Evacuating a liquid from a tank with a pressurized vapor

Solving the Problem

Common Student Questions and Comments

1.1

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1 Moving Liquids

Evacuating a liquid from a tank with a pressurized vapor

There are many ways to move fluids in chemical processes including for example the use of
pumps and compressors. However, there are situations where you can use a high pressure
vapor or gas to move a liquid between tanks. If high pressure lines are available, their use saves
energy when moving fluids around. In the diagram below, tanks A and B contain the refrigerant
R-134a. Tank A has a volume of 0.09 m3 and tank B a volume of 0.075 m3 . The R-134a in A is
initially at 20C, saturated vapor, and that in B is at -33C, with a vapor mass fraction of 0.01
(this quantity is also commonly called quality). The valve is opened slightly, allowing R-134a to
flow from tank A to tank B. When the pressure in B has reached 150 kPa, liquid begins to flow
out. The liquid transfer continues until the pressure in A has dropped to 150 kPa. During the
process, heat is transferred to the gas inside tank A such that its temperature always remains at
20C, but tank B is insulated.

Moving Liquids

10
Determine.
(a) The mass fraction of vapor (quality) in tank B at the end of the process.
(b) The mass of liquid transferred from thank B.

Solving the Problem

The very first thing we need to do is to read the problem statement carefully to make sure we
understand what the problem is about. Typically, we should draw a diagram after reading the
problem, but the diagram is already provided to us. Do not try to solve the problem in your head
or look for a similar elsewhere. Instead, think about the type of information that you have and the
tools or knowledge at your disposal. You are already familiar with mass and energy balances
and, by inspection of the questions, it looks like such tools should be sufficient to answer the
questions. Also notice that the fluid in question is R-134a, which is an industrial refrigerant in
use today. This means that, at some point later, we need to find its thermophysical properties
either from web resources or from appropriate textbooks or handbooks. Another possibility
would be to predict its properties, but if we can find them that will be better and for sure easier.
Later, we will learn how to predict such properties when need it.

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1.1.1

Also, you need to recall the basic formulations of the mass and energy balances for an arbitrary
system, but first we need some basic and standard notation regarding extensive versus intensive
properties, and energy interactions in arbitrary systems.
Definition 1.1 Intensive vs Extensive Properties. Extensive properties are a function of the

size of the system whereas intensive ones are not. The former is a linearly size dependent
property. If the system doubles in size with all other properties constant, the property doubles
its value. For example, the volume of the a room depends on the size of the room, but
its specific volume i.e., volume per unit mass or mol does not. Other common examples
of intensive properties are temperature and pressure. To distinguish them, we will use an
underscore to denote extensive properties and no underscore for intensive ones. For the
arbitrary property M , we have
M

[=] extensive

[=] intensive.

(1.1)

Definition 1.2 Sign Convention. For any arbitrary system, we will use the convention that

everything that goes into the system is positive whereas everything that leaves the system is
negative. This will be true for any mass and energy interactions with the system. Notice that
other sign conventions can be adopted without affecting the generality of the analysis as long
as you keep track of the signs. My preferred approach is to keep track of the signs myself
rather than letting standard algebraic operations keep track of them e.g. = final initial.
These two definitions are important in order to proceed with the formulation of conservation laws
such as mass and energy balances. Also, keep in mind that when you read from other sources
and textbooks, you should always check their notation to make sure you do not misinterpret the
equations and results.

1.1 Evacuating a liquid from a tank with a pressurized vapor

11

Definition 1.3 Conservation of Mass. Mass has to be conserved in an arbitrary system:

dm s ys =

X
in

m in

X
out

m out .

(1.2)

The balance is performed across the boundary of the system; therefore, the latter is very
important to define properly. Note that this balance is differential, which can be integrated for
analysis of changes in the system between initial and final conditions or differentiated with
respect to time to obtain flow rates or time dependency in the variables.

Recall that if you perform a mole balance instead of a mass balance, you need to take
into account the changes in molar species due to disappearance and formation product of
chemical reactions.

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For more details about material balances in general, please watch the following YouTube
video: LearnChemE: Material and Energy Balances (UC Boulder).

