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01 Theory Multiphase
01 Theory Multiphase
The Homogeneous and Inhomogeneous Models (p. 114 in "ANSYS CFX-Solver, Release
10.0: Theory")
Multicomponent Multiphase Flow (p. 120 in "ANSYS CFX-Solver, Release 10.0: Theory")
Interphase Momentum Transfer Models (p. 120 in "ANSYS CFX-Solver, Release 10.0:
Theory")
Solid Particle Collision Models (p. 130 in "ANSYS CFX-Solver, Release 10.0: Theory")
Interphase Heat Transfer (p. 135 in "ANSYS CFX-Solver, Release 10.0: Theory")
Multiple Size Group (MUSIG) Model (p. 140 in "ANSYS CFX-Solver, Release 10.0: Theory")
The Algebraic Slip Model (p. 147 in "ANSYS CFX-Solver, Release 10.0: Theory")
Additional Variables in Multiphase Flow (p. 154 in "ANSYS CFX-Solver, Release 10.0:
Theory")
Sources in Multiphase Flow (p. 157 in "ANSYS CFX-Solver, Release 10.0: Theory")
Interphase Mass Transfer (p. 158 in "ANSYS CFX-Solver, Release 10.0: Theory")
Free Surface Flow (p. 168 in "ANSYS CFX-Solver, Release 10.0: Theory")
Introduction
Two distinct multiphase flow models are available in ANSYS CFX, a EulerianEulerian
multiphase model and a Lagrangian Particle Tracking multiphase model. Additional
information on the Lagrangian Particle Tracking model theory is available. For details, see
Particle Transport Theory (p. 171 in "ANSYS CFX-Solver, Release 10.0: Theory").
This section covers the Eulerian-Eulerian model theory. For details, see Multiphase Flow
Modelling (p. 149 in "ANSYS CFX-Solver, Release 10.0: Modelling").
We recommend that you are familiar with the mathematical implementation of the
single-phase flow, before reading this section. For details, see Basic Solver Capability Theory
(p. 7 in "ANSYS CFX-Solver, Release 10.0: Theory").
Page 113
Multiphase Notation
In addition to the notation given here, review the list of symbols. For details, see List of
Symbols (p. 8 in "ANSYS CFX-Solver, Release 10.0: Theory").
Different phases of fluids are denoted using lowercase Greek letters , , , etc. In general, a
quantity subscribed with , , , etc., refers to the value of the quantity for that particular
phase. For example, the volume fraction of is denoted r. Thus, the volume V occupied
by phase in a small volume V around a point of volume fraction r is given by:
V = r V
(Eqn. 443)
The total number of phases is NP. The volume fraction of each phase is denoted r, where
= 1 to NP.
It is important to distinguish between the material density and the effective density of a
fluid . The material density, , is the density of the fluid if it is the only phase present, i.e.
the mass of per unit volume of . The effective density is then defined as:
= r
(Eqn. 444)
This is the actual mass per unit volume of phase , given that phase only occupies a
fraction of the volume, i.e. the mass of per unit volume of the bulk fluid.
The mixture density is given by:
m =
Multiphase
Total Pressure
(Eqn. 445)
1
p tot = p stat + --r U
2
(Eqn. 446)
This definition is used for both incompressible and compressible flows, whereas single
phase flows treat total pressure differently depending on the simulation. For details, see
Total Pressure (p. 19 in "ANSYS CFX-Solver, Release 10.0: Theory").
Page 114
Interfacial transfer of momentum, heat and mass is directly dependent on the contact
surface area between the two phases. This is characterised by the interfacial area per unit
volume between phase a and phase b, known as the interfacial area density, A. Note that
it has dimensions of one over length.
Interfacial transfer can be modelled using either the particle or mixture models. These
essentially provide different algebraic prescriptions for the interfacial area density.
The Particle Model
The Particle model for interfacial transfer between two phases assumes that one of the
phases is continuous (phase a) and the other is dispersed (phase b). The surface area per unit
volume is then calculated by assuming that phase b is present as spherical particles of Mean
Diameter d. Using this model, the interphase contact area is:
6r
A = ------d
(Eqn. 447)
U U d
Re = --------------------------------
(Eqn. 448)
CP
Pr = -------------
(Eqn. 449)
where , CP and are the viscosity, specific heat capacity and thermal conductivity of the
continuous phase .
The Mixture Model
This is a very simple model which treats both phases , symmetrically. The surface area per
unit volume is calculated from
r r
A = -------d
(Eqn. 450)
Page 115
By way of example, suppose we have oil-water flow in which we may have either water
droplets in continuous oil, or oil droplets in continuous water, in the limits r 0 , r 0
respectively. Then, a simple model for interfacial area density which has the correct
behaviour in these two limits is given by:
6r r
A = -------------------------r d + r d
r d + r d
d = -------------------------6
(Eqn. 451)
U U d
Re = -------------------------------------
(Eqn. 452)
C P
Pr = -------------
(Eqn. 453)
where , , CP and are the density, viscosity, specific heat capacity and thermal
conductivity of the mixture respectively, defined by:
= r + r
(Eqn. 454)
= r + r
A = r
(Eqn. 455)
When more than two phases are present, this is generalised as follows:
2 r r
A = --------------------------r + r
(Eqn. 456)
Page 116
For a given transport process, the homogeneous model assumes that the transported
quantities (with the exception of volume fraction) for that process are the same for all
phases, i.e.
1 NP
(Eqn. 457)
( ) + ( U ) = S
t
(Eqn. 458)
where:
NP
=1
r ,
1U = -
NP
NP
r U ,
=1
(Eqn. 459)
=1
The homogeneous model does not need to be applied consistently to all equations. For
example, the velocity field may be modelled as inhomogeneous, but coupled with a
homogeneous turbulence model. Alternatively, a homogeneous velocity field may be
coupled with inhomogeneous temperature fields. Homogeneous additional variables are
also available in ANSYS CFX.
Hydrodynamic Equations
The following is a summary of the equations of momentum and mass transfer for
inhomogeneous and homogeneous multiphase flow in ANSYS CFX. The equivalent for
single-phase flow is also available. For details, see Transport Equations (p. 26 in "ANSYS
CFX-Solver, Release 10.0: Theory").
Page 117
( r U ) + ( r ( U U ) )
t
T
= r p + ( r ( U + ( U ) ) )
Np
(Eqn. 460)
( U U ) + SM + M
+
=1
SM describes momentum sources due to external body forces, and user defined
momentum sources. For details, see Sources (p. 41 in "ANSYS CFX-Solver, Release 10.0:
Theory").
M describes the interfacial forces acting on phase due to the presence of other
phases. Additional information for the models available for interfacial forces is available.
For details, see Interphase Momentum Transfer Models (p. 120 in "ANSYS CFX-Solver,
Release 10.0: Theory").
The term:
+
( U U )
(Eqn. 461)
represents momentum transfer induced by interphase mass transfer. For details, see
Interphase Mass Transfer (p. 158 in "ANSYS CFX-Solver, Release 10.0: Theory").
The above momentum equations are valid for fluid phases only. For dispersed solid
phases, additional terms are present representing additional stresses due to particle
collisions.
Continuity
Equations
- ( r ) + ( r U ) = S
--
MS +
t
Np
(Eqn. 462)
=1
SMS describes user specified mass sources. For details, see Sources (p. 41 in "ANSYS
CFX-Solver, Release 10.0: Theory").
is the mass flow rate per unit volume from phase to phase . This term only
occurs if interphase mass transfer takes place. For details, see Interphase Mass Transfer
(p. 158 in "ANSYS CFX-Solver, Release 10.0: Theory").
Volume
Conservation
Equation
This is simply the constraint that the volume fractions sum to unity:
NP
r = 1
(Eqn. 463)
=1
Page 118
This equation may also be combined with the phasic continuity equations to obtain a
transported volume conservation equation. Take (Eqn. 462), divide by phasic density, and
sum over all phases. This yields
1 + ( r U ) =
----- ------
t
1
----- SMS +
NP
(Eqn. 464)
=1
Interpreting this equation is simpler if we consider the special case of incompressible phases
with no sources, in which it simplifies to
( r U )
= 0
(Eqn. 465)
which requires the volume flows to have zero divergence. (Eqn. 464) is the volume
continuity equation solved by the ANSYS CFX-Solver.
