MANUFACTURING IV/

PRODUCTION TECHNOLOGY IV
Advanced Robotics

Dr K Mpofu
mpofuk@tut.ac.za
ksm

2011

Department of Mechanical Engineering

IMPORTANT DATES
TEST 2: 5 September 2011
Ass 2: 26 September to 15 October 2011
Predicate: 20 October 2011

ksm

2011

Department of Mechanical Engineering

INTRODUCTION

Fundamentals of robotics
Spatial resolution, accuracy and repeatability
Robotics joints classification and notation
Forward and backward analysis
Programming languages
Robots economic justification

ksm

2011

Department of Mechanical Engineering

 1000 Light years

away
Stars born .
Let the heavens rejoice,
and let the earth be
glad; let the sea roar,
and the fulness thereof.
Psa 96:11

ksm

2011

Department of Mechanical Engineering

ROBOT DEFINITION
Robotics Industries Association (RIA): An
industrial robot is a progammable,
multifunctional manipulator designed to move
materials, parts, tools, or special devices through
variable programmed motions for the
performance of a variety of tasks.
A general-purpose, programmable machine
possessing certain anthropomorphic
characteristics

ksm

2011

Department of Mechanical Engineering

ROBOT DESCRIPTION
It consists of a number of rigid links connected by joints of
different types, controlled and monitored by a computer.
A link- the robot arm is connected to the body, which is
mounted on the base.
The link is generally referred to as the robot arm. A wrist is
attached to the arm.
An end effectors is attached is found at the end of the
wrist-this maybe a gripper, tool to handler.

ksm

2011

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Robot manipulator - a series of joint-link combinations

ksm

2011

Department of Mechanical Engineering

FUNDAMENTALS
POWER SOURCE OF ROBOTS
There are three major types of drive systems;
1. Hydraulic -Fire safe, high speed & strength but consume space
and clumsy.

2. Electric High accuracy, repeatability, cleaner but less strength

and speed, higher fire hazard.
3. Pneumatic simple modular construction, cheapest, simple
operations with short cycle times but they are smaller, operate
mechanical fixed end joints

ksm

2011

Department of Mechanical Engineering

FUNDAMENTALS

ROBOTIC SENSORS
Two basic categories of sensors used in industrial robots:
1. Internal - used to control position and velocity of the robot joints
2. External - used to coordinate the operation of the robot with other
equipment in a work work cell
Typical sensors include;
Position-monitor the positions of joints by feeding back information.
Range Distance from a reference point to other important points is
measured. Cameras, sonar transmitters and receivers are used.
Velocity-The DC tachometer is a common example which helps
estimate the speed with which the robot moves. Acceleration
variations between points gives rise to the dynamic robot traits.
Proximity-Presence of an object is sensed at a given distance.
ksm

2011

Department of Mechanical Engineering

FUNDAMENTALS
END EFFECTOR
Enables the robot to perform tasks. It may be
either a tool or a gripper.
Two types:
Grippers to grasp and manipulate objects (e.g.,
parts) during work cycle
Tools to perform a process, e.g., spot welding,
spray painting

ksm

2011

Department of Mechanical Engineering

FUNDAMENTALS

A two-finger mechanical gripper for grasping

rotational parts

ksm

2011

Department of Mechanical Engineering

FUNDAMENTALS

GRIPPER
Dual grippers
Interchangeable fingers
Sensory feedback
To sense presence of object
To apply a specified force on the object

Multiple fingered gripper (similar to human

hand)
Standard gripper products to reduce the
amount of custom design required
ksm

2011

Department of Mechanical Engineering

FUNDAMENTALS
MOVEMENT AND PRECISION
A good robot is one that moves quickly (speed) and at the same time
has the least amount of oscillations (high stability.).
This is a dilemma which is resolved by a well designed control system.
Three features define the precision of robot movement;
Spatial Resolution-smallest increment of movement into which the
robot can divide its work volume. Number of separate increments =
2n .
Accuracy-Ability of robot to position its wrist end at a desired target
point within its reach. Defined as half control resolution. The shorter
the link the better the accuracy.
Repeatability-Ability to place the end effector at a point that has
been taught to the robot.
ksm