Is the conservation of mass principle enough to answer the questions of the problem? We
do not know this right now, but we can start laying out some basic analysis equations using
conservation of mass to see how far we can get with the understanding and the solution of the
problem. Lets begin by defining a system. Notice that we have three choices, namely (a) tank A,
(b) tank B, and (c) a system involving tanks A and B together.
Lets start the analysis with tank A as the system. Applying the mass balance equation (1.2)
produces
dm A = m out
(1.3)
A ,
as there is no mass input to the system and only mass is leaving. We are not interested, at least
for now, on the transient behavior of the system. We care only about the change between the
initial and final conditions of the process. In other words, we want to integrate the previous mass
balance equation to produce
m A = m A, f m A,i = m out
A ,

(1.4)

where the subscripts f and i stand for final and initial, respectively. A simple degrees of freedom
analysis of this result tell us that we need the values of two variables to solve for the third one.
From the information given in the problem statement, we know that tank A has initially R-134a as
saturated vapor at 20C. For a pure substance, we only need two points in the property space
to define all the other thermophysical properties. From tables from the literature (search Google
v
or books), the specific volume at these conditions is Vsat
= 0.035969 m3 /k g. We know the total
3
volume of tank A, V A = 0.09 m ; therefore, we can easily calculate the initial mass in tank A as
m A,i =

VA

v
Vsat

= 2.502 k g.

Now, what about the final mass in tank A? You need to think about the nature of the physical
process before jumping into calculations, so you can state appropriate assumptions. Note that
tank A is not thermally insulated and also, the problem states that the opening of the valve in
tank A is such that the evacuation process occurs slowly. This is a very important observation

Moving Liquids

12

because it is telling us that if the material of the tank is a good thermal conductor, then the
temperature of tank A will basically stay constant. In other words, because the evacuation is slow,
every time the temperature drops a bit in tank A, heat transfer from the surroundings allows for
the temperature in tank A to reach 20C quickly or fast enough to keep the temperature in tank
A constant at 20C. At constant total volume and constant temperature, as soon as, we purge
some vapor from tank A, then the vapor is not saturated any more, it becomes super-heated.
Again, we need to two points in the property space to fully characterize the state of the fluid in
tank A. We know from the problem statement that the final pressure in tank A is going to be
150 kPa and assuming that the temperature stays at 20C, we can find the specific volume of
the fluid at the final conditions using super-heated property tables for R-134a, which is about
V v 0.15595 m3 /k g. The final mass in tank A is calculated as before
m A, f =

VA
Vv

= 0.577 k g.

Therefore,

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m out
A = 1.925 k g.
Similarly, we can proceed with a mass balance on tank B as the system. The differential form of
the mass balance becomes
out
dm B = m in
A mB ,
which after integration is equal to

out
m B = m in
A mB .

Note that this result is not very useful to us right now in the sense that we cannot calculate
out
either m B or m B
. In other words, this is one equation with two unknowns. We need more
information in order to answer the questions. An energy balance on tank B might help us with
an additional equation. Of course, we know m in
as this term is the same as m out
, which we
A
A
already solved for from the mass balance in tank A.
R

Do not make the mistake of thinking that the amount of mass that goes into tank B is the
same amount of mass that leaves. Every time mass goes into tank B from tank A, part of it
stays as vapor in equilibrium with its liquid. In other works, not all the mass that goes in
leaves.

Definition 1.4 Conservation of Energy. For an arbitrary system, energy has to be conserved

according to the First Law of Thermodynamics:

dE

Q +

W +

streams
X
in

(e in ) m

streams
X
out

(e out ) m

(1.5)

where E = m s ys U + 21 v2 + and e i = U i + 21 v2i + i . E is the total energy of the system and

e i is the total energy per unit mass or mol of stream i . The subscript denotes heat and work
interactions across the boundary of the system. As in the mass balance case, this equation
can be integrated for analysis of changes in the system between initial and final conditions or
differentiated with respect to time to obtain flow rates or time dependency in the variables.

