International Islamic University Islamabad

Faculty of Engineering & Technology

Submitted by

Abdul Aziz
4th Semester
B-Tech Mechanical

Submitted to:

Teachers Name
Assistant Professor

Lapping
Lapping is a machining process, in which two surfaces are rubbed together with an abrasive between them, by hand
movement or using a machine.
This can take two forms. The first type of lapping (traditionally called grinding), involves rubbing a brittle material
such as glass against a surface such as iron or glass itself (also known as the "lap" or grinding tool) with an abrasive
such as aluminum oxide, jeweller's rouge, optician's rouge, emery, silicon carbide, diamond, etc., between them.
This produces microscopic conchoidal fractures as the abrasive rolls about between the two surfaces and removes
material from both.
The other form of lapping involves a softer material such as pitch or a ceramic for the lap, which is "charged" with
the abrasive. The lap is then used to cut a harder material the workpiece. The abrasive embeds within the softer
material, which holds it and permits it to score across and cut the harder material. Taken to a finer limit, this will
produce a polished surface such as with a polishing cloth on an automobile, or a polishing cloth or polishing pitch
upon glass or steel.

Operation

Small lapping plate made of cast iron

By way of example, a piece of lead may be used as the lap, charged with emery, and used to cut a piece of
hardened steel. The small plate shown in the first picture is a hand lapping plate. That particular plate is made
of cast iron. In use, a slurry of emery powder would be spread on the plate and the workpiece simply rubbed against
the plate, usually in a "figure-eight" pattern.

Small lapping machine

The second picture is of a commercially available lapping machine. The lap or lapping plate in this machine is 30
centimetres (12 in) in diameter, about the smallest size available commercially. At the other end of the size
spectrum, machines with 8-to-10-foot-diameter (2.4 to 3.0 m) plates are not uncommon, and systems with tables 30
feet (9.1 m) in diameter have been constructed. Referring to the second picture again, the lap is the large circular
disk on the top of the machine. On top of the lap are two rings. The workpiece would be placed inside one of these
rings. A weight would then be placed on top of the workpiece. The weights can also be seen in the picture along with
two fiber spacer disks that are used to even the load.
In operation, the rings stay in one location as the lapping plate rotates beneath them. In this machine, a small slurry
pump can be seen at the side, this pump feeds abrasive slurry onto the rotating lapping plate.

Lapping machine and retention jig

When there is a requirement to lap very small specimens (from 3" down to a few millimetres), a lapping jig can be
used to hold the material while it is lapped (see Image 3, lapping machine and jig). A jig allows precise control of the
orientation of the specimen to the lapping plate and fine adjustment of the load applied to the specimen during the
material removal process. Due to the dimensions of such small samples, traditional loads and weights are too heavy
as they would destroy delicate materials. The jig sits in a cradle on top of the lapping plate and the dial on the front
of the jig indicates the amount of material removed from the specimen.

Honing (metalworking)
Honing is an abrasive machining process that produces a precision surface on a metal workpiece by scrubbing
an abrasive stone against it along a controlled path. Honing is primarily used to improve the geometric form of a
surface, but may also improve the surface texture.
Typical applications are the finishing of cylinders for internal combustion engines, air bearing spindles and gears.
There are many types of hones but all consist of one or more abrasive stones that are held under pressure against
the surface they are working on.
In terms of sharpening knives, a honing steel does not actually hone knives, but simply realigns the metal along the
edge. Other similar processes are lapping and superfinishing.

The workpiece need not be rotated by power, there are no chucks, faceplates, or rotating tables needed, so
there are no chucking or locating errors. The hone is driven from a central shaft, so bending of the shaft
cannot cause tapered holes as it does when boring. The result is a truly round hole, with no taper or high
or low spots, provided that the previous operations left enough stock so that the hone can clean up all the
irregularities.
Honing uses a large contact area at slow speed compared with grinding or fine boring, which use a small
contact area at high speed. Because of the combined rotating and reciprocating motion used, a
crosshatched pattern is created which is excellent for holding lubrication. Diameters with 0.001 to 0.0001
inch and closer accuracies can be honed by using diamond stones similar to diamond wheels.

Polishing & Buffing (metalworking)

Polishing and buffing are finishing processes for smoothing a workpiece's surface using an abrasive and a work
wheel or a leatherstrop. Technically polishing refers to processes that use an abrasive that is glued to the work
wheel, while buffing uses a loose abrasive applied to the work wheel. Polishing is a more aggressive process while
buffing is less harsh, which leads to a
smoother, brighter finish.[1]A common
misconception is that a polished surface
has a mirror bright finish, however
most mirror bright finishes are actually
buffed.
Polishing is often used to enhance the
contamination of instruments, remove
or prevent corrosion in pipes.
polishing is used to create a flat, defectmetal's microstructure under a
pads or a diamond solution can be used
stainless steel can also increase the

looks of an item, prevent

oxidation, create a reflective surface,
In metallography and metallurgy,
free surface for examination of a
microscope. Silicon-based polishing
in the polishing process. Polishing
sanitary benefits of stainless steel.