2011

Department of Mechanical Engineering

ACCURACY & REPEATABILITY

High Accuracy & High Repeatability

Low Accuracy & High Repeatability

ksm

2011

High Accuracy & Low Repeatability

Low Accuracy & Low Repeatability

Department of Mechanical Engineering

ACCURACY & REPEATABILITY

C
B
BC = Repeatability
Error

AB = Accuracy Error
BC = Repeatability Error

ksm

2011

Department of Mechanical Engineering

ROBOTIC JOINTS
A joint is a mechanism that permits relative movement between
parts of a robot arm.
Most robots require the following basic motions for movement;
Rotational movement: Enables the robot to place arm on any
direction in a horizontal plane.
Radial movement: Enables movement on end effector radially to
reach distant points.
Vertical movement: Enables end-effector to be taken to different
heights.
The complete end-effector motion is defined by these degrees of
freedom individually or in combination.
Depending on nature of relative motion they are classified as
prismatic or revolute.
ksm

2011

Department of Mechanical Engineering

ROBOTIC JOINTS
Prismatic-Also sliding or linear. They permit links to move in a
linear relationship.
Revolute-Allow for angular motion between links classified
further into;
Rotational (R)-lengths of adjoining links do not change but the
relative position of the links with respect to another changes
with rotation.
Twisting (T)-rotation takes place about an axis that is parallel to
both adjoining links. Rotation involves twisting of one link with
respect to another.
Revolving (V)-rotation is about an axis that is parallel to one of
the adjoining links. Links are aligned perpendicularly to each
other. Rotation invloves revolution of one link about another.

ksm

2011

Department of Mechanical Engineering

ROBOTIC JOINTS

Linear joint

Rotational joint

Twist joint
Revolving joint
ksm

2011

Department of Mechanical Engineering

ROBOTIC JOINTS

Designate the robot configurations shown below using the joint notation scheme

ksm

2011

Department of Mechanical Engineering

ROBOT CLASSIFICATION AND

ROBOT REACH
Classifications are based mainly on physical configurations and on Control
Systems.
PHYSICAL CONFIGURATIONS
The are four basic configurations
1. Polar configuration
2. Cartesian configuration
3. Cylindrical configuration
4. Jointed-Arm configuration
A framework for complex configurations has been provided here. Combinations
of two or more of the basic ones are possible.
The important aspect in configuration design is to meet the requirements of the
task of the robot.

ksm

2011

Department of Mechanical Engineering

PHYSICAL CONFIGURATIONS
Polar Have a spherical shaped
workspace.
Arm is connected to the base
with a twist (T) and rotary or linear
joints follow.
Articulated robots have TRR
designation.

ksm

2011

Department of Mechanical Engineering

PHYSICAL CONFIGURATIONS
Cylindrical- Consists of one rotary joint
at the base and linear joints succeed to
connect the links.

It operates in a cylindrical space.

ksm

2011

Department of Mechanical Engineering

PHYSICAL CONFIGURATIONS

Cartesian-Consists of links
connected by linear joints.
Also called rectilinear, gantry robots
have a similar configuration.

ksm

2011

Department of Mechanical Engineering

PHYSICAL CONFIGURATIONS
Jointed-Combination of
the cylindrical and an
articulated configurations.
Arm is connected with a
twisting joint to the base,
links in the arm are
connected by rotary joints.
Rotations take place in the
rotary plane.
ksm

2011

Department of Mechanical Engineering

SCARA ROBOT
Most popular robot close to
joint-arm
SCARA stands for Selectively
Compliant Assembly Robot Arm
Similar to jointed-arm robot
except that vertical axes are
used for shoulder and elbow
joints to be compliant in
horizontal direction for vertical
insertion tasks
ksm