1.1 Evacuating a liquid from a tank with a pressurized vapor

13

For more details about energy balances in general, please watch videos from the following
YouTube channel: LearnChemE MEB: Energy Balances (UC Boulder).

Lets make sure we understand all the terms in the energy balance equation. Most of the terms
and variables you are very familiar with, but some contributions can be challenging to identify
P
P
sometimes. We need to identify all the heat and work interactions in the sums Q and W ,
respectively. Heat interactions are easy to identify as long as we know where temperature
gradients are across the boundary of the system. Remember that heat transfer is energy transfer
due to a temperature gradient or difference only. For work interactions, we have to be a bit more
careful as these can occur in several forms that are not necessarily obvious to recognize.
Lets start with the general definition of work given in physics courses, which states that a force
in the system does work on a body when there is a displacement of the point of the application
of the force in the same direction as the force. Mathematically, this translate into the typical
expression
W = F dx,
(1.6)

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where F, the force, is a property of the system, e.g., P ext and x is a vector that includes all
the mechanical extensive variables. Note that for typical mechanical work, where mass is move
around as a result, including streams and/or the system itself, the force can be computed from
the pressure as F = P A , where A is the normal area where the pressure is exerted to. The
distance that moves when the force is applied can be obtained, for the same perpendicular
area, from the volume expansion or contraction as x = V /A , where V is the total volume being
displaced by the force. We can easily see then that W becomes
W = P dV ,

(1.7)

where the negative sign is to correct the fact that an increase in pressure produces a negative
change in volumethe difference final minus initial is negative. You can also calculate the
absolute value of the work and then assign the sign according to our sign convention stated
earlier. Equation (1.6) is very important because depending on the nature of the force, other
work interactions can be easily incorporated in the energy balance analysis. For example, lets
examine the case of the surface deformation of a material. In this case, the force characteristic
of this process is given in terms of the tensile stress , which has units of force per unit length.
The appropriate expression for the term dx becomes an area term ( da) instead of volume such
that the units of force times distance are recovered according to equation (1.6). Then, the final
expression for the differential change in work equivalent to equation (1.7) is given by
W = da.

(1.8)

Similarly, we can derive many other types of expressions for work interactions according to the
nature of the force in equation (1.6). Table 1.1 summarizes some of these.
For now lets assume that we are only dealing with simpler systems, where only mechanical
work interactions occur i.e., pressure-volume type. By inspection of any generic system, such
as chemical processes, petroleum refineries, power production systems, etc., one can easily
identify mechanical work interactions due to equipment like compressors, pumps, and turbines.
We will denote this type of work interactions as Ws , where the subscript denotes shaft work.
There is also the possibility that the system itself is expanding or compressing such as in the
case of balloon or a car tire. For these cases, we will denote the work interaction as WEC , where

Moving Liquids

14
Type of Work Interaction
Pressurevolume
Surface deformation
Electrical charge transport
Electric polarization
Magnetic polarization
Frictional
Stress-strain

Fx
P dV
da
dq
EdD
HdB
F f dx

V 0 F x /a d

Table 1.1: Type of work interactions depending on the nature of the acting forces. H = applied
magnetic field, B = magnetic induction, E = electric field, D = electric displacement, F x /a =
stress, d = linear strain = dx/x0 , V 0 = original volume.

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the subscript EC" stands for expansion-compression of the system. We also have to be aware
of the work that it takes to take mass across the boundary of the system. This work is dependent
on the conditions of the boundary at the entry or exit points. For example, the pressure-volume
work to move an arbitrary amount of mass m across the boundary of the system is dependent
on the conditions of the pressure and volume at the crossing point in the boundary. To calculate
this work, we can use the definition given by equation (1.7). If we have a system at the constant
conditions T1 , P1 , and V1 , then if we increase its mass m, the mechanical work to achieve this
is given by
Z V +mV1

1
in)
dV = P1 V 1 + mV1 V 1 = P1 V1 m.
W (FW
= P1
(1.9)
V1

Similarly, if we want to decrease the mass of the system by the same amount at different
conditions T2 , P2 , and V2 , the work to do this is given by
out)
W (FW