Pressure
Constraint
The complete set of hydrodynamic equations represent 4NP + 1 equations in the 5NP
unknowns UV, W, r, p. We need NP -1 more equations to close the system. These are
given by constraints on the pressure, namely that all phases share the same pressure field:
p = p
(Eqn. 466)
U = U, 1 N P
(Eqn. 467)
( U ) + ( U U ( U + ( U ) T ) ) = S p
M
t
(Eqn. 468)
where:
NP
NP
r ,
=1
(Eqn. 469)
=1
Continuity
Equations
This is essentially a single phase transport equation, with variable density and viscosity.
The homogeneous continuity equation is the same as for full multiphase, (Eqn. 462), except
that U is not phase specific.
Page 119
Volume
Conservation
Equations
The homogeneous volume conservation equation is the same as for full multiphase, (Eqn.
463), except that U is not phase specific.
Pressure
Constraint
The pressure constraint given above for full multiphase flow is also used for homogeneous
multiphase flow.
( r Y ) + ( r ( U Y D ( Y ) ) ) = S
A
A
A
A
t A
(Eqn. 470)
You should note that the molecular diffusion coefficients are given by DA, where DA is
the Kinematic Diffusivity.
Source terms in multicomponent multiphase flow behave the same as multicomponent
mass sources, but on a per fluid basis. For details, see Sources (p. 41 in "ANSYS CFX-Solver,
Release 10.0: Theory").
M =
(Eqn. 471)
Note that interfacial forces between two phases are equal and opposite, so the net
interfacial forces sum to to zero:
( M = M )
Page 120
M = 0
(Eqn. 472)
The total interfacial force acting between two phases may arise from several independent
physical effects:
D
LUB
VM
TD
M = M + M + M + M + M + M S + ....
(Eqn. 473)
The forces indicated above respectively represent the interphase drag force, lift force, wall
lubrication force, virtual mass force, turbulence dispersion force and solids pressure force
(for dense solid particle phases only).
ANSYS CFX provides a wide range of physical models for these forces. These models are
described in the following places:
Wall Lubrication Force (p. 128 in "ANSYS CFX-Solver, Release 10.0: Theory")
Virtual Mass Force (p. 128 in "ANSYS CFX-Solver, Release 10.0: Theory")
Interphase Turbulent Dispersion Force (p. 129 in "ANSYS CFX-Solver, Release 10.0:
Theory")
Solid Particle Collision Models (p. 130 in "ANSYS CFX-Solver, Release 10.0: Theory")
Interphase Drag
The following general form is used to model interphase drag force acting on phase due to
phase .
(d)
M = c ( U U )
(Eqn. 474)
Note that c = 0 and c = c. Hence, the sum over all phases of all interphase transfer
terms is zero.
(d)
In this section, we describe how the coefficients c may be computed from a knowledge
of dimensionless drag coefficients. We also describe the range of models available for drag
coefficients.
The total drag force is most conveniently expressed in terms of the dimensionless drag
coefficient,
D
C D = -------------------------------------2
1--
( U U ) A
2
(Eqn. 475)
where is the fluid density, ( U - U ) is the relative speed, D is the magnitude of the drag
force and A is the projected area of the body in the direction of flow. We denote the
continuous phase by and the dispersed phase by .
Page 121
Interphase Drag
for the Particle
Model
(d)
For spherical particles, the coefficients c may be derived analytically. The area of a single
particle projected in the flow direction, Ap, and the volume of a single particle Vp are given
by:
2
d A p = ------4
V p = d
-------6
(Eqn. 476)
where d is the mean diameter. The number of particles per unit volume, np is given by:
r
6r
n p = ----- = -------3
Vp
d
(Eqn. 477)
1
D p = --C D A p U U ( U U )
2
(Eqn. 478)
Hence the total drag per unit volume on the continuous phase is,
C
D = n p D p = 3-- -----D- r U U ( U U )
4d
(Eqn. 479)
Comparing with the Momentum Equations for phase , where the drag force per unit
volume is:
(d)
D = c ( U U )
(Eqn. 480)
we get,
(d)
3C
c = -- -----D- r U U
4d
(Eqn. 481)
C
(d)
c = -----D- A U U
8
(Eqn. 482)
Page 122
24-,
C D = ---Re
Re 1
(Eqn. 483)
For particle Reynolds numbers (see (Eqn. 448)) which are sufficiently large for inertial effects
to dominate viscous effects (the inertial or Newtons regime), the drag coefficient becomes
independent of Reynolds number:
1000 Re 1 2x10
C D = 0.44,
(Eqn. 484)
In the transitional region between the viscous and inertial regimes, 0.1 < Re < 1000 for
spherical particles, both viscous and inertial effects are important. Hence, the drag
coefficient is a complex function of Reynolds number, which must be determined from
experiment.
This has been done in detail for spherical particles. Several empirical correlations are
available. The one available in ANSYS CFX is due to Schiller and Naumann (1933) [6] It can be
written as follows:
Sparsely Distributed Solid Particles: Schiller Naumann Drag Model
0.687
24
C D = ----- ( 1 + 0.15Re
)
Re
(Eqn. 485)
ANSYS CFX modifies this to ensure the correct limiting behaviour in the inertial regime by
taking:
0.687
24
), 0.44
C D = max ----- ( 1 + 0.15Re
Re
(Eqn. 486)
CD = rc
(Eqn. 487)
Re' = r c Re
Note that this has the same functional form as the Schiller Naumann correlation, with a
modified particle Reynolds number, and a power law correction, both functions of the
continuous phase volume fraction rc.
You may also change the Volume Fraction Correction Exponent from its default value of
-1.65, if you wish.
Page 123
C D = C D ( Wen Yu ),
(d)
c
r c > 0.8
( 1 r c ) c 7 ( 1 r c ) c U c U d
- + -- ------------------------------------------,
= 150 ----------------------2
4
dp
rc dp
r c < 0.8
(Eqn. 488)
This uses the Wen Yu correlation for low solid volume fractions rd < 0.2, and switches to
Erguns law for flow in a porous medium for larger solid volume fractions.
Note that this is discontinuous at the cross-over volume fraction. In order to avoid
subsequent numerical difficulties, ANSYS CFX modifies the original Gidaspow model by
linearly interpolating between the Wen Yu and Ergun correlations over the range
8
C D ( cap ) = -3
(Eqn. 489)
Several correlations are available for the distorted particle regime. ANSYS CFX uses the Ishii
Zuber and Grace and correlations.
Sparsely Distributed Fluid Particles: Ishii-Zuber Drag Model
In the distorted particle regime, the drag coefficient is approximately constant,
independent of Reynolds number, but dependent on particle shape through the
dimensionless group known as the Eotvos number, which measures the ratio between
gravitational and surface tension forces:
2
gd
Eo = --------------p
(Eqn. 490)
Here, is the density difference between the phases, g is the gravitational acceleration,
and is the surface tension coefficient.
Page 124
2 12
C D ( ellipse ) = --Eo
3
(Eqn. 491)
In this case, ANSYS CFX automatically takes into account the spherical particle and spherical
cap limits by setting:
(Eqn. 492)
The Ishii Zuber Model also automatically takes into account dense fluid particle effects. For
details, see Densely Distributed Fluid Particles (p. 126 in "ANSYS CFX-Solver, Release 10.0:
Theory").
Sparsely Distributed Fluid Particles: Grace Drag Model
Here the drag coefficient in the distorted particle regime is given by:
C D ( ellipse ) = 4-- gd
------
-----3 U2 c
T
(Eqn. 493)
c 0.149
-M
( J 0.857 )
U T = --------c dp
(Eqn. 494)
where:
4
c g
- = Morton Number
M = --------------2 3
(Eqn. 495)
and:
0.94H 0.751
J =
3.42H 0.441
2 < H 59.3
(Eqn. 496)
H > 59.3
0.149 c 0.14
-------H = 4--EoM
3
ref
(Eqn. 497)
ref = 0.0009 kg m-1 s-1 is the molecular viscosity of water at some reference temperature
and pressure.
Page 125
In this case, ANSYS CFX automatically takes into account the spherical particle and spherical
cap limits by setting:
(Eqn. 498)
c Ud Uc dp
Re m = ------------------------------
(Eqn. 499)
r d 2.5rdm *
------ = 1 -----
c
r dm
d + 0.4 c
* = ----------------------d + c
Here, rdm is the user defined Maximum Packing value. This is defaulted to unity for a
dispersed fluid phase.
In the distorted particle regime, the Ishii Zuber modification takes the form of a multiplying
factor to the single particle drag coefficient.