2011

Department of Mechanical Engineering

CLASSIFICATION: CONTROL SYSTEM

There are three main categories;

Point-to-point (PTP)- Capability of moving from one point to another
point. Path to get to the other point is not controlled. E.g component
insertion, spot welding, hole drilling, machine loading and unloading
Continuous-path (CP)-Capable of performing movements along a
controlled path. All points along the path must be stored explicitly in
the robots control memory. Lead through motions can be used e.g
spray painting, finishing, gluing and arc welding operations.
Controlled-path-Control equipment can generate paths of different
geometry such as straight lines, circles and interpolated curves. All
controlled-path robots have a servo capability to correct the path.
Robot reach is also called the work envelope or work volume-is all
the points that can be reached by the robot arm or end-effector or
tool.
ksm

2011

Department of Mechanical Engineering

FORWARD AND BACKWARD

TRANSFORMATION
The geometry of the robot arm is studied with respect to a
reference coordinate system, while the end effector moves the
path.
Two main problems are to be solved;
1. Determine the coordinates of the end effector or end of arm
for a given set of joint coordinates
2. Determine the joints coordinates for a given location of the
end-effector or end of arm.
The position of the end effector can be defined as
V = ( x, y )
Generally, for robots the location of the end effector can be
defined in the joint space and the world space (global space)
ksm

2011

Department of Mechanical Engineering

FORWARD AND BACKWARD

TRANSFORMATION
JOINT SPACE
Parameters such as rotating or twisting joint
angles and variable link lengths are used to
represent the position of the end effector
Vj = (, ) for RR robot
= (L1 , L2 ) for LL robot
= (, L2 ) for TL robot
where Vj refers to the position of the end
effector in joint space.
ksm

2011

Department of Mechanical Engineering

FORWARD AND BACKWARD

TRANSFORMATION

WORLD SPACE
Rectilinear coordinates with reference to the basic Cartesian
system are used to define the position of the end effector.
Vw refering to the end effector position in the world space
then
Vw = ( x, y )
The Cartesian origin is normally at the base.
Forward kinematics transformation refers to translation of
coordinates from the joint space to the world space.
Backward or reverse kinematics transformation refers to the
transformation of the world space to the joint space.

ksm

2011

Department of Mechanical Engineering

FORWARD AND BACKWARD

TRANSFORMATION

J1 (x1 , y1)

L2

L1

Consider a Cartesian LL configuration.

Linear joints J1 and J2 with links of
J2 (x2 , y2) variable L1 and L2
Let joint J1 be denoted by (x1 , y1) and
J2 by (x2 , y2).
L3
Geometrically;
(x , y)
x 2 = x 1 + L2
y2 = y 1
X2 = T1 . X1
x

ksm

2011

Department of Mechanical Engineering

FORWARD AND BACKWARD

TRANSFORMATION

J1 (x1 , y1)

L2

J2 (x2 , y2)

L3
(x , y)
L1

ksm

2011

If the end-effector point is denoted

by (x, y), from the geometry we
can get
x = x2
y = y2 - L3
Its homogenous matrix
representation is

X = T2 . X2
Substituting for X2 , we get
X = T2 (T1X1) = TLL X1, Where TLL = T2 T1

Department of Mechanical Engineering

FORWARD AND BACKWARD

TRANSFORMATION

J2
(x2 , y2)

Let and be the rotations at

joints J1 and J2 , respectively.
Let joint J1 be denoted by (x1 ,
y1) and J2 by (x2 , y2).
Geometrically;
x2 = x1 + L2Cos
y2 = y1 + L2Sin
In Matrices

L2

L3
(x , y)

J1
(x1 , y1)
L1

ksm

2011

Or
X2 =T1 X1

Department of Mechanical Engineering

FORWARD AND BACKWARD

TRANSFORMATION

J2
(x2 , y2)

L2

L3
(x , y)