The removal of oxidization (tarnish) from metal objects is accomplished using a metal polish or tarnish remover; this
is also called polishing. To prevent further unwanted oxidization, polished metal surfaces may be coated with wax,
oil, or lacquer. This is of particular concern for copper alloy products such as brass and bronze
Polishing may be used to enhance and restore the looks of certain metal parts or object on cars and other
vehicles, handrails, cookware, kitchenware, and architectural metal. In other applications such as pharmaceutical,
dairy, and specialty plumbing, pipes are buffed to help prevent corrosion and to eliminate locations where bacteria or
mold may reside. Buffing is also used to manufacture light reflectors.

Electroplating
Electroplating is a process that uses
metal cations so that they form a
anelectrode. The term is also used for
solid substrate, as in the formation
make silver/silver-chloride electrodes.
change the surface properties of an
resistance, corrosion protection, lubric
also be used to build up thickness on
by electroforming.

electric current to reduce dissolved

coherent metal coating on
electrical oxidation of anions onto a
silver chloride on silver wire to
Electroplating is primarily used to
object (e.g. abrasion and wear
ity, aesthetic qualities, etc.), but may
undersized parts or to form objects

The process used in electroplating is

called electrodeposition. It is
analogous to a galvanic cell acting in
reverse. The part to be plated is
the cathode of the circuit. In one
technique, the anode is made of the
metal to be plated on the part. Both
components are immersed in
asolution called
an electrolyte containing one or more
dissolved metal salts as well as
other ions that permit the flow of
electricity. A power supply supplies
a direct current to the anode, oxidizing
the metal atoms that it comprises and allowing them to dissolve in the solution. At the cathode, the dissolved metal
ions in the electrolyte solution are reduced at the interface between the solution and the cathode, such that they
"plate out" onto the cathode. The rate at which the anode is dissolved is equal to the rate at which the cathode is
plated, vis-a-vis the current through the circuit. In this manner, the ions in the electrolyte bath are continuously
replenished by the anode

Electroplating is widely used in various industries for coating metal objects with a thin layer of a different metal. The
layer of metal deposited has some desired property, which the metal of the object lacks. For example, chromium
plating is done on many objects such as car parts, bath taps, kitchen gas burners, wheel rims and many others for
the fact that chromium is very corrosion resistant, and thus prolongs the life of the parts. Electroplating has wide
usage in industries. It is also used in making inexpensive jewelry. Electroplating increases life of metal and prevents
corrosion.

Galvanization
Galvanization, or galvanisation, (or galvanizing as it is most commonly called in that industry), is the process of
applying a protective zinccoating to steel or iron, to prevent rusting. The most common method is hot-dip
galvanizing, in which parts are submerged in a bath of molten zinc. Galvanizing protects in two ways:

It forms a coating of corrosion-resistant zinc which prevents corrosive substances from reaching the more
delicate part of the metal.

The zinc serves as

a sacrificial anode so that even

if the coating is scratched,

the exposed steel will still be

protected by the remaining

zinc.

The zinc protects its

base metal by corroding before

iron, for better results

application of chromates over

zinc is also seen as an

industrial trend.

Hot-dip galvanizing deposits a thick robust layer of zinc iron alloys on the surface of a steel item. In the case
of automobile bodies, where additional decorative coatings of paint will be applied, a thinner form of galvanizing is
applied by electrogalvanizing. The hot-dip process generally does not reduce strength on a measurable scale, [3] with
the exception of high-strength steels (>1100 MPa) where hydrogen embrittlement can become a problem.[4][5] This is
a consideration for the manufacture of wire rope and other highly stressed products. The protection provided by hot
dip galvanizing is insufficient for products that will be constantly exposed to corrosive materials such as acids. For
these applications, more expensive stainless steel is preferred. Some nails made today are galvanized.
Nonetheless, electroplating is used on its own for many outdoor applications because it is cheaper than hot dip zinc
coating and looks good when new. Another reason not to use hot dip zinc coating is that for bolts and nuts size M10
(US 3/8") or smaller, the thick hot-dipped coating fills in too much of the threads, which reduces strength (because
the dimension of the steel prior to coating must be reduced for the fasteners to fit together). This means that
for cars, bicycles and many other light mechanical products, the alternative to electroplating bolts and nuts is not hot
dip zinc coating but making the bolts and nuts from stainless steel.

Metal

Spraying

Thermal spraying, also commonly known as metal spraying is a surface engineering /

coating process where a wide range of metals and ceramics can be sprayed onto the
surface of another material.
Thermal spraying is widely used to provide corrosion protection to ferrous metals or to change the
surface properties of the sprayed items, such as improve the wear resistance or thermal conductivity.
The range of thermal spray applications is vast and a selection of them are summarised in our
applications section link to applications. Other examples are shown in Applications. If you cant find
your application or want to learn more, please contact us or one of our resellers who will be pleased
to help.

Surface finishing
Surface finishing is a broad range of industrial processes that alter the surface of a manufactured item to achieve a
certain property.[1] Finishing processes may be employed to: improve appearance, adhesion
or wettability, solderability, corrosion resistance, tarnish resistance, chemical resistance, wear resistance, hardness,
modify electrical conductivity, remove burrs and other surface flaws, and control the surface friction.[1][2] In limited
cases some of these techniques can be used to restore original dimensions to salvage or repair an item. An
unfinished surface is often called mill finish.
Surface finishing processes can be categorized by how they affect the workpiece:

Removing or reshaping finishing

Adding or altering finishing

Mechanical processes may also be categorized together because of similarities the final surface finish.