Densely Distributed Fluid Particles: Dense Distorted Particle Regime (Ishii Zuber)
12
C D = 2--Eo
3
C D ( ellipse ) = E ( r d )C D ,
12
C D = 2--Eo
3
67
( 1 + 17.67f ( r d ) )
-,
E ( r d ) = ------------------------------------------18.67f ( r d )
(Eqn. 500)
12
f ( r d ) = -----c- ( 1 r d )
m
Densely Distributed Fluid Particles: Dense Spherical Cap Regime (Ishii Zuber)
2
C D ( cap ) = ( 1 r d ) C D ,
C D = 8-3
(Eqn. 501)
The Ishii Zuber correlation, as implemented in ANSYS CFX, automatically selects flow regime
as follows:
Page 126
C D = C D ( sphere )
if
if
C D ( sphere ) C D ( ellipse )
C D ( sphere ) < C D ( ellipse )
(Eqn. 502)
C D = r c C D
(Eqn. 503)
Here, C D is the single bubble Grace drag coefficient. Advice on setting the exponent value
for the power law correction is available. For details, see Densely Distributed Fluid Particles:
Grace Drag Model (p. 160 in "ANSYS CFX-Solver, Release 10.0: Modelling").
Interphase Drag
for the Mixture
Model
D = C D A U U ( U U )
(Eqn. 504)
where D is the total drag exerted by phase on phase per unit volume.
The mixture density r is given by:
= r + r
(Eqn. 505)
r r
A = -------d
(Eqn. 506)
Lift Force
The lift force acts perpendicular to the direction of relative motion of the two phases.
ANSYS CFX contains a model for the shear-induced lift force acting on a dispersed phase in
the presence of a rotational continuous phase. This is given by:
L
Fc = Fd = rd c CL ( Ud Uc ) c ,
c = curl U c
(Eqn. 507)
Page 127
F c = F d = r d c C L ( U d U c ) ( c + 2 ) ,
c = curl U c
(Eqn. 508)
The current implementation permits a user-specified lift coefficient only. This may be a
constant, or a CEL expression.
VM
Fc
VM
= Fd
D d U d D c U c
- ----------= r d c C VM ---------- Dt
Dt
(Eqn. 509)
In a rotating frame of reference with rotation vector , the virtual mass force in terms of U
VM
Fc
VM
Fd
Dd Ud Dc Uc
*
*
- ------------ + 2 ( U d U c )
= r d c C VM ----------Dt
Dt
(Eqn. 510)
The non-dimensional virtual mass coefficient C VM = 0.5 for inviscid flow around an
isolated sphere. In general, C VM depends on shape and particle concentration. C VM may be
specified by the user as a constant or a CEL expression.
LUB
Fc
Page 128
LUB
Fd
( ( U r ( U r n w )n w ) )
d
- max C 1 + C 2 ----p-, 0 n w
= r d c -----------------------------------------------
dp
yw
(Eqn. 511)
Here, U r = U c U d is the relative velocity between phases, d p is the disperse phase mean
diameter, y w is the distance to the nearest wall, and n w is the unit normal pointing away
from the wall. Hence the force acts to push the disperse phase away from the wall. The
coefficients were determined by numerical experimentation, C 1 = 0.01 , C 2 = 0.05 for
a sphere. So the force is only active in a thin layer adjacent to the wall:
yw C1
----- ----- 5
dp C2
(Eqn. 512)
Hence, this force will only be activated on a sufficiently fine mesh, and grid convergence can
only be expected on extremely fine meshes.
Note that these default coefficients are rather different from those recommended in the
original paper of Antal et al [88]. More recent numerical experiments by Krepper and Prasser
[89] obtained the values C 1 = 0.0064 , C 2 = 0.016
ANSYS CFX implements a model for turbulent dispersion force, based on the Favre average
of the interphase drag force [90].
TD
Fc
tc r d r c
TD
-------- ------= F d = C TD C cd ----- tc r d
rc
(Eqn. 513)
Here, Ccd is the momentum transfer coefficient for the interphase drag force. Hence, the
model clearly depends on the details of the drag correlation used. tc is the turbulent
Schmidt number for continuous phase volume fraction, currently taken to be 0.9.
CTD is a user-modifiable CEL multiplier. Its default value is unity.
Lopez de
Bertodano
Model
The model of Lopez de Bertodano (1991) [20] was one of the first models for the turbulent
dispersion force:
TD
Mc
TD
= M d = C TD c k c r c
(Eqn. 514)
Unfortunately, it is not possible to recommend universal values of CTD for this model. CTD
values of 0.1 - 0.5 have been used successfully for bubbly flow with bubble diameters of
order a few millimetres. However, values up to 500 have been required for other situations.
See Lopez de Bertodano [21] and Moraga et al [91]
This model is included in ANSYS CFX for historical back compatibility with ANSYS CFX.
However, the more universal Favre Averaged Drag model is recommended for all situations
where an appropriate value of CTD is unknown.
Page 129
Introduction
This section presents the theoretical background of the solid particle collision models
implemented in ANSYS CFX.
Solids Stress
Tensor
Additional stresses due to inter-particle collisions are modelled using a collisional solids
stress tensor in the solid phase momentum equation only:
U U 2 U
U
sij = P s ij + s -------i + -------j -- --------k ij + s --------k ij
x x 3 x
x
j
(Eqn. 515)
Here, P s denotes solids pressure, s denotes solids shear viscosity, and s denotes solids
bulk viscosity. There are two important classes of models for these quantities:
Empirical Constitutive Equations
There exist wide classes of models where the constitutive elements of the solids stress are
specified using empirical constitutive relations. See, for example, (Enwald et al [[97]]). In
many of these, the solids pressure, shear and bulk viscosities are simple functions of the solid
phase volume fraction.
Kinetic Theory Models
These are a class of models, based on the kinetic theory of gases, generalised to take into
account inelastic particle collisions. In these models, the constitutive elements of the solids
stress are functions of the solid phase granular temperature, defined to be proportional to
the mean square of fluctuating solid phase velocity due to inter-particle collisions:
2
s = 1--u' s
3
(Eqn. 516)
In the most general kinetic theory models, the granular temperature is determined from a
transport equation. However, in many circumstances it is possible to ignore the transport
terms, and determine granular temperature from the resulting algebraic equation.
Solids Pressure
P s = P s ( r s ) P s = G ( r s )r s
G ( rs ) = G0 e
Page 130
c ( r s r sm )
(Eqn. 517)
(Eqn. 518)
P s = s r s s ( 1 + 2 ( 1 + e )g 0 r s )
(Eqn. 519)
Here, e denotes the coefficient of restitution for solid-solid collisions, and g 0 ( r s ) denotes
the radial distribution function. Popular models for the radial distribution function are given
by:
Gidaspow (1994) [[18]]:
g 0 ( r s ) = 0.6 ( 1 ( r s r sm )
1 3 1
(Eqn. 520)
g 0 ( r s ) = ( 1 ( r s r sm ) )
2.5r sm
(Eqn. 521)
Note that the radial distribution function tends to infinity as r s r sm . The singularity is
removed in ANSYS CFX by setting:
2
g0 ( rs ) = C0 + C1 ( rs rc ) + C2 ( rs rc ) + C3 ( rs rc )
( r rc )
(Eqn. 522)
C 1 = 1.08 10
C 0 = 1079
C 2 = 1.08 10
Solids Bulk
Viscosity
C 3 = 1.08 10
(Eqn. 523)
12
(Eqn. 524)
Page 131
Solids Shear
Viscosity
(Eqn. 525)
s = 5.35 [ Poise ] r s
(Eqn. 526)
s = s, col + s, kin
(Eqn. 527)
There is wide agreement on the correct form of the collisional contribution. As in the kinetic
theory of gases, it is proportional to the square root of the granular temperature:
4 2
--- s, col = --r s s d p g 0 ( 1 + e )
5
(Eqn. 528)
However, there are many proposals in the literature for the correct form of the kinetic
contribution. For example:
Gidaspow (1994) [[18]]:
2
s dp
- ------------------- s, kin = 5--------- 1 + 4-- ( 1 + e )g 0 r s
48 ( 1 + e )g 0
5
Page 132
(Eqn. 529)
s, kin
8
1 + -- ( 3 2 )r s g 0
5
5
1
8
= ---------- s d p -------- + --r s --------------------------------------------
2
96
g 0 5
(Eqn. 530)
1
2
Here, = -- ( 1 + e ) .
Collisional contributions are omitted from ANSYS CFX.