J1
(x1 , y1)
L1

ksm

2011

Suppose end-effector point is

represented by
x= x2 + L3 cos (-)
y= y2 - L3 sin (-)
In matrix form
Or
X = T2X2 ,
Substituting for X2 we get
X = T2 (T1 X1) = TRR X1
Where TRR = T1 T2 ,

Department of Mechanical Engineering

FORWARD AND BACKWARD

TRANSFORMATION
z

J2
(x2 , y2)

L2

J1
(x1 , y1)

Let be the rotation at twisting

joint J1 and L2 , be the variable
link at J2 with position given by
(x2 , y2)
(x , y) If (x, y) is the end-effector point
geometrically.
x = x2 + L2 cos
y = y2 + L2 sin
In matrix form we can represent
it as follows

x
ksm

2011

Department of Mechanical Engineering

FORWARD AND BACKWARD

TRANSFORMATION

J1 (x1 , y1)

L2

L1

ksm

2011

BACKWARD KINEMATICS
The objective is to derive the lengths
J2 (x2 , y2) of the variable links from a known
position of the end-effector.
X = TLL X1
L3
Rewriting this equation in expanded
(x , y)
from
x =x1+ L2
y = y1 - L3 and y1 = y2 ,
On simplification
x L2 = x x1
L3 = -y + y2 ,
Department of Mechanical Engineering

FORWARD AND BACKWARD

TRANSFORMATION

J2
(x2 , y2)

L2

L3
(x , y)

J1
(x1 , y1)
L1

ksm

2011

BACKWARD KINEMATICS
The objective is to derive the joint angles
from the known position of the end
effector in the world space.
Since we know
X = TRR X1 ,
Expanding we get
x= x1 + L2 cos () + L3 cos (-)
y= y1 + L2 sin () - L3 cos (-)
On simplification

Department of Mechanical Engineering

FORWARD AND BACKWARD

TRANSFORMATION
z

J2
(x2 , y2)

L2

J1
(x1 , y1)

BACKWARD KINEMATICS
The objective is to get the variable
link length and twist angle from
the end-effector world-space.
(x , y) Twist angle is ;
Expanded version of equation
X = TTL X2 gives
x = x2 + L cos
y = y2 + L sin
Simplification of these equations
x

ksm

2011

Department of Mechanical Engineering

FORWARD AND BACKWARD

TRANSFORMATION

J1 (1 , 5)

6.5m

J2 (x2 , y2)

An LL robot has two links of variable length.

Coordinate for J1 (1,5), determine the following;
(a) Coordinates of the end effector if the variable
links are 3.5m and 6.5m.
(b) Variable link lengths if end effector is at (3,5)

3.5m
(x , y)

=
b) The end effector point (x,y) =(3,5).
L2 =x x1 = 3-1 =2m
L3 = -y + y1 = -5 + 5 = 0m

L1

ksm

2011

Department of Mechanical Engineering

FORWARD AND BACKWARD

TRANSFORMATION
An RR robot has two links of length 1.5m.

J2
(x2 , y2)

L2

L3
(x , y)

J1
(x1 , y1)

Coordinate system at joint J1 is (2, 4) , determine

the following:
(a) The coordinates of the end-effector point if the
joint rotations are 30 at J1 and 45 at J2 .
(b) Joint rotations if the end-effector is located at
(1.5 , 1.5).

L1

ksm

2011

= -46.92

Department of Mechanical Engineering

FORWARD AND BACKWARD

TRANSFORMATION
z

x
ksm

2011

Department of Mechanical Engineering

FORWARD AND BACKWARD

TRANSFORMATION
Denavit and Hartenburg (1955) proposed the use of homogenous matrices to
describe the relationship between the links.
Denavit Hartenburg (DH) uses a 4X4 matrix to transform a vector from one
coordinate system into another.
The DH system starts by expressing the base reference point of the robot in a
homogeneous coordinate matrix.
A second homogeneous matrix is written describing the relationship between the
centre of the first and the second joints.
Matrices are then multiplied in the sequence they where developed.
To translate the end-effector position in 2D by x1 and by y1 the matrix would look
like