= P2

V2

V 2 + mV2

dV = P2 V 2 V 2 mV2 = P2 V2 m,

(1.10)

where the subscript FW" stands for flow work or the work of moving mass in or out of the
system at the conditions of the boundary. The signs in equations (1.9) and (1.10) are assigned
according to our convention, where for equation (1.9) is work done on the system (positive or
entering) and equation (1.10) is work done by the system (negative or leaving).
Notice (very important) that, in order for the system to change the mass conditions from
(T1 , V1 , P1 ) (T2 , V2 , P2 )

(1.11)

additional heat (Q ) and /or work (e.g. Ws , WEC ) interactions have to occur.
In summary, the work interactions in the energy balance equation (1.5) is the sum of all the
contributions:
X
X
X

W = W s i + W EC + W FW i + W other i ,
(1.12)
i

where W other are non pressure-volume work interactions as the ones listed in Table 1.1.
The last term we need to discuss before using the energy balance equation in the problem is the
therm . This stands for potential energy. A system or its portions can experience changes in
potential energy when they interact with potential energy fields. For example, a potential energy

1.1 Evacuating a liquid from a tank with a pressurized vapor

15

field that you are probably very familiar with is the earth gravitational field. An object or system
experience changes in potential energy when it changes position in the vertical position with
respect a frame or point of reference. Keep in mind that this is not the only potential energy
field that a system can be exposed to. Other common examples include elastic potential energy
(springs), chemical, electric, and nuclear. That is why the symbol is used instead of just gz.
The latter is only for a specific type (gravitational) of potential energy. For example, the electric
potential energy that results from Coulomb forces for two charges q and Q separated by the
distance r is given by the expression
e =

qQ
40 r,

(1.13)

where 0 is a constant. The difference between two points of electric potential energy is the
voltage. For changes in position in a gravitational field, the difference in potential energy per unit
mass is given by (assuming a constant gravitational acceleration)
g = g(z2 z1 ),

(1.14)

dE

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where z2 and z1 are two arbitrary heights or positions. Again, assuming that we are dealing
with a simpler system where only changes in gravitational fields occur, the expression for the
energy balances becomes
=

Q +

W (si) + W EC +

X
i

in)
W (FW,i

X
i

out)
W (FW,i
+

X
i

i)
W (other

(1.15)

streams
X

1 h ( in) i2
+ gz( in) m(iin)
vi
2
i

streams
X
1 h ( out) i2

U i( out) +
+ gz( in) m(iout) ,
vi
2
i

U i( in) +

where E is given by

1 h (s ys) i2
( s ys)
( s ys)
E = m s ys U
v
+ gz
.
(1.16)
+
2
We can expand further the energy balance given by equation (1.15) by replacing the flow-work
terms derived before with equations (1.9) & (1.10), respectively; and extending these to multiple
streams

dE

Q +

streams
X

W (si) + W EC +

i)
W (other

(1.17)

streams
X

1 h ( in) i2
vi
+ gz( in) m(iin)
2
i
i

streams
streams
X ( out) ( out)
X
1 h ( out) i2
( out)
( out)
( in)

Pi
Vi
m i

Ui
+
vi
+ gz
m(iout) .
2
i
i

P i( in) Vi( in) m(iin) +

U i( in) +

Further simplifying or grouping the common terms for the streams produces
dE

X
i

Q ( i) +

streams
X

W (si) + W EC +

X
i

i)
W (other

1 h ( in) i2
( in)
+
v
+ gz
m(iin)
2 i
i

streams
X
1 h ( out) i2
( out)
( out) ( out)
( in)

v
+ gz
m(iout) .
Ui
+ Pi
Vi
+
2 i
i

U i( in) + P i( in) Vi( in) +

(1.18)

Moving Liquids

16

A common definition in the thermodynamics literature is enthalpy, which is the sum of the internal
energy of matter plus the product pressure-volume (flow work). Using this definition in the energy
balance equation (i.e., H = U + PV ), equation (1.18) becomes:
Important Result 1.1 Differential form of the energy balance.

dE

X
i

Q ( i) +

streams
X

X
i

W (si) + W EC +

X
i

i)
W (other

(1.19)

1 h ( in) i2
( in)
+
vi
+ gz
m(iin)
2
i

streams
X
1 h ( out) i2
( out)
( in)
vi
Hi
+
+ gz
m(iout) .

