Brief On The Chemical And Mechanical Properties Of Steel

Different steels have different values of strength and toughness

depending on the alloys made and the heat treatments used in production.
Therefore the testing methods are important to determine values and to
ensure that standards are adhered to. Methods of testing are normally to
determine the yield strength, ductility and stiffness through tensile testing,
toughness through impact testing, and hardness through resistance to
penetration of the surface by a hard object. The mechanical properties of
structural steel are also fundamental to its classification and hence,
application. Even though chemical composition is a dominant factor of the
mechanical properties of steel, it is also very important to understand the
minimum standards for the mechanical Properties. Critically even though the
major constituent of steel is iron the addition of very small quantities of other
elements can have a significant effect on the properties of the structural
steel. For example the strength can be increased by the addition of alloys
such as manganese, niobium and vanadium. However, these alloy additions
can also adversely affect other properties, such as ductility , toughness and
weldability . Consequently minimizing the level of sulphur can enhance
ductility , and toughness can be improved by the addition of nickel. The
alloying elements also produce a different response when the material is
subjected to heat treatments involving cooling at a prescribed rate from a
particular peak temperature. The manufacturing process may involve
combinations of heat treatment and mechanical working that are of critical
importance to the performance of the steel. Mechanical working takes place
as the steel is being rolled or formed. The more steel is rolled, the stronger it
becomes. This effect is apparent in the material standards, which tend to
specify reducing levels of yield strength with increasing material thickness.
The major types of structural steel are
classified according to chemical composition and processing characteristics;
Carbon or carbon-manganese steels, High strength, low alloy steels, High
strength, quenched and tempered alloy steels, High strength, quenched and
self-tempered alloy steels

Carbon or carbon-manganese steels are referred to as mild structural

steels. In addition to iron, the primary chemical elements are carbon
and manganese. Content restrictions are also placed on the amounts of
various chemicals, particularly phosphorus and sulphur which have
significant detrimental effects on the ductility and weldability of the
steel.
High strength, low alloy (HSLA) the higher strength is achieved by
lowering the carbon content and by adding certain alloying elements
that provide for increased strength, ductility and toughness. All of these
steels are weldable; some have increased corrosion resistance, through
larger copper content, for example.

Quenched and tempered (QT) steels comprise a small group of

materials with a specified minimum yield stress of 90 to 100 ksi,
depending on the governing thickness of the delivered product. The
high strength is achieved through a combination of lower carbon
content and a rapid cooling sequence
Quenched and self-tempered (QST) Their high strength is gained
through selective quenching of certain regions of a shape, but in
addition, the heat that is stored in the material from the rolling
procedure is utilized to provide the tempering effect.

Comparison Between A36 and A992 Structural Steel

A36 Structural steel
A36 Steel is the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM)
designation for carbon steel.
It is one of the most widely accepted and available general purpose
structural steel. It is primarily used in the steel plate fabrication industry. It's
very versatile and used for most building components, including columns,
beams, decking, finish elements, bridges and other structures by means of
welding, bolting riveting. One of the prime properties of A36 steel is its
ductility. This ductility allows buildings to stand longer after the limits of a
structure have been met allowing inhabitants to exit safely before collapse.
The ductility doesn't allow the alloy to be used as cable, and it should not be
used as reinforcing bar.
Chemical Properties of A36 Steel
Under ASTM standards for carbon or low alloy steel, allowable iron content is
as high as 99 percent. Common alloys found in carbon steel and the
maximum percentage of the alloy allowed by ASTM follows:

Carbon ,Max%
Manganese, ax%
Phosphorus ,Max%
Sulfur ,%
Silicon, %
Copper,%

0.27
1.20
0.04
0.05
0.150.40
0.20

Mechanical Properties of A36 Steel

The mechanical properties of A36 steel are basically a product of yield and
tensile strength. ASTM requires the following:
Yield strength
Tensile strength
Modulus of
elasticity
Density
Shear modulus
Poissons ratio
Corrosion
resistance
Weldability

36,000ksi minimum.
58,000ksi - 80,000ksi.
200 GPa (29,000 ksi).
7.85 grams per cubic centimeter
79.3 GPa (11,500 ksi).
Ratio of lateral longitudinal strain, 0.269.
Same atmospheric corrosion resistance
as plain carbon steels and can be enhanced by
specifying copper additions.
Easily welded, using good shop or field
practices by all of the usual methods;
shielded metal-arc, submerged-arc, gas
metal-arc and resistance welding

A992 Structural Steel

ASTMA992 is intended for building construction usage, and applies mostly to
wide-flange shapes. For all practical purposes A992 steel is A572 Grade 50
with additional requirements. The major advantage of A992 is its better
material definition, it has a specified minimum yield stress of 50 ksi, A992
also gives an upper limit for F, of 65 ksi. The yield ratio, F,/Fu, cannot be
larger than 0.85, and the carbon equivalent cannot exceed 0.50. These
maximum limits are considered desirable attributes for seismic design. A992
offers excellent weldability and ductility characteristics.
Chemical Properties of A992 Steel
Under ASTM standards for carbon or low alloy steel, allowable iron content is
as high as 99 percent. Common alloys found in carbon steel and the
maximum percentage of the alloy allowed by ASTM follows:
Carbon ,max %
Manganese
Phosphorus ,max %
Silicon ,max %
Sulfur ,max %