Granular
Temperature
s may be specified directly by the user, or from the assumption of local equilibrium in a
transport equation model. The latter is based on:
U
Production = Dissipation sij -------i = s
x j
(Eqn. 531)
where sij denotes the solids shear stress tensor (Eqn. 515), and
4 s
2 2
- ----- divU
s = 3 ( 1 e )r s s g 0 s --
ds
(Eqn. 532)
U
U U U
2
sij -------i = P s divU + s -------i + -------j -------i + s 2-- s ( divU )
x j
x j x i x j
3
2
P roduction = P s D + s S + s D
(Eqn. 533)
(Eqn. 534)
where:
s = s 2-- s
3
D = divU
U U 2
2
S = 1-- -------i + -------j
2 x j x i
(Eqn. 535)
In order to determine s from (Eqn. 531), it is useful to take into account the dependence
of solids pressure and shear bulk viscosities on s . We have:
Ps s
12
s , s s
(Eqn. 536)
Page 133
so we may write:
(0)
(0)
Ps = Ps s
(0)
12
s = s s
12
(0)
s = s s
(Eqn. 537)
12
s = s s
(Eqn. 538)
Hence, substituting into (Eqn. 534), we may express the production term in terms of
granular temperature as follows:
(0) 2
(0) 2
12
Production = ( s D + s S ) s
=
12
AP s
(0)
P s D s
(Eqn. 539)
BP s
where:
(0) 2
(0) 2
(0)
AP = s D + s S 0
BP = Ps D
(Eqn. 540)
Dissipation = A D s
BD s
(Eqn. 541)
where:
4 - 0
A D = ----------CD
ds
BD = CD D
12
A D s + ( B P B D ) s
AP = 0
C D = 3 ( 1 e )r s s g 0 0
(Eqn. 542)
(Eqn. 543)
Note that A D is strictly positive if, and only if, the coefficient of restitution is strictly less than
unity. In this case, in view of the fact that A P 0 , (Eqn. 543) has a unique positive solution:
12
s
B D B P + ( B D B P ) + 4A D A P
= ---------------------------------------------------------------------2A D
(Eqn. 544)
The Algebraic Equilibrium model has the flaw that unphysically large granular temperatures
can be generated in regions of low solid particle volume fraction. To circumvent this, it is
recommended that you specify an upper bound for the granular temperature. The square of
the mean velocity scale is a reasonable estimate for this.
Page 134
1 - d 2 S2
s = -------------------15 ( 1 e ) s
(Eqn. 545)
Phasic Equations
Heat transfer is governed by the multiphase energy equations, which generalise the single
phase energy equations (Eqn. 4) (p. 20) and (Eqn. 5) (p. 20).
The multiphase version of the Total Energy equation is:
p
(r h
, tot ) r ----- + ( r U h , tot r T )
t
t
T
r U + ( U ) 2-- U U
3
Np
(Eqn. 546)
( h, tot a h, tot ) + Q + S
+
=1
The multiphase version of the thermal energy equation for static enthalpy (incompressible
and low speed compressible flows only) is :
( r h ) + ( r ( U h T ) )
t
Np
(Eqn. 547)
+
( h s
+
a h s )
+ Q + S
=1
Page 135
where:
h, T, , denote the static enthalpy, the temperature, and the thermal conductivity of
phase .
S describes external heat sources. For details, see Sources (p. 41 in "ANSYS CFX-Solver,
Release 10.0: Theory").
Q denotes interphase heat transfer to phase across interfaces with other phases. For
details, see Inhomogeneous Interphase Heat Transfer Models (p. 136 in "ANSYS
CFX-Solver, Release 10.0: Theory").
The term:
+
( h s a h s )
(Eqn. 548)
represents heat transfer induced by interphase mass transfer. For details, see Interphase
Mass Transfer (p. 158 in "ANSYS CFX-Solver, Release 10.0: Theory").
Q =
(Eqn. 549)
where:
Q = Q
Overall Heat
Transfer
Coefficients
Q = 0
(Eqn. 550)
Heat transfer across a phase boundary is usually described in terms of an overall heat
transfer coefficient h, which is the amount of heat energy crossing a unit area per unit
time per unit temperature difference between the phases. Thus, the rate of heat transfer,
Q, per unit time across a phase boundary of interfacial area per unit volume A, from
phase to phase , is:
Q = h A ( T T )
(Eqn. 551)
Q = c ( T T )
(Eqn. 552)
(h)
where the volumetric heat transfer coefficient, c , is modelled using the correlations
described below.
Page 136
Particle Model
Correlations
For particle model the volumetric heat transfer coefficient is modelled as:
(h)
c = h A
(Eqn. 553)
Hence the interfacial area per unit volume and the heat transfer coefficient h are required.
More information on interfacial area density calculation is available.
It is often convenient to express the heat transfer coefficient in terms of a dimensionless
Nusselt number:
Nu--------h =
d
(Eqn. 554)
In the particle model, the thermal conductivity scale is taken to be the thermal
conductivity of the continuous phase, and the length scale d is taken to be the mean
diameter of the dispersed phase:
Nu
h = ----------------d
(Eqn. 555)
For laminar forced convection around a spherical particle, theoretical analysis shows that
Nu = 2. For a particle in a moving incompressible Newtonian fluid, the Nusselt number is a
function of the particle Reynolds number Re and the surrounding fluid Prandtl number
Pr = CP / .
Page 137
Additional information on models in ANSYS CFX is available. For details, see Particle Model
Correlations for Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient (p. 165 in "ANSYS CFX-Solver, Release 10.0:
Modelling"). Some additional details for the Interface Flux model are provided below.
Interface Flux
The heat flux coefficients for both fluids and the interfacial heat flux value, F12, from
Fluid 1 to Fluid 2 (Fluid 1 is the fluid to appear on the left of the Fluid Pairs list) are
specified. F12 is the rate of heat transfer per unit time per unit interfacial area from phase
1 to phase 2. Hence the heat transferred to fluid 2 from fluid 1 per unit volume is given
by:
Q 21 = Q 12 = A 12 F 12
(Eqn. 556)
F 12
- 0,
h 1 --------T 1
F 21
-0
h 2 --------T 2
(Eqn. 557)
The solver takes the absolute value of these flux coefficients to ensure that they are
positive. This is required for numerical stability. The partial derivatives need not be
computed exactly; it is sufficient for the specified coefficients to simply approximate the
partial derivatives. Specification of heat flux coefficients only affects the convergence
rate to the solution of the coupled heat transfer equations, it does not affect the
accuracy of the converged solution.
For example, the simple model using a heat transfer coefficient multiplied by a bulk
temperature difference my be recovered using:
F 12 = F 21 = h ( T 1 T 2 ),
Mixture Model
Correlations
h1 = h2 = h
When using the mixture model, the Nusselt number is defined in terms of a mixture
conductivity scale and the mixture length scale:
Nu
-,
h = -------------------d
= r + r
(Eqn. 558)
For details, see Mixture Model Correlations for Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient (p. 166 in
"ANSYS CFX-Solver, Release 10.0: Modelling").
The Two
Resistance
Model
Page 138
There are special situations where the use of an overall heat transfer coefficient is not
sufficient to model the interphase heat transfer process. A more general class of models
considers separate heat transfer processes either side of the phase interface. This is achieved
by using two heat transfer coefficients defined on each side of the phase interface.
Defining the sensible heat flux to phase from the interface as:
q = h ( Ts T )
(Eqn. 559)
and the sensible heat flux to phase from the interface as:
q = h ( Ts T )
(Eqn. 560)
where h and h are the phase and phase heat transfer coefficients respectively. Ts is
interfacial temperature, and it is assumed to be the same for both phases.
The fluid-specific Nusselt number is defined as:
h d
Nu = ------------
(Eqn. 561)
where is the thermal conductivity of fluid , and d is the interfacial length scale (the
mean particle diameter for the Particle Model, and the mixture length scale for the Mixture
Model).
In the absence of interphase mass transfer, we must have overall heat balance
(Eqn. 562)
It also determines the interphase heat fluxes in terns of an overall heat transfer coefficient:
q = q = h ( T T ),
1 - = ---1- + ---1------h
h h
(Eqn. 563)
Hence, in the absence of interphase mass transfer, the two resistance model is somewhat
superfluous, as it may be implemented using a user-specified overall heat transfer
coefficient.
It is possible to specify a zero resistance condition on one side of the phase interface. This is
equivalent to an infinite fluid specific heat transfer coefficient h . Its effect is to force
the interfacial temperature to be the same as the phase temperature, T s = T .