2
i

H (i in) +

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This is a very common expression found in thermodynamics textbooks. It is very important

to note that , the presence of enthalpy in the energy balance is due to the open nature of the
system. In other words, with no streams going in and out of the system, the flow-work terms
will not be present. Therefore, only internal energy changes will occur to the mass of system
upon changes in the state of the system due to heat and work interactions. There is the special
case of a close system where expansion-compression work is occurring. The latter becomes a
PV term for the system that can be combined with U to introduce the definition of enthalpy in
the energy balance. Notice though it is not necessary, but sometimes it might be convenient
depending on the availability of thermophysical properties.
Equation (1.19) is really important to solve a variety of engineering problems. Note that it is
general and in differential form. No need to get intimated by this; in fact, it is quite convenient to
have it in this form. For example, if we take the derivative with respect to time, we obtain the
time dependent version:

X ( i)
X ( i) X ( i)
d
1

+W

(1.20)
m s ys Us ys + v2s ys + gz s ys
+ W
=
Q + W
s
other
EC

dt
2
i
i
i

streams
X
1 h ( in) i2
( in)
( in)
(iin)
+
Hi +
vi
+ gz
m
2
i

streams
X
1 h ( out) i2
( out)
( in)
(iout) ,

vi
+ gz
m
Hi
+
2
i

where the dot notation x = dx/dt stands for the rate of change of the variable x with respect to
time. Mass movement is usually expressed using mass flow rates. Heat and work interactions
(production and/or dissipation) are commonly expressed in terms of power in in units of energy
per time. We can also integrate equations (1.19) and (1.20) to obtain total changes between
initial and final conditions or between a specific time range:

1.1 Evacuating a liquid from a tank with a pressurized vapor

17

Important Result 1.2 Integral form of the energy balance.

net)
= Q (net) + W (snet) + W EC + W (other
+

out
X
i

in
X
i

H (i in) +

1 h ( in) i2
vi
+ gz( in) m(iin) (1.21)
2

1 h ( out) i2
vi
+ gz( in) m(iout) .
H (iout) +
2

Several additional simplifications can be performed depending on the operation conditions

and nature of the system. For example, if the system is at steady-state, then the left side of
equation (1.20) becomes zero or if the system is closed, then all the terms related to streams
(the summation terms) will be present.

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Now we can continue with the solution of the problem. Lets apply the energy balance to tank
B as the system. Lets assume that any changes in kinetic and potential energy are negligible
compared to the changes in internal energy. Note that the changes in kinetic and potential
energy are not zero, but negligible. It is very important that we have that clear. If you think about
it, the center of mass of tank B changes during the process; therefore, there is a change in
potential energy. Similar arguments can be made for changes in kinetic energy, but again we
are assuming these changes are negligible, in particular when compared to changes in internal
energy or enthalpy. We will use the subscripts 1 and 2 to indicate initial and final conditions,
respectively.
Starting with equation (1.19) and applying it to tank B, we obtain the expression (after dropping
the terms that are not present according to our assumptions):
Z
m B,2UB,2 m B,1UB,1 = H ( in) m( in) H ( out) m(Bout) .
We cannot pull out the term H ( in) from the integral in the equation above because the enthalpy
of the fluid leaving tank A is changing during the process. Although the temperature in tank A is
constant at 20 C, the pressure in the tank and the specific volume of fluid are changing during
the evacuation process. First, we should take a look at the properties at 20 C between the
pressures 0.572 MPa and 0.150 MPa to have an idea of the magnitude of the enthalpy change
see Appendix A for the R-134a properties. Reading from tables, the variation in enthalpy from
T sat = 20C, H sat = 261.59 kJ/k g to T = 20C, P = 0.150 MPa, H v = 271.18 kJ/k g is about 10
kJ/kg. The variation is relatively small for the purposes of this problem. We will take the average
at H ( in) = 266.39 kJ/k g assuming that H ( in) is relatively constant at this value; therefore, we
can pull this term out of the integral expression to obtain
m B,2UB,2 m B,1UB,1 = H ( in) m(Ain) H ( out) m(Bout) .

