifer transmissivity, it is necessary only to determine the average aquifer resistivity, water resistivity and saturated thickness. However, resistivities and apparent formation factors also were determined from the multilayer aquifer interpretations for typical materials in the study area; these are summarized in Figure 3. The use of an apparent formation factor, of normalized resistivity, is essential in any hydro- geological investigation. Apparent formation factor, for a saturated material, is defined as the total resistivity of the material divided by the resistivity of the saturating fluid. Similarly, normalized resistivity is the apparent formation factor multi- plied by an average water resistivity value. Normalized resistivity may be used to maintain units of resistivity. Most investigations have used formation factor as defined by Archie (1942). Fig. 3. Average apparent formation factors facauns‘wormali 1 Permea- ‘ransver: trans | bility, Resistance, | missivity, ves Well ¥ bi cea oa GB tuber Nunber ohn-meter gpa/ee! ohn-£eet gpa/te 2) 2 3) 4) ) 18) o 36 RIW367 364. 4.22 988. 81,283. 81,000. RIW385 20 RIW365, 449. 4.39 1,075. 82,621. 86,000. RIW400 25 RIW365 368. 3.59 1,087. 63,356. 78,500. RIwais 62 snwi064 16a. 3.53 533. 174,530 140,000. sNwi085, 59 sxwi37 164. 6.08 1,304. 164,787 150,000. 54 sxw1040 125. 3.00 700. 70,500. 70,000. 60 1906 182. 12.48 3,509. 150,446 180, 000. Archie's formula applies strictly only for rock matrices that are entirely nonconductive so that the bulk resistivity is controlled only by the porosity and tortuosity of the formation. It has been demonstrated (Patnode and Wyllie, 1950; Winsauer and McCardell, 1953) that with high resistivity waters (low conductance), there is the added effect of surface conductance. This effect is explained qualitatively by the doublelayer theory. This effect becomes extremely important under fresh-water (high resistivity) conditions. According to Dakhnov (1962), “Por the same porosity and pore water resistivity, a fine grained formation saturated with fresh water will have a lower resistivity chan a medium or coarse grained formation, “The opposite effect i found if the rocks are saturated with highly saline waters.” Since our resistivity values are determined for fresh-water conditions, the term apparent formation factor is more appropriate Although relationships between formation factor and permeability have been reported (Barker and Worthington, 1973; Erchul, 1972; Griffiths, 1976), their direct application here may not be valid because of the averaging of the aquifer resistivities and the high water resistivity. The concept of relating electrical flow to hydraulic flow, though, should still be valid at the aquifer scale (Ungemach etal., 1969) Table 3 summarizes data collected at seven pump test sites. The permeabilities tabulated (column 5) were obtained by dividing transmissivity by the electrical aquifer thickness, Figure 4 shows the least squares’ regression line relating log permeability to log apparent formation factor. ‘An alternative approach is to relate electrical measurements directly to transmissivity. By defini- tion then, we should expect a relation between transmissivity (column 7) and the product of aquifer apparent formation factor (column 4), an average water resistivity, and aquifer thickness. This product may be considered a normalized aquifer resistance; it is closely related to the aquifer transverse resistance. Figure 5 shows the variation of transmissivity with aquifer resistance. The values of aquifer resistance are normalized to 235 ohm-ft for convenience (column 6). Fig. 4, Appar ‘conductivity. it formation factor versus hydraulic 169300.000} NORMALZED AQUFER RESESTANCE (te ~ 2) 858000 200300 TTRANSMISSNIY, Ty (10°), (oss) ad transverse resistance versus transmis Fig. 5. Normal SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS This paper has shown that useful relations can be developed between aquifer hydraulic and electric properties for water table aquifers where the entire saturated thickness comprises the aquifer. Although the aquifers are composed generally of several layers, the equivalent resistivity of these layers is a useful parameter for predicting aquifer permeabilities. Electrical properties of dividual layers within the aquifer cannot be obtained without bore hole control because of equivalence and suppression. The relation between normalized resistivity and permeability observed in this study is opposite to what has been observed in some earlier laboratory studies and is attributed in part to the high resistivity of the ground water. The well known tendency for fine materials to deposit at high porosities and vice versa is clearly manifesting itself and probably controlling the observed relations (Kelly, 1980). This last aspect is being studied currently. The empirical relations developed in this study are not expected to apply to other areas, but the methodology will. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This investigation was supported by a National Science Foundation grant, Research Initiation— Properties of Aquifers in Glacial Outwash by Surface Resistivity Methods (GK-42130). Work is continuing under a grant ENG7819408 from the National Science Foundation. The research is being conducted in close cooperation with the Rhode Island Water Resources Board, The assistance of the following 170 people is gratefully acknowledged: W. B. Allen, R.K. Frohlich, M. T. Huston, H. E. Johnston, and D. W. Urish: REFERENCES Allen, W. B., GW. Hahn, and R. A. Brackley. 1966. "Availability of ground water, Upper Paweatuck River Basin, Rhode Island. 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Geophysics. v.34, pp. 713-728 Zohdy, A.A.R. 19742. Use of Dar Zarrouk curves in the interpretation of vertical electrical sounding data US. Geological Survey Bulletin 1313-D. p. 41 Zohdy, A.A.R. 19740. A computer program for the calculation of Schlumberger sounding curves by convolution. U.S. Geological Survey Report USGS: GD-74-010, U.S. Department of Commerce, NTIS, Springfield, VA. Zobdy, A.A.R., G. P. Eaton, and D. R. Mabey. 1974. ‘Application surface geophysics to ground-water investigation. Techniques of Water-Resources Investigation, U.S. Geological Survey. p. 116 Zobdy, A.AR., and D. B. Jackson, 1969. Applications of ‘deep electrical soundings for groundwater exploration in Hawaii. Geophysics. v. 34, pp. $84-600. Walter K. Kosinski received bis B.S. and M.S. in Civil Engineering from the University of Rhode Island. In 1978, be joined the firm of Goldberg Zoino and Associates as « Geotechnical Engineer where he bas worked on a number of projects in New England and the Midwest. William E. Kelly joined tbe faculty at the University of Rhode Island after receiving « Pb.D. in Civil Engineering from the University of Notre Dame. Currently be is an Associate Professor and Chairman of the Department of Givil and Environmental Engineering, and is actively involved in research and consulting in ground-water bydrology. 171