Modelling advice is available. For details, see Two Resistance Model for Fluid Specific Heat
Transfer Coefficients (p. 166 in "ANSYS CFX-Solver, Release 10.0: Modelling").
Page 139
Model Derivation
Population
Balance
Equation
The starting point for the MUSIG model is the population balance equation which
represents the continuity of particles of size v . Let n ( v, t ) represent the number density of
particles of size v at time t . Then the population balance equation is
n ( v, t ) + ( U i ( v, t )n ( v, t ) ) = B D + B D
B
B
C
C
i
t
x
Page 140
(Eqn. 564)
where B B , D B , B C , and D C respectively represent the birth rate due to breakup of larger
particles, the death rate due to breakup into smaller particles, the birth rate due to
coalescence of smaller particles, and the death rate due to coalescence with other particles.
These rates may further be expressed as
v g ( ;v )n ( , t ) d
(Eqn. 565)
D B = n ( v, t ) v g ( v ; ) d
(Eqn. 566)
B C = 1-- v Q ( v ; )n ( v , t )n ( v, t ) d
2 0
(Eqn. 567)
D C = n ( v, t ) Q ( v ; )n ( , t ) dt
(Eqn. 568)
BB =
where g ( v ; ) represents the specific breakup rate (the rate at which particles of size v
break into particles of size and v ) and Q ( v ; ) represents the specific coalescence rate
(the rate at which particles of size v coalesce with particles of size to form particles of size
v + .
Size Fraction
Equations
The next step of the MUSIG model is to discretize (Eqn. 564) into size groups, or bins. Let N i
represent the number density of size group i :
Ni ( t ) =
vi + 1 2
i12
n ( v, t ) dv
(Eqn. 569)
Also define the mass and volume fraction of size group i to be m i and r i , respectively, and
recognize that m i N i = i r i . Now integrate (Eqn. 564) over the bin size dimension and
multiply by m i to give
( m i N i ( t ) )
------------------------ +
( U ii ( t )N i ( t ) ) = S i
t
xi
(Eqn. 570)
or
( i r i )
-------------- +
( i r i U ii ) = S i
t
xi
(Eqn. 571)
Page 141
( r f ) + ( r U if ) = S
i
t i d i xi i d i i
(Eqn. 572)
which is the size fraction equation used by the MUSIG model. A further simplification is to
assume that all size groups share the same density d and velocity u di yielding the
homogeneous MUSIG model:
( r f ) + ( r U i f ) = Si
t d d i xi d d d i
Source Terms
(Eqn. 573)
The contribution of the birth rate due to breakup of larger particles to the source term in
(Eqn. 573) is
B Bi = m i
vi + 1 2
B dv
vi 1 2 B
= m i g ( v j ;v i )N j
(Eqn. 574)
j>i
= d r d g ( v j ;v i )f j
j>i
Similarly, the contribution of the death rate due to breakup into smaller particles is
D Bi = d r d f i g ( v i ;v j )
(Eqn. 575)
j<1
Note that the total source due to breakup is zero when summed over all size groups:
( BBi DBi )
= 0
(Eqn. 576)
For the discretized coalescence sources, we must define the coalescence mass matrix X jki
as the fraction of mass due to coalescence between groups j at t which goes into group i :
X jki
Page 142
( mj + mk ) mi 1
---------------------------------------mi mi 1
= mi + 1 ( mj + mk )
---------------------------------------mi + 1 mi
if
mi 1 < mj + mk < mi
if
mi < mj + mk < mi + 1
(Eqn. 577)
otherwise
The contribution of the birth rate due to coalescence of smaller particles to the source term
in (Eqn. 573) is
B Ci = m i
vi + 1 2
B dv
vi 1 2 C
= m i 1--
2
ji
Q ( vj ;vk )Xjki Nj Nk
(Eqn. 578)
ki
2 1
= ( d r d ) --
2
ji
mj + mk
-
Q ( vj ;vk )Xjki fj fk ----------------mj mk
ki
Similarly, the contribution of the death rate due to coalescence into larger groups is
2
1-
D Ci = ( d r d ) Q ( v i ;v j )f i f j ---
m
j
(Eqn. 579)
Note that this formulation for the coalescence source terms guarantees that the total source
to coalescence is zero when summed over all size groups:
( BCi DCi )
= 0
(Eqn. 580)
This follows from the requirement that Q ( v i ;v j ) = Q ( v d ;v i ) together with the following
property of the mass matrix for all j, k :
Xjki
= 1
(Eqn. 581)
(Eqn. 582)
If the fluid density is not constant, a constant reference density must be used in this
expression to ensure that the group sizes are independent of local density.
Page 143
Equal Mass
Discretisation
Equal diameter
discretisation
In this case, the minimum and maximum mass are calculated from the minimum and
maximum diameter using (Eqn. 582). The mass of group i is calculated using
m i = m min + m i 1--
2
(Eqn. 583)
m max m min
m = ----------------------------N
(Eqn. 584)
1
d i = d min + d i --
2
(Eqn. 585)
d max d min
d = -------------------------N
(Eqn. 586)
(Eqn. 587)
The following table compares diameters for the three discretisation options for a
polydispersed fluid having d min = 0mm and . d max = 2mm
The equal mass distribution resolves large bubbles the most, the geometric distribution
resolves the small bubbles well, and the equal diameter distribution weights both equally.
Page 144
Group
Equal Mass
Equal Diameter
Geometric Mass
585
50
22.5
843
150
28.4
1000
250
35.8
1118
350
45.1
1216
450
56.8
1300
550
71.5
1375
650
90.1
1442
750
114
1503
850
143
10
1560
950
180
11
1613
1050
227
12
1663
1150
286
13
1710
1250
360
14
1754
1350
454
15
1796
1450
572
Equal Mass
Equal Diameter
Geometric Mass
16
1837
1550
721
17
1875
1650
908
18
1912
1750
1144
19
1948
1850
1442
20
1983
1950
1817
Breakup Models
Breakup kernels are often expressed as a function of the breakup fraction
m
f BV = -----j
mi
(Eqn. 588)
1 3 1 ( 1 + )2
g ( vi ;f BV v i ) = 0.923F B ( 1 r d ) ----c- ------------------ e d
min 11 3
d 2i
(Eqn. 589)
where
23
23
12 ( f BV + ( 1 f BV )
1 )
= --------------------------------------------------------------2 3 5 3 11 3
c c d i
(Eqn. 590)
is the dimensionless size of eddies in the inertial subrange of isotropic turbulence. The
lower limit of the integration is given by
(Eqn. 591)
where
1- 3 1 4
= -- c
c
(Eqn. 592)
Page 145
User Defined
Models
A custom model for the breakup kernel g ( v i ;v j ) may also be provided. The model may be
a CEL expression or User Routine and may be a function of the diameter and/or mass of
groups i and j as well as any fluid variable.
Coalescence Models
ANSYS CFX-Solver supports 2 coalescence models.
Prince and
Blanch Model
The model of Prince and Blanch [62] assumes that the coalescence of two bubbles occurs in
three steps. First, the bubbles collide trapping a small amount of liquid between them. This
liquid film then drains until the liquid film separating the bubbles reaches a critical
thickness. The film them ruptures and the bubbles join together.