0.23.
0.1-1.5
035
0.5
0.045

Vanadium ,max %
Vanadium ,max %
Copper ,max %
Columbium, max %

0.11
0.45
0.60
0.05

Mechanical Properties of A992 Steel

The mechanical properties of A36 steel are basically a product of yield and
tensile strength. ASTM requires the following:

Yield strength
Tensile strength
Modulus of elasticity
Elongation in 2in
Elongation in 8in
Density
Weldability

50,000ksi - 60,000ksi.
65,000ksi
200 GPa (29,000 ksi).
%21
%18
7.85 grams per cubic centimeter
enhanced weldability

Figure 1 Stress-Strain Curve Comparison for A36 and

A992 Structural Steel

Steel Subjected to high temperatures

During fabrication and operation, steel structures can be exposed to different
levels of temperatures, thus designers need to account for the influence of
temperature on the behavior of structural steels. The mechanical properties
of a structural steel vary with temperature.
In material behavior, changes in temperature can cause the following effects,
namely:
Elastic constants (e.g., E, ) of the material can change;
Strain can develop without mechanical loading;
Material yield strength decreases with increase in temperature; and
The material can lose ductility with decrease in temperature.
At high enough temperatures, the stiffness and strength of structural steels
may be reduced even if the ductility increases. At low temperature, the yield
strength tends to increase while brittle fracture can more easily initiate and
propagate since the ductility is reduced. For fire safety of steel structures,
the capacity of structural members should be adequate to resist the applied
loads in a fire. While the behavior of steel in fire is affected by the heating
rate, steel begins to lose strength at temperatures above 300 C and
reduces in strength at an approximately steady rate until around 800 C.
To avoid excessive deformations due to fire, regulations recommend strain
limits.
Some of the methods for fire proofing structural steel include:
1. Concrete Encasement: involves encasing the steel member in
concrete. Concrete is a good thermal insulator (thermal conductivity of
1-3W/m.K). It therefore delays heat transmission to adjacent structural
elements. (See figure 2 below)
2. Insulating Board System: slab-type materials made from calcium
silicate, gypsum plaster or mineral fiberboard. They are typically
attached to metal or wood framing, which is then attached to the
structural member.(See figure 3)

3. Man Made Mineral Fiber System: typically made from fibers of

melted rock (97-99% by weight), organic binders and oils. The board
systems can be installed by various means. (See figure 4 below)
4. Spray Applied Fireproofing: cement-based products or gypsum with
a light weight aggregate that have some type of cellulosic or glass
fiber reinforcement. (Figure 5 below)
5. Intumescent Paint: Two key components: a resin binder and a
mixture of chemicals that decomposes and releases a gas when
heated. During a fire, the material melts. A gas-producing reaction is
triggered at a temperature corresponding to an appropriate resin melt
viscosity, and the release of gas causes the resin melt to foam
developing an insulating layer. This then produces a thick char, which
insulates the steel from fire. Intumescents may typically expand
approximately 15 times to 30 times their initial thickness during a
standard fire test.(See figure 6 below)

Figure 2: Concrete encasement of structural steelwork

protection systems

Figure 3: Board

Figure 4: Mineral wool close-up.

Cementitious spray on beams

Figure 5:

Figure6: Application of thin film intumescent coatings offsite

Design Philosophy
The main purpose of structural design is to satisfy the criteria for strength,
serviceability and economy. Strength in this context refers to the general
integrity and safety of the structure under most loading conditions. In saying
this, the structure is also expected to withstand occasional overloading
comfortably without severe damage and failure during its intended lifetime.
Serviceability refers to the way the structure functions under normal or
service loads with respect to its appearance, maintainability and durability.
Some of the design considerations associated with serviceability include
deflection, vibrations, permanent deformation, cracking, corrosion. Economy
deals with factors like labor, construction and material cost that are
necessary to bringing the design to reality. This also includes fabrication,
erection, and maintenance processes of the structure.

Design Procedures
Allowable stress design (ASD)
Allowable stress design (ASD), has been for years the first choice of design
methods for steel design of buildings and bridges. In allowable stress design,
member stresses are computed under service or working loads are compared
to some pre-designated stresses called allowable stresses. The allowable
stresses are often expressed as a function of the yield stress (Fy) or tensile
stress (Fu) of the material divided by a factor of safety. The factor of safety is
introduced to account for the effects of overload, understrength, and
approximations used in structural analysis. The general format for an
allowable stress design has the form:

Rn
F .S

Qni
i=1

o Rn = the nominal resistance of the structural component expressed in

unit of stress (i.e., the allowable stress)
o Qni = the service, or working, stresses computed from the applied
working load of type i
o F.S. = the factor of safety, i is the load type (dead, live, wind, etc.)
o m = the number of load type considered in the design
Load and resistance factor design (LRFD)
Load and resistance factor design (LRFD) is a probability-based limit state
design procedure. In a limit state design, the structure or structural
component is designed in accordance to its limits of usefulness, which may
be strength related or serviceability related. In developing the LRFD method,
both load effects and resistance are treated as random variables. Their
variabilities and uncertainties can be represented by frequency distribution
curves. A design is considered satisfactory according to the strength criterion
if the resistance exceeds the load effects by a comfortable margin. The
concept of safety is represented schematically in Fig. 1 below