For the specific enthalpy of the outlet stream, this is a constant due to the liquid exiting tank B is
saturated at 150 kPa; therefore, H ( out) = 24.79 kJ/k g.
R

An alternative solution approach is to bound the solution between the initial and final values
of the specific enthalpy in the entering stream of tank B. This would be a quite reasonable
solution approach. You will get a range for your answers instead of single numbers. From
an engineering point of view, this approach would be more valuable for decision-making
and design purposes in terms of defining operation conditions, process control strategies,
and design of safety factors.

Moving Liquids

18

Plugging in what it is already known for the energy balance of tank B, we obtain
m B,2UB,2 m B,1UB,1 = (266.39)(1.925) 24.79 m(Bout) = 512.79 24.79 m(Bout) .

We can use the mass balance in tank B to eliminate one of the unknowns in the energy balance
( m(Bout) ):

m B,2UB,2 m B,1UB,1 = 512.79 + 24.79 m B,2 m B,1 1.925 .

We need to determine the initial state of tank B; in particular, we need to calculate the initial
mass and the initial internal energy per unit mass. The total internal energy in tank B is given by
sat
sat
m B,1UB,1 = m v,1Uv,
1 + m l,1U l,1 ,

where the subscripts v and l stand for vapor and liquid, respectively. Notice that we can solve
for the overall specific internal energy in tank B from this equation by dividing by the total mass
in tank B, resulting in
m v,1
m B,1

sat
Uv,
1 +

m l,1
m B,1

sat
sat
Ul,sat
1 = q 1Uv,1 + (1 q 1 )U l,1 ,

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UB,1 =

where q is called the quality of the vapor-liquid mixture and it corresponds to the vapor mass
fraction. Recall that the initial value of this quantity is given to us in the problem description (i.e.,
q 1 = 0.01). At this point, we can solve for UB,1 by obtaining the values of the specific internal
energy from tables for R-134a. In many data sources, you might find data only for enthalpy, but
using the definition of enthalpy ( H = U + PV ), you can calculate the values of internal energy.
Make sure that when computing the product PV , the units are consistent with the units of
enthalpy.
Reading the saturated properties at -33C, we obtain

UB,1 = (0.01)(211.39) + (1 0.01) (8.78) = 10.81 kJ/k g.

Similarly, the total volume of tank B is given by

sat
m B,1 VB,1 = m v,1 Vv,sat
1 + m l,1 Vl,1 ,

which produces

sat
VB,1 = q 1 Vv,sat
1 + (1 q 1 ) Vl,1 .

After substitution of appropriate values for the specific volumes, we obtain

VB,1 = (0.01)(0.2590) + (1 0.01) (0.0007157) = 0.003299 m3 /k g.

Now we can calculate the initial mass in tank B as

m B,1 =

VB
VB,1

0.075
= 22.74 k g.
0.003299

Putting all these new numbers in the energy balance of tank B we obtain

m B,2UB,2 (22.74)(10.81) = 512.79 + 24.79 m B,2 22.74 1.925 ,

which reduces to
m B,2UB,2 = 24.79 m B,2 + 147.16

1.2 Common Student Questions and Comments

19

Finally, we repeat the same approach used to determine the initial conditions in tank B, but for
the final conditions instead. This produces the following result:
VB

sat
q 2 Vv,sat
2 + (1 q 2 ) Vl,2

i
sat
sat
q 2Uv,
2 + (1 q 2 )U l,2 =

24.79 V B
sat
q 2 Vv,2 + (1 q 2 ) Vl,sat
2

+ 147.16,

where the only unknown is the final quality in tank B. After putting all the appropriate values, the
expression looks like
0.075 [q 2 (220.45) + (1 q 2 ) (29.04)]
q 2 (0.13181) + (1 q 2 ) (0.0007410)

24.79 (0.075)
+ 147.16
q 2 (0.13181) + (1 q 2 ) (0.0007410)

Solving for q 2 produces

q 2 = 0.043

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We can answer the first question by finding the mass left in tank B m B,2 = 11.879 k g and using
the mass balance in tank B to find
out
mB
= m B,1 m B,2 + 1.925 = 12.786 k g.