The coalescence kernel is therefore modelled by a collision rate of two bubbles and a
collision efficiency relating to the time required for coalescence:
T
Q ( vi ;v j ) = ( ij + ij + ij ) ij
(Eqn. 593)
The collision efficiency is modelled by comparing the time required for coalescence t ij with
the actual contact time during the collision : ij
ij = e
t ij ij
(Eqn. 594)
3 12
c r
t ij = --------ij-
16
h
ln ----0-
hf
(Eqn. 595)
23
r ij
ij = ---------13
c
(Eqn. 596)
where h 0 is the initial film thickness, h f is the critical film thickness when rupture occurs,
and r ij is the equivalent radius:
1 + -1 1
r ij = 1-- -2r r
i
j
(Eqn. 597)
2 12
ij = F CT S ij ( u ti + u tj )
Page 146
(Eqn. 598)
S ij = --- ( d i + d j )
4
(Eqn. 599)
u ti =
13 13
2 c d i
(Eqn. 600)
ijB = F CB S ij U rj U ri
(Eqn. 601)
where
U ri =
2.14
------------- + 0.505gd i
c di
(Eqn. 602)
A custom model for the coalescence rate kernel Q ( v i ;v j ) may also be provided. The model
may be a CEL expression or User Routine involving the diameter and/or mass of groups i
and j as well as any fluid variable. Note that the model must give symmetric coalescence
rates (). Q ( v i ;v j ) = Q ( v j ;v i )
Phasic Equations
A starting point is to review the equations for multiphase flow. The continuity equation for
phase is
i
( r ) ( r u )
------------------ + ------------------------ = 0
i
t
x
(Eqn. 603)
Page 147
ji
( r u ) ( r u u )
( r )
i
i
p- + --------------------------------------- + ------------------------------ = r ----- + r g + M
j
i
j
t
x
x
x
(Eqn. 604)
Bulk equations
A bulk continuity equation is derived by summing (Eqn. 603) over all phases:
i
m ( m u m )
--------- + -------------------- = 0
i
t
x
(Eqn. 605)
and a bulk momentum equation by summing (Eqn. 605) over all phases:
i
ji
ji
( m u m ) ( m u m u m )
( m + D )
i
p- + ------------------------------------------ + --------------------------- = ----- + m g
j
i
j
t
x
x
x
(Eqn. 606)
where
m =
r u
m um =
m =
(Eqn. 607)
D = r ( u u m )u
ji
u S = u u c
(Eqn. 608)
u D = u u m
Page 148
(Eqn. 609)
u D = u S Y u S
i
(Eqn. 610)
With these relationships, the phasic continuity equation may be written in terms of mass
fraction and drift velocity as
( m Y )
i
i
-------------------- +
( m Y ( u m + u D ) ) = 0
i
t
x
(Eqn. 611)
ji
u
( r )
i
j u
i
p- + ---------------- + r g + M
r -------- + r u -------- = r ----j
i
j
t
x
x
x
(Eqn. 612)
ji
ji
u m
( m + D )
i
j u m
p- + ----------------------- + m u m -------- = ----- + m g
m -------j
i
j
t
x
x
x
(Eqn. 613)
(Eqn. 612)and (Eqn. 613) are combined to eliminate the pressure gradient term, yielding
i
i
M
u D
u m
- + ( m ) --------
= r ---------t
t
(Eqn. 614)
j u
j u m
+ r u -------- m u m --------
j
j
x
x
ji
ji
ji
( r )
( m + D )
---------------- + r ----------------------j
j
x
x
r ( m )g
Page 149
i
j u m
u m --------j
(Eqn. 615)
i
M
u m
j u m
i
- g
= r ( m ) -------- + u m -------j
t
(Eqn. 616)
In addition, it is assumed that the interphase momentum transfer is due only to drag and
that the particles are spherical:
i
3 r -c C u u i
M = -- --------4 d p D S S
(Eqn. 617)
which leads to the following closed relationship for the slip velocity:
i
i
u S u S
u m
dp
j u m
i
= 4-- ---------- ( m ) -------- + u m -------- g
j
3 c CD
t
(Eqn. 618)
Note that, for rotating reference frames, the apparent accelerations are automatically
included by taking the derivative of the absolute frame velocity rather than relative frame
velocity on the right-hand-side.
ji
The effect of D :in the bulk momentum equation is neglected in the current
implementation.
Turbulence effects
In Eulerian-Eulerian multiphase, the averaging process used ensures that turbulence effects
do not affect the continuity equation; instead they appear as an apparent turbulent
dispersion force in the momentum equation.
Page 150
In the ASM formulation outlined here, turbulent dispersion forces are not considered in the
derivation of slip velocity. Instead, turbulent dispersion is modelled using the same
turbulence model as for multicomponent flows:
Y
i
Y u = -----t- -------Pr t x i
(Eqn. 619)
Energy equation
For multicomponent fluids, the energy equation has a additional term corresponding to
enthalpy transport by species velocities. For standard transported components, this velocity
is modelled using Ficks law. For ASM components, this term uses the drift velocity.
The following term is therefore added to the right-hand side of (Eqn. 243):
j
x
Nc
j h
m Y uD
(Eqn. 620)
Wall deposition
If desired, the dispersed phase which accumulates on a boundary may be removed from the
calculation. A sink for the ASM mass fraction is defined accordingly. The implicit
assumption is that this mass is replaced by an equal mass of the ballast (constraint)
component. The energy equation also removes the enthalpy of the ASM species and adds
the enthalpy of the ballast species.
The eddy viscosity hypothesis is assumed to hold for each turbulent phase. Diffusion of
momentum in phase is governed by an effective viscosity:
eff = + t
(Eqn. 621)
Page 151
Algebraic
Models
t = f U t l t
(Eqn. 622)
l t = ----7
(Eqn. 623)
td
t-c
= -----
td
tc
= ----d- ------
(Eqn. 624)
The parameter is a turbulent Prandtl number relating the dispersed phase kinematic eddy
viscosity td to the continuous phase kinematic eddy viscosity tc.
In situations where the particle relaxation time is short compared to turbulence dissipation
time scales, you may safely use the default value = 1. If the particle relaxation time is long
compared to turbulence dissipation time scales, it may be better to use a value of > 1. This
is highly model dependent. Several models are available in the literature.
Two-Equation
Models
Page 152
2
k
= C -----
(Eqn. 625)
The transport equations for k and in a turbulent phase are assumed to take a similar form
to the single-phase transport equations:
t
r
- k
( k ) + r U k + -----t
k
(Eqn. 626)
(k)
= r ( P ) + T
t
( r ) + r U + ------
()
= r ----- ( C 1 P C 2 ) + T
k
(Eqn. 627)
Definitions of the terms are available. For details, see The k- model in ANSYS CFX (p. 72 in
"ANSYS CFX-Solver, Release 10.0: Theory").
(k)
()
The additional terms T and T represent interphase transfer for k and respectively.
These are omitted in ANSYS CFX, though they may be added as user sources.
Other two equation turbulence models are treated in a similar way.
Reynolds Stress
Models
The multiphase versions of Reynolds stress models are equivalent to the single phase
version, with all flux and volumetric source terms multiplied by volume fractions. Single
phase version information is available. For details, see Reynolds Stress Turbulence Models
(p. 81 in "ANSYS CFX-Solver, Release 10.0: Theory").
By default, no additional exchange terms are added, though they may be added as user
sources.
Turbulence Enhancement
Sato [22] successfully modelled Particle Induced Turbulence this for bubbly flow using an
enhanced continuous phase eddy viscosity:
tc = ts + tp
(Eqn. 628)
where ts is the usual Shear Induced Eddy Viscosity, and tp is an additional Particle
Induced Eddy Viscosity:
tp = C p c r d d p U d U c
(Eqn. 629)
Page 153
t
( r ) + ( r U ) r D ( ) + --------
t
Sc t
()
(Eqn. 630)
()
= S + T
Note:
()
is the Kinematic Diffusivity for the scalar in phase . This may be set for each
()
is the external volumetric source term in phase , with units of conserved quantity
()
represents the total source to due to inter-phase transfer across interfaces with
other phases.
Although the turbulent Schmidt number, Sct, is shown to apply to phase only, it
currently cannot be specified on a phase-specific basis in ANSYS CFX.
As in single phase (see Additional Variables (p. 39 in "ANSYS CFX-Solver, Release 10.0:
Theory")), Diffusive Transport and Poisson equations are also available for multiphase
additional variables). Diffusive transport equations exclude the advection term, turbulent
diffusion term, and contributions due to interphase mass transfer from (Eqn. 630). Poisson
equations exclude these terms as well as the transient term.
Page 154
The total source to per unit volume due to interaction with other phases is given by:
()
()
(Eqn. 631)
where:
()
()
()
T = T T
= 0
(Eqn. 632)
The simplest models for interphase transfer between and take the driving force to be
proportional to the difference in bulk additional variable values across the phase interface:
()
()
()
()
T = c ( )
(Eqn. 633)
T = c ( )
(Eqn. 634)
The first of these is used if the additional variable is defined per unit mass. The latter is used
if the additional variable is defined per unit volume.
()
The coefficients c are defined by analogy with heat transfer. For details, see
Inhomogeneous Interphase Heat Transfer Models (p. 136 in "ANSYS CFX-Solver, Release 10.0:
Theory").
Transfer of an additional variable across a phase boundary is described by an additional
variable transfer coefficient . It is the amount of crossing a unit area per unit time
per unit difference in across the phase boundary. Thus:
()
T = A ( ),
()
T = A ( ),
(Eqn. 635)
(Eqn. 636)
So, we have:
()
c = A
(Eqn. 637)
Sh
= --------d
(Eqn. 638)
Page 155
The diffusivity scale is the kinematic diffusivity D for a volumetric variable, and the
dynamic diffusivity D for a specific variable.