In 3D we have

ksm

2011

Department of Mechanical Engineering

FORWARD AND BACKWARD

TRANSFORMATION
If a point vector V = ri + sj + tk is translated as described as above, the new
translated point vector V is given by
V = TV
Where scalar a of point vector V is given by
EXAMPLE
The end effector of a robot is translated in the x-, y- and z- directions by distance of
4.5 , 10.5 and 14.5 respectively. Write the transformation matrix. If the initial
position of the end-effector is (4, 1, 7), what is the final position of the endeffector?

V =T V
Where V is the initial position of the end effector, V the final position of the end
effector.
ksm

2011

Department of Mechanical Engineering

FORWARD AND BACKWARD

TRANSFORMATION
If a point vector V = ri + sj + tk rotated about the x-axis the final location of the
point vector V is given by
V =Rx, V
For the robot arm with 2 degrees of freedom, the final point of the end effector
due to rotations & at joints J1 and J2 , respectively about the z-axis are given
by Xfinal = T(x1 , y1 , 0) T(L2 , 0, 0)R(z, )T(L3 , 0, 0)R(z, )Xinitial
where
EXAMPLE
A point (end-effector position) is rotated about the z-axis by an angle of 45. Write
the transformation matrix. The initial position of the end-effector before rotation
us (5, 2, 4). Determine the new position of this point.

V = R(z,45) V
ksm

2011

Department of Mechanical Engineering

ROBOT SELECTION CRITERIA

A wide variety of robots exist in the market place and the
following criteria will be aid to choosing the appropriate robot;
Degrees of freedom-1,2,3 etc DoF, prices increases with DoF.
Control System to be adopted-(Nonservo, PTP/& CP )
Work volume
Load-carrying capacity
Accuracy and repeatability

ksm

2011

Department of Mechanical Engineering

ECONOMIC JUSITIFICATION OF
ROBOTS

Is equally important to study if the robotisation is economically justified.

A simple approach will be consider here.
PAYBACK PERIOD METHOD
How long does it take to get the money invested, if the pay back period is n ,
then

NIC-Net Investment Cost = total investment cost of robot and accessories

investment tax credits available from government.
NAC-Net Annual Cash flows=annual anticipated revenues from robot
installation including direct labor and material cost savings- annual
operating costs including labor, material and maintenance costs of the robot

ksm

2011

Department of Mechanical Engineering

ECONOMIC JUSITIFICATION OF
ROBOTS

Afri smelters is planning to replace a manual material sorting process by a robotic system.
The system is priced at R1.6 million, magnetic grippers, sensors, and other required
accessories are included. The annual maintenance and operation cost of the robot system
on a single-shift basis is R90 000.00. The company is charged 12,5% duty by customs. The
robot will replace three operators. The hourly rate of an operator is R150 including fringe
benefits. There is no increase in production rate. Determine the payback period for oneand two shift operations.
NIC = Capital cost + Custom charges = R1 600 000(1 + 0.125) = R 1.8 million
Annual labor cost = operator rate (R150/hr) x number of operators (3) xdays per year
(250d/yr) x single shift (8h/d)= R0.9 million
For a double shift operation, the annual labour cost is R1.8million.
For a single operation:
Annual savings = Annual labour cost annual robot maintenance and operating cost= R900
000-R90 000 =R0.81 million
For single shift pay back period n = R1.8million/0.81 million = 2yrs 2mnths 2 weeks 4days
For double shift savings = R1.8 million R0.18 million = 1.62 million
Pay back = R1.8million/ R1.62million=1yr 1 mnth 1 week 2 day
ksm

2011

Department of Mechanical Engineering

NEXT MODULE
RECONFIGURABLE
MANUFACTURING
AND AUTONOMOUS
SYSTEMS
BLESS YOU!
ksm

2011

Department of Mechanical Engineering