1.2

Common Student Questions and Comments

How reasonable is to assume that the specific enthalpy of the stream entering tank B
( H ( in) ) is constant at the average value between initial and final conditions?
This is a very important and valid question. We can obtain an idea of the validity of this
assumption by solving the problem two more times. One using the value of H ( in) at the initial
conditions in tank A and the other one using the value of H ( in) at the final conditions in tank A.
The table below summarize these calculations. Clearly, the differences are significant.
H ( in) = 261.59 kJ/k g

H ( in) = 271.18 kJ/k g

q 2 = 0.058
m 2 = 8.968 k g
out
mB
= 16.697 k g

q 2 = 0.038
m 2 = 14.796 k g
out
mB
= 9.869 k g

Isnt a difference in H ( in) of about 10 kJ/kg small compared to the average value?
It is between 1% to 2% depending the data source you use. It looks small relatively speaking,
but from the previous question we can see that the difference can have a significant impact on
the calculations.
Isnt 10 kJ/kg a small amount of energy anyways?
To get a good sense of the meaning of 10 kJ/kg of energy, we can do some simple calculations.
For example, to change the potential energy of one kilogram of R-134a by 10 kJ, it will take a
change of height of about 1020 meters. Doing the calculation to estimate the change in velocity
required to achieve 10 kJ of energy change starting at rest, we need to take one kilogram of the

Moving Liquids

20

refrigerant to a speed of around 510 km/h. You do not want a kilogram of anything hitting your
car at this velocity!
In previous courses they always told us that changes in enthalpy were related to C p T ,
but the temperature of tank A is constant; however, the enthalpy changed, why?
It is true that enthalpy and internal energy are strong functions of temperature; however, they
also on a lesser extent functions of P and V , respectively. From the definition of enthalpy we
can clearly see that it will be a function P . Care must be taken when evaluating these properties
if there are significant changes in pressure. For R-134a, going from 600 kPa to 150 kPa caused
a changed of 10 kJ/kg due to pressure only. These can be important; therefore, always try
to make sure you validate your assumptions and/or state clearly the boundaries or limitations
of your results. Later, we will also see that the term C p T is not general as it only applies to
substances with constant pressure heat capacity.

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In previous courses instructors talked about mechanical energy balances, why didnt
you mention this one?
There is no such thing as different energy balances depending on the application or system.
As you notice, we develop equation (1.19) for a generic system within our simpler system
constrain about the type of potential energy interactions. The so-called mechanical energy
balance is a simplified version of equation (1.19) under additional assumptions being the most
important one that there is no changes in the internal energy of the streams and the system.
It is mainly for constant temperature processes with reasonable changes in pressures. If the
pressure changes are large, then the internal energy of matter will be affected, it is formally a
function of temperature and density. Typical assumptions for the mechanical energy balance
are single-input, single-output, constant temperature, no phase change, steady-state, and no
chemical reactionnotice how constraining these assumptions are. Under these, the change in
enthalpy for the stream becomes

1 2
1 2
H = P2 V2 + v2 + gz2 P1 V1 + v1 + gz1
2
2
because the terms for U cancel out due to the constant temperature assumption and relatively
small pressure changes. Also, due to these assumptions V2 = V1 = 1/ , which after re-arranging
we obtain

P2 P1 1 2
H =
+ v2 v12 + g(z2 z1 ).

2
For steady-state operation and turbulent flow, the energy balance becomes
H =

W
P2 P1 1 2
+ v2 v12 + g(z2 z1 ) + Q f = Ws = s ,

2
m

which is very common result in mechanical engineering textbooks, where Q f is the heat transfer
due to friction processes. If you do not have the terms Q f and Ws , then you recover the Bernoulli
equation. For laminar flow, you will need to correct the kinetic energy by roughly doubling it.

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A Thermophysical Properties of HFC-134a

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