Particle Model
Correlations
In the particle model, the diffusivity scale is that of the continuous phase, and the length
scale d is the mean diameter of the dispersed phase:
Sh
= ----------------d
(Eqn. 639)
For laminar forced convection around a spherical particle, theoretical analysis shows that
Sh = 2. For a particle in a moving incompressible Newtonian fluid, the Sherwood number is
a function of the particle Reynolds number Re and the additional variable Prandtl number
Pr = / (D).
Details on the models available in ANSYS CFX for additional variable transfer are available.
For details, see Particle Model Correlations (p. 172 in "ANSYS CFX-Solver, Release 10.0:
Modelling"). Some additional details for the Interface Flux model are provided below.
Interface Flux
The user specifies directly the interfacial flux F12 from additional variable 1 in fluid 1 to
additional variable 2 in fluid 2 of a specified fluid pair. This is the rate of additional
variable transfer per unit time per unit interfacial area from phase 1 to phase 2. Hence
the amount of additional variable transferred to fluid 2 from fluid 1 per unit volume is
given by:
T 21 = T 12 = A 12 F 12
(Eqn. 640)
F 12
- 0,
c 1 -------- 1
F 21
- 0,
c 2 -------- 2
if volumetric
F 12
- 0,
c 1 -------- 1
F 21
- 0,
c 2 -------- 2
if specific
(Eqn. 641)
The solver takes the absolute value of these flux coefficients to ensure that they are
positive. This is required for numerical stability. The partial derivatives need not be
computed exactly; it is sufficient for the specified coefficients to simply approximate the
Page 156
partial derivatives. Specification of additional variable flux coefficients only affects the
convergence rate to the solution of the coupled transfer equations, it does not affect the
accuracy of the converged solution.
For example, the simple model using a transfer coefficient multiplied by bulk specific
additional variable differences my be recovered using:
F 12 = F 21 = c ( 1 2 ),
Mixture Model
Correlations
c1 = c2 = c
(Eqn. 642)
If you are using the mixture model, the Sherwood number is defined in terms of a mixture
diffusivity scale and the mixture length scale:
Sh
-,
= ------------------d
= r + r
(Eqn. 643)
1 Np
(Eqn. 644)
( ) + ( U ) = S
t
(Eqn. 645)
where:
NP
r ,
=1
1U = -
NP
NP
r U ,
=1
(Eqn. 646)
=1
Homogeneous diffusive transport equations exclude the advection term from (Eqn. 645),
while homogeneous Poisson equations exclude the advection and transient terms.
In most cases the homogeneous assumption is inappropriate for volumetric additional
variables. For this reason, only specific additional variables are permitted to be
homogeneous in ANSYS CFX.
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Fluid-specific Sources
Fluid-specific sources are very similar to those in single phase, except that they are
implemented on a phase basis. For details, see Sources (p. 41 in "ANSYS CFX-Solver, Release
10.0: Theory"). You may need to multiply a multiphase source by the volume fraction. For
details, see Sources in Multiphase Flow (p. 173 in "ANSYS CFX-Solver, Release 10.0:
Modelling").
Bulk Sources
Sources in multiphase flow often have the property that they scale with volume fraction; i.e.,
as the volume fraction source goes to 0, the source also goes to 0. Bulk sources satisfy this
property. They are applied at a fluid-independent level, and are therefore automatically
added to the equations of all fluids for which they are relevant.
- ( r ) + ( r U ) = S +
--
(Eqn. 647)
S describes user specified mass sources. For details, see Sources (p. 41 in "ANSYS
CFX-Solver, Release 10.0: Theory").
is the mass source per unit volume into phase due to interphase mass transfer.
This is expressed as follows:
Np
(Eqn. 648)
=1
is the mass flow rate per unit volume from phase to phase . We must have:
Np
= 0
(Eqn. 649)
=1
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(Eqn. 650)
The term:
+
> 0
represents the positive mass flow rate per unit volume from phase to phase .
For mass transfer processes across a phase interphase, it is useful to express the volumetric
mass sources in terms of mass fluxes:
= m A
(Eqn. 651)
m is the mass flow rate per unit interfacial area from phase to phase , and A is
the interfacial area density between the phases.
The mass source terms affecting the continuity equations, are referred to as primary
mass sources. Clearly, if mass transfer occurs between phases, then this also induces
additional sources and sinks between all other transport equations. These are referred to as
secondary sources, or secondary fluxes, due to mass transfer.
The default form of the secondary source terms for a transported variable is:
Np
S M =
( )
+
(Eqn. 652)
=1
That is, mass transfer from a phase into a phase carries the bulk conserved quantity
into phase . This is referred to as an upwind formulation, as the upwinded value is carried
out ot the outgoing phase, and into the incoming phase.
This default formulation is modified in certain circumstances, in order to take account of
discontinuities in the transported variable at the phase interface, for example, enthalpy in
the case of phase change. For details, see The Thermal Phase Change Model (p. 164 in "ANSYS
CFX-Solver, Release 10.0: Theory").
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= m A
(Eqn. 653)
Alternatively, you may directly specify the volumetric mass source, or interphase mass
flow, .
In both cases, all transport equations are automatically assigned default secondary sources
of the upwinded form:
+
S M = ( )
(Eqn. 654)
(Eqn. 655)
A = M A c A ,
Equilibrium
Models
A
Y A = ------
(Eqn. 656)
Consider two phases , , which contain a component A, and consider the situation where
the component A is in dynamic equilibrium between the phases. Typically the
concentrations of A in each phase are not the same. However, there is a well defined
equilibrium curve relating the two concentrations at equilibrium. This is often, though not
always, expressed in terms of mole fractions:
X A = f ( X A )
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c A
X A = -------,
c
(Eqn. 657)
For binary mixtures, the equilibrium curve depends on temperature and pressure. For
multicomponent mixtures, it also depends on mixture composition. The equilibrium curve
is in general monotonic and non-linear. Nevertheless, it is convenient to quasi-linearise the
equilibrium relationship as follows:
x
X A = K A X A
Y A = K A Y A
c
c A = K A c A
A = K A A
c x
y
c
K A = K A = ----- K A = -----K
c
A
(Eqn. 660)
Raoults Law
In gas-liquid systems, equilibrium relationships are most conveniently expressed in terms of
the partial pressure of the solute in the gas phase.
It is well known that, for a pure liquid A in contact with a gas containing its vapour, dynamic
equilibrium occurs when the partial pressure of the vapour A is equal to its saturated vapour
pressure at the same temperature.
Raoults law generalises this statement for the case of an ideal liquid mixture in contact with
a gas. It states that the partial pressure PAg of solute gas A is equal to the product of its
saturated vapour pressure PAsat at the same temperature, and its mole fraction in the liquid
solution XA.
P Ag = P Asat X Al
(Eqn. 661)
If the gas phase is ideal, then Daltons law of partial pressures gives:
P Ag = X Ag P g
(Eqn. 662)
P Ag = P Asat X Al
(Eqn. 663)
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Henrys Law
In the case of a gaseous material A dissolved in a non-ideal liquid phase, Raoults law needs
to be generalised. Henrys law states that a linear relationship exists between the mole
fraction of A dissolved in the liquid and the partial pressure of A in the gas phase. This is:
x
P Ag = H X Al
(Eqn. 664)
H is Henrys constant for the component A in the liquid l. It has units of pressure, and is
known empirically for a wide range of material pairs, especially for common gases dissolved
in water. It is strongly dependent on temperature.
Henrys law may also be combined with Daltons law in order to express it in terms of a mole
fraction equilibrium ratio:
x
X Ag = K X Al ,
H Al
K = -----Pg
x
(Eqn. 665)
P Ag = H c Al
(Eqn. 666)
P Ag = H c Al
Two Resistance
Model with
Negligible Mass
Transfer
(Eqn. 667)
Page 162
Also, it is assumed in this section that the total mass transfer due to species transfer is
sufficiently small that primary mass sources to the phasic continuity equations are
neglected. Hence, secondary mass fluxes to the species mass transfer equations are also
ignored.