Figure 2 Frequency distribution of load effect and

resistance

Theoretically, the structure will not fail unless the load effect Q exceeds the
resistance R, as shown by the shaded portion in the figure. The smaller this
shaded area, the less likely that the structure will fail. In actual design, a
resistance factor f is applied to the nominal resistance of the structural

component to account for any uncertainties associated with the

determination of its strength, and a load factor g is applied to each load type
to account for the uncertainties and difficulties associated with determining
its actual load magnitude. Different load factors are used for different load
types to reflect the varying degree of uncertainties associated with the
determination of load magnitudes. In general, a lower load factor is used for
a load that is more predictable, and a higher load factor is used for a load
that is less predictable. Mathematically, the LRFD format takes the form
m

where

Rn

iQni
i=1

Rn represents the design (or usable) strength and Qni

represents the required strength or load effect for a given load combination.

Limit States
A limit state is defined as a condition in which a structure or structural
component becomes unsafe (i.e., a violation of the strength limit state) or
unsuitable for its intended function (i.e., a violation of the serviceability limit
state). There is also fatigue limit state and accidental limit state.

Serviceability Limit States (SLS)

SLS conventionally represent failure for normal operations due to
deterioration of routine functionality. The strength based limit state can be
written in the general form:
Actual Behavior < Allowable Behavior
SLS Considerations in design may address:

Local damage which reduces the durability of the structure or affects

the efficiency of structural elements.

Unacceptable deformation which affect the efficient use of structural

elements orr the functioning of equipment relying on them;
Excessive vibration or noise which can cause discomfort to people or
affect the proper functioning of equipment ; and
Deformations and deflections which may spoil the aesthetic
appearance of the structure

Ultimate Limit State (ULS)

Typically represents the collapse of the structure due to loss of structural
stiffness and strength . Such loss of capacity may be related to :

Loss of equilibrium in part or of entire structure ,often considered as a

rigid body
Attainment of the maximum resistance of structural regions ,
members or connections by gross yielding , rupture of fracture ;and
Instability in part or of the entire structure resulting from buckling and
plastic collapse pf plating , stiffened panels and support members

Fatigue Limit State (FLS)

FLS represents fatigue crack occurrence of structural details due to stress
concentration and damage accumulation (crack growth) under the action of
repeated loading. The FLS design is carried out to ensure that the structure
has an adequate fatigue life.

Accident Limit State

ALS represents excessive structural damage as a consequence of accidents,
e.g., collisions, grounding, explosion and fire, which affect the safety of the
structure, environment and personnel.

ASD vs. LRFD

There were two major differences between the two specifications:
1. The comparison of loads to either actual or ultimate strengths and
2. A difference in effective factors of safety.

Actual vs. Ultimate Strength

The first difference between ASD and LRFD, historically, has been that the
old Allowable Stress Design compared actual and allowable stresses while

LRFD compares required strength to actual strengths. The difference

between looking at strengths vs. stresses does not present much of a
problem since the difference is normally just multiplying or dividing both
sides of the limit state inequalities by a section property, depending on
which way you are going. In fact, the new AISC Allowable Strength
Design (ASD), which replaces the old allowable stress design, has now
switched the old stress based terminology to a strength based terminology,
virtually eliminating this difference between the philosophies.

Rn/ W
= ASD

Capacity
Rn = LRFD Capacity
Rn = Nominal Capacity

Figure 10: Comparison of LRFD/ASD Capacities On a Load

vs. Displacement Diagram

Short comings of the ASD

The disadvantages of the allowable stress design method are:
1. Since the limitation is on the total stress under service loads, there is no
simple way to account for different degrees of uncertainty of various kinds of
loads. Live loads may have unknown and variable distribution.
2. Creep and shrinkage, which contribute major time dependent effects on a
structure, are not easily accounted for using the allowable stress design
method. With allowable stress design the member is not allowed to reach the
plastic stage.
3. Concrete stress is not proportional to strain up to its crushing strength, so
that the inherent safety provided is unknown when a percentage of f'c is
used as the allowable stress.
4. The ASD is more conservative which means that structures may not be as
lightweight and economical as compared with the LRFD method.

References

http://www.onealsteel.com/carbon-steel-beam-a36.html

http://www.onealsteel.com/carbon-steel-beam-a992.html

http://www.tatasteelconstruction.com/en/reference/teaching_resources/
architectural_studio_reference/technology/the_nature_of_steel/the_mec
hanical_properties_of_steel/
Fundamentals of Structural Steel Design By GAMBHIR

Structural Steel Selection Considerations: A Guide for Students,

Educators ,designers and builders ;edited by Reidar Bjorhovde

http://www.bgstructuralengineering.com/BGDesign/BGDesign05.htm

http://www.steelconstruction.info/Fire_protecting_structural_steelwork