Molar Concentration of A
cA
cAs
cAs
Phase
Interface
cA
Phase
c
We model the component mass transfer using mass transfer coefficients k , k , defined
either side of the phase interface. These are usually defined so that driving forces are defined
in terms of molar concentration differences. Thus the molar flux of A to phase from the
interface is:
c
n A = k ( c As c A )
(Eqn. 668)
n A = k ( c As c A )
(Eqn. 669)
Multiplying through by the molar mass of A, this determines the mass fluxes as follows:
Mass flux of A to phase from the interface:
c
m A = k ( As A )
Mass flux of A to phase from the interface:
c
m A = k ( As A )
(Eqn. 670)
In order to eliminate the unknown interface values, and (Eqn. 670) must be supplemented
by the equilibrium relation between s and s. This is most conveniently expressed using
the molar concentration equilibrium ratio:
c
c As = K c As
As = K As
(Eqn. 671)
Page 163
m A + m A = 0
(Eqn. 672)
may now be combined with the quasi-linearised equilibrium relationship (Eqn. 671) to
determine the interface mass concentrations:
c
As
k A + k A
---------- = As = --------------------------------c
c
c c
K
K k + k
(Eqn. 673)
These may be used to eliminate the interface values in and (Eqn. 670) in order to express the
interfacial mass fluxes in terms of the phasic mass concentrations:
m A = m A = k ( K A A ),
1- + ---K1 = ---------c
c
c
k k
k
(Eqn. 674)
q = h ( Ts T )
(Eqn. 675)
and the sensible heat flux to phase from the interface is:
q = h ( Ts T )
(Eqn. 676)
h and h are the phase and phase heat transfer coefficients respectively.
Note that this is in contrast to the case where there is no mass transfer. In that case, the
interfacial temperature is determined from the sensible heat balance . q + q = 0 .
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In the case of interphase mass transfer, the interphase mass transfer is determined from the
total heat balance, as follows.
Total heat flux to phase from the interface:
Q = q + m H s
(Eqn. 677)
Q = q m H s
(Eqn. 678)
H s and H s represent interfacial values of enthalpy carried into and out of the phases
due to phase change, see below for details.
The total heat balance Q + Q = 0 now determines the interphase mass flux:
q + q
m = --------------------H s H s
(Eqn. 679)
The secondary heat flux term must be modified in order to take account of the discontinuity
in static enthalpy due to latent heat between the two phases. This is achieved using a
modification of the upwind formulation (Eqn. 654), due to Prakash [53] In this formulation,
the bulk fluid enthalpy is carried out of the outgoing phase, as in the default upwind
formulation. However, the saturation enthalpy is carried into the incoming phase. Thus:
m > 0
H s = H sat , H s = H
m < 0
H s = H , H s = H sat
(Eqn. 680)
This leads to a formulation which is stable both physically and numerically. It implies that the
denominator of (Eqn. 679) is non-zero, being greater than or equal to the latent heat
. L = H sat H sat
pp
Ca = -------------v
1--U 2
2
(Eqn. 681)
where p is a reference pressure for the flow (eg, inlet pressure), pv is the vapour pressure for
the liquid, and the denominator represents the dynamic pressure. Clearly, the tendency for
a flow to cavitate increases as the cavitation number is decreased.
Page 165
Cavitation is treated separately from Thermal Phase Change, as the cavitation process is
typically too rapid for the assumption of thermal equilibrium at the interface to be correct.
In the simplest cavitation models, mass transfer is driven by purely mechanical effects,
namely liquid-vapour pressure differences, rather than thermal effects. Current research is
directed towards models which take both effects into account.
In ANSYS CFX, the Rayleigh Plesset model is implemented in the multiphase framework as
an interphase mass transfer model. User defined models can also be implemented.
For cavitating flow the homogeneous multiphase model is typically used.
The Rayleigh
Plesset Model
The Rayleigh-Plesset equation provides the basis for the rate equation controlling vapour
generation and condensation. The Rayleigh-Plesset equation describing the growth of a gas
bubble in a liquid is given by:
2
d R
dR 2
pv p
R B ----------B + 3-- -------B- + 2
------ = -----------2
f
2 dt
RB
dt
(Eqn. 682)
where RB represents the bubble diameter, pv is the pressure in the bubble (assumed to be
the vapour pressure at the liquid temperature), p is the pressure in the liquid surrounding
the bubble and is the surface tension coefficient between the liquid and vapour. Note that
this is derived from a mechanical balance, assuming no thermal barriers to bubble growth.
Neglecting the second order terms (which is appropriate for low oscillation frequencies) and
the surface tension, this equation reduces to:
dR
-------B- =
dt
2-- p
vp
-----------3 f
(Eqn. 683)
dV B
2 2 pv p
d- 4--R 3
-------- = ---=
4R
B -- ------------3 f
dt
dt 3 B
(Eqn. 684)
pv p
dm B
dV
2
---------- = g -------B- = 4R B g 2-- -----------3 f
dt
dt
(Eqn. 685)
If there are NB bubbles per unit volume, the volume fraction rg may be expressed as:
3
r g = V B N B = 4--R B N B
3
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(Eqn. 686)
and the total interphase mass transfer rate per unit volume is:
3r g g 2 p v p
dm
- -- ------------m fg = N B ---------B- = -------------dt
RB
3 f
(Eqn. 687)
This expression has been derived assuming bubble growth (vaporisation). It can be
generalised to include condensation as follows:
3r g g 2 p v p
- -- ----------------- sgn ( p v p )
m fg = F -----------3 f
RB
(Eqn. 688)
where F is an empirical factor which may differ for condensation and vaporisation, designed
to account for the fact that they may occur at different rates (condensation is usually much
slower than vaporisation).
Despite the fact that (Eqn. 688) has been generalised for vaporisation and condensation, it
requires further modification in the case of vaporisation.
Vaporisation is initiated at nucleation sites (most commonly non-condensible gases). As the
vapour volume fraction increases, the nucleation site density must decrease accordingly,
since there is less liquid. For vaporisation, rg in (Eqn. 688) is replaced by rnuc(1 - rg) to give:
3r nuc ( 1 r g ) g 2 p v p
- -- ----------------- sgn ( p v p )
m fg = F ---------------------------------RB
3 f
(Eqn. 689)
where rnuc is the volume fraction of the nucleation sites. (Eqn. 688) is maintained in the case
of condensation. Note that in this model RB represents the diameter of the nucleation sites.
To obtain an interphase mass transfer rate, further assumptions regarding the bubble
concentration and radius are required. The Rayleigh Plesset cavitation model implemented
in ANSYS CFX uses the following defaults for the model parameters:
User Defined
Cavitation
Models
RB = 1 m
rnuc = 5E-4
Fvap = 50
Fcond = 0.01
Additional information on creating a user defined model is available. For details, see User
Defined Cavitation Models (p. 178 in "ANSYS CFX-Solver, Release 10.0: Modelling").
When using a user defined cavitation model, the ANSYS CFX-Solver will perform generic
linearisations for the volume fraction and volume continuity equations to help stability and
convergence. The saturation pressure is used by the ANSYS CFX-Solver in linearising the
cavitation rate against pressure.
Page 167
Implementation
The implementation of free surface flow in ANSYS CFX is essentially the same as multiphase
(homogeneous or inhomogeneous) along with some special discretisation options to keep
the interface sharp. These include:
A compressive differencing scheme for the advection of volume fractions in the volume
fraction equations.
A compressive transient scheme for the volume fraction equations (if the problem is
transient).
Special treatment of the pressure gradient and gravity terms to ensure that the flow
remain well behaved at the interface.
Surface Tension
The surface tension model used in ANSYS CFX is based on the Continuum Surface Force
model of Brackbill et al [27] This models the surface tension force as a volume force
concentrated at the interface, rather than a surface force. Consider the free surface interface
shown in the figure below:
Figure 1
Primary Fluid,
We define a Primary Fluid (the liquid phase) and a Secondary Fluid (usually a gas phase).
The surface tension force given by the Continuum Surface Force model is:
F = f
(Eqn. 690)
where:
f = n + s
=
Page 168
(Eqn. 691)
(Eqn. 692)
where is the surface tension coefficient, n is the interface normal vector pointing from
the primary fluid to the secondary fluid (calculated from the gradient of a smoothed volume
fraction), S is the gradient operator on the interface and is the surface curvature defined
by:
= n
(Eqn. 693)
The two terms summed on the right hand side of (Eqn. 691) reflect the normal and
tangential components of the surface tension force respectively. The normal component
arises from the interface curvature and the tangential component from variations in the
surface tension coefficient (the Marangoni effect).
The term is often called the interface delta function; it is zero away from the interface,
thereby ensuring that the surface tension force is active only near to the interface.
When the interface between the two fluids intersects a wall, it is possible to account for wall
adhesion by specifying the contact angle which the interface makes with the wall through
the primary fluid. The interface normal vector used for the calculations of both curvature
and the surface tension force must satisfy the wall contact